Leader traits and skills (ch.7)
Leadership Attributes: Skills/abilities
the ability to do something in an effective manner, and as with traits they are determined jointly by learning and heredity. Skills may be defined at different levels of abstraction, ranging from general, broadly defined abilities (e.g., intelligence, interpersonal skills, conceptual skills, technical skills) to narrower, more specific abilities (verbal reasoning, problem-solving skill).
Level of Management
- A manager's position in the authority hierarchy affects the skill priorities and the importance of specific types of skills within each category. - The complexity of relationships and the problems that need to be solved increase with ascending levels in an organization, leading to greater requirements for conceptual skills. - Top executives must analyze vast amounts of ambiguous and contradictory information, have a long-term perspective, and comprehend complex relationships among variables relevant to the organization's performance. - Middle-level managers require a roughly equal mix of technical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills. - Technical skills are relatively more important than conceptual and interpersonal skills for low-level managers. - Skill requirements for managers at each level vary somewhat depending on the organization type, size, structure, and the degree of centralization of authority. - Most successful managers have strong technical skills, a string of prior successes, and are fast risers in their company. They are calm, confident, and predictable during crises, and able to learn and adapt to change. - Managers who derailed were less able to handle pressure, more prone to moodiness, angry outbursts, and inconsistent behavior. They were too ambitious, more likely to betray a trust or break a promise, and less focused on the immediate task and the needs of subordinates.
Stress on the Leader
- Cognitive resources theory explains the relationship between leader intelligence, experience, and group performance. -Stress for the leader moderates the relationship between leader intelligence and subordinate performance. - Under low stress, leader intelligence facilitates information processing and problem-solving, improving the quality of leader decisions. - However, when there is high interpersonal stress, strong emotions can disrupt cognitive information processing, making intelligence difficult to apply. - In such situations, a leader who has already learned a high-quality solution through previous experience is usually more effective than an intelligent but inexperienced leader who tries to find new solutions. - A meta-analysis by Judge, Colbert, and Ilies (2004) found that the relationship between intelligence and leadership was stronger when leaders exhibited directive behaviors and leader stress was low.
Emotional Intelligence
- Emotions are strong feelings that affect cognitive processes and behavior. Emotional intelligence includes empathy, self-regulation, emotional self-awareness, and the ability to express feelings to others. - Emotional intelligence can be learned but requires intensive individual coaching, feedback, and personal development. - Emotional intelligence is relevant for leadership effectiveness as it helps leaders solve problems, plan effectively, adapt to situations, manage crises, maintain optimism and enthusiasm, and develop cooperative interpersonal relationships. - Studies use both self-report and performance-based measures to assess emotional intelligence, and there is controversy regarding its importance for effective leadership. - Despite skepticism, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that a high level of emotional intelligence enhances leadership success.
How the five trait categories correspond to many of the specific traits found relevant for leadership emergence, advancement, or effectiveness in the trait studies
- Extraversion: Extroversion (outgoing) Energy/Activity Level Need for Power (assertive) - Conscientiousness: Dependability Personal Integrity Need for Achievement - Agreeableness: Cheerful and Optimistic Nurturance (sympathetic, helpful) Need for Affiliation - Neuroticism: Emotional Stability Self-Esteem Self-Control - Openness: Curious and Inquisitive Open MindedLearning Oriented
Interpersonal Skills
- Interpersonal skills involve understanding human behavior, emotions, and communication. - Empathy, social insight, charm, tact and diplomacy, persuasiveness, and oral communication are essential interpersonal skills for building cooperative relationships. - Interpersonal skills are necessary for influencing people, as they allow one to understand what people want and how they perceive things. - Strong interpersonal skills help managers listen attentively, sympathetically, and non-judgmentally to others, even in personal or difficult situations. - Interpersonal skills are crucial for managerial effectiveness and advancement, as deficiencies in these skills can lead to career derailment. - e.g., Oprah
Learning Ability
- Leaders in a constantly changing environment need to be flexible and able to learn from experience and adapt to change. - The ability to learn from experience and adapt is a crucial competency for successful leadership. - Learning how to learn and self-awareness are essential components of this competency. - This competency has been shown to predict self-reported career achievements in military officers and is considered important for leadership effectiveness by - American and European executives. - Personal adaptability and cultivating learning agility are critical leadership capabilities in today's complex and global business landscape. - The ability to learn from experience and adapt to change probably involves both traits and skills, including achievement orientation, emotional stability, and an internal locus of control orientation.
Guidelines for Leaders (for Understanding and Improving Relevant Competencies)
- Learn about your strengths and weaknesses. - Maintain self-awareness. - Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position. - Remember that a strength can become a weakness. - Compensate for weaknesses.
Type of Organization
- Lower-level managers may find it difficult to transfer from one functional specialty to another due to the differences in technical skills needed at this level. - Top-level managers with strong human relations and conceptual skills can potentially transfer between industries with ease and without a loss of effectiveness, according to Katz (1955). - However, other writers argue that the transferability of skills for top executives is limited due to variations in ownership, traditions, organizational climate, and culture. - Different industries have unique economic, market, and technological characteristics, and familiarity with technical matters, products, personalities, and tradition is acquired only through long experience in the organization. - The unique knowledge component of conceptual and technical skills must be relearned in a new industry or type of organization, and an executive must develop a new network of external contacts. - In general, it may be more challenging for an executive to make a successful transition to a different industry or type of organization, especially if the new position requires extensive technical expertise and an extensive network of external contacts.
Political Skill
- Organizational politics can be used positively to achieve goals that benefit others. - Political skill is the ability to understand others at work and to use this knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance personal and/or organizational objectives. - Political skill dimensions include social astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and apparent sincerity. - Politically skilled individuals are viewed as possessing high levels of authenticity, genuineness, and integrity, inspiring confidence and trust in colleagues. - Political skill is positively related to work productivity, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, self-efficacy, organizational citizenship behavior, personal reputation, and career success, and negatively related to physiological strain. - Politically skilled leaders achieve higher levels of team performance and are seen by subordinates as being more effective. - The success of politically skilled leaders comes from their abilities to read others and the situation, build and deploy extensive social networks to gain influence, and foster the impression that they are authentic, sincere, and non-manipulative colleagues who have the interests of others at heart. - e.g., Angela Merkel
Evaluation of the Trait Approach (limitations of the trait approach).
- Progress has been made in identifying traits and skills relevant for managerial effectiveness and advancement. - However, the research has been hindered by methodological and conceptual limitations, including the lack of a theory that explains how traits are related to managerial effectiveness and advancement. - Few trait studies include mediating processes to explain why leadership traits and skills are relevant for predicting effectiveness in the current position or career success. - The relevance of different traits and skills will depend on the nature of the leadership position, the types of challenges facing the leader, and the criteria used to assess effectiveness. - The relationship between traits and leadership effectiveness is often curvilinear, and a moderate amount of the trait is usually optimal rather than the maximum amount. Examples of traits for which either a very low or very high level is Self-confidence, Altruism (value), and Performance Orientation (value). Yet, Most trait studies on the relationship of traits and skills to effective leadership only test for simple, linear relationships. - The traits are interrelated, and a broader perspective is needed to examine patterns of leader traits and skills in relation to leader effectiveness. - Balance is essential for both individuals and shared leadership, and a better understanding of leadership in an organization may be gained by examining the pattern of traits for the executive team rather than focusing on the traits of a single leader.
Social Intelligence
- Social intelligence involves the ability to determine the requirements for leadership in a particular situation and select an appropriate response. - The two primary components of social intelligence are social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility. - Social perceptiveness is the ability to understand the functional needs, problems, and opportunities that are relevant for a group or organization and the member characteristics, social relationships, and collective processes that will enhance or limit attempts to influence the group or organization. - Behavioral flexibility is the ability and willingness to vary one's behavior to accommodate situational requirements. - Social intelligence overlaps with emotional intelligence and political skill, but each concept has unique elements. - More research is needed to understand how social intelligence relates to leadership effectiveness and other skills
External Environment
- The mix of skills needed for effective leadership may change as the situation changes. - The skills required for leaders in extreme contexts that involve great challenges or peril are unique and include the ability to respond quickly to extreme events. - Recent research and theory on how organizations evolve and adapt to a changing environment suggests that most managers may need new competencies and skills. - The pace of globalization, technological development, and social change continues to increase, which places a premium on competencies such as cognitive complexity, empathy, self-awareness, cultural sensitivity, behavioral flexibility, systems thinking, and the ability to learn from experience and adapt to change.
Different types of leadership attributes (clusters)
1.Aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motives. 2. Values 3. Self-concepts, self-identities, and social identities 4.Skills/abilities 5.Competencies
Most relevant skills for effective leadership (Three-Factor Taxonomy of Broadly Defined Skills)
1.Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity. 2.Interpersonal Skills: Knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal processes, ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others from what they say and do (empathy, social sensitivity), ability to communicate clearly and effectively (speech fluency, persuasiveness), and ability to establish effective and cooperative relationships (tact, diplomacy, listening skill, knowledge about acceptable social behavior). - Political Skill: the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives 3.Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships, creativity in idea generation and problem solving, ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning).
Leadership Attributes: Competencies
A competency may involve traits, skills, or a combination of related skills and traits. Competencies are often used to describe qualities considered relevant for managers in a particular organization, profession, or situation.
Trait: Achievement orientation
Achievement orientation includes a set of related needs and values, including need for achievement, willingness to assume responsibility, performance orientation, and concern for task objectives. Many studies have been conducted on the relationship of achievement orientation to managerial advancement and effectiveness. However, the results have not been consistent for different criteria (e.g., advancement, effectiveness) and for different types of managerial positions (e.g., entrepreneurial managers, corporate general managers, technical managers). - Inconsistent findings regarding relationship of achievement motivation to managerial effectiveness is complex. - managers with a strong achievement orientation are likely to have a strong concern for task objectives; they are more willing to assume responsibility for solving task-related problems; they are more likely to take the initiative in discovering these problems and acting decisively to solve them; and they prefer solutions that involve moderate levels of risk rather than solutions that are either very risky or very conservative. These managers are likely to engage in task behaviors such as setting challenging but realistic goals and deadlines, developing specific action plans, determining ways to overcome obstacles, organizing the work efficiently, and emphasizing performance when talking to others - A strong achievement orientation may also result in behavior that undermines managerial effectiveness. If need for achievement is the dominant motive, it is likely that a manager will seek personal achievement and advancement rather than achievements by the team or work unit. The manager will try to accomplish everything alone, be reluctant to delegate, and fail to develop a strong sense of responsibility and task commitment among subordinates. It is especially difficult for this type of person to function effectively in a management team in which leadership responsibility is shared.
Managerial Competencies (what traits and skills best predict success in a managerial career)
Although competencies are commonly regarded as skills, they usually involve a combination of specific skills and complementary traits. Competencies are frequently used to describe desirable attributes for managers in a particular company or profession, but some scholars have proposed generally relevant competencies for managers. Examples include: - emotional intelligence - social intelligence - learning ability.
Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills are important for effective planning, organizing, and problem solving. They include good judgment, foresight, intuition, creativity, and the ability to find meaning and order in ambiguous, uncertain events. Specific conceptual skills include analytical ability, logical thinking, concept formation, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning. Cognitive complexity involves a combination of these specific skills and is the ability to develop concepts and categories for describing things, identify patterns, and understand complex relationships. A person with high cognitive complexity is better able to predict future events and develop creative solutions to problems. Weak conceptual skills were found to be a reason for managers who derailed. Conceptual skills have been measured with various methods, and research shows that they are related to managerial effectiveness, especially in high-level managerial positions. Nine important cognitive skills for leadership performance were identified: problem definition, cause/goal analysis, constraint analysis, planning, forecasting, creative thinking, idea evaluation, wisdom, and sensemaking/visioning. E.g., Churchill
Types of Research on Leader Traits and Skills
Different types of research has been conducted on leader traits and skills and their relationship to leadership effectiveness (Measures of leadership effectiveness, such as subordinate satisfaction and performance, unit performance, or ratings of leader effectiveness by bosses). The research includes comparing leaders to non-leaders to discover traits and skills that predict a leadership career, identifying traits and skills of informal leaders in a group, and examining the traits and skills of leaders in managerial or administrative positions. Many studies examine how the traits and skills for leaders in similar managerial or administrative positions are related to measures of their leadership effectiveness. The leader traits and skills are usually measured by tests, coded critical incidents, leader self-ratings, or ratings by other people such as subordinates or bosses. Some studies measure the traits and skills after leaders have been in their current position long enough to assess their performance. Other studies are conducted over a period of several years to discover the traits and skills that predict effectiveness in the leader's current position or later advancement to higher levels of management and career success. Longitudinal studies are also conducted to compare successful and derailed managers to identify similarities and differences in traits, skills, and career experiences. Cross-cultural research suggests that individuals who lack awareness and engage in self-enhancement are likely to derail in collectivistic cultures. Additionally, studies attempt to determine the extent to which leader traits and skills are influenced by heredity or learning. The evidence suggests that leadership success involves a combination of inherited and learned attributes, and genetic factors account for 30% of the variance in the attainment of leadership roles.
Trait: Emotional stability/Maturity
Emotional maturity may be defined broadly to encompass several interrelated motives, traits, and values, and includes self-awareness, self-improvement, self-control, stable emotions, being less defensive, and have a high level of cognitive moral development. Leaders with high emotional maturity have more cooperative relationships with subordinates, peers, and superiors. Empirical research shows that key components of emotional maturity are associated with managerial effectiveness and advancement. Self-awareness and a desire to improve predict advancement, and effective executives have a good understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. Women leaders tend to lack self-awareness and self-confidence (due to being seen as less capable), which negatively affects their advancement. Research on power orientation also shows the importance of emotional maturity for effective leadership.
Overview of Findings in the Research
How the emergence, effectiveness, and career advancement of leaders is related to their traits and skills has been investigated in hundreds of studies, and the results have been reported in several reviews and meta- analyses - Some traits and skills increase the likelihood that a person will be selected or elected to fill a leadership position. - Some traits and skills increase the effectiveness of a leader, but they do not guarantee it. - A leader with certain traits can be effective in one situation but ineffective in a different situation. - The pattern of traits and skills that best predicts leader effectiveness also varies somewhat for different outcomes, such as leader selection, advancement, performance by the leader's work unit, and subordinate satisfaction.
Trait: Personal integrity
Integrity means that a person's behavior is consistent with espoused values, and the person is honest, ethical, and trustworthy .Integrity is a primary determinant of interpersonal trust. Unless one is perceived to be trustworthy, it is difficult to retain the loyalty of followers or to obtain cooperation and support from peers and superiors. Moreover, a major determinant of expert and referent power is the perception by others that a person is trustworthy. Values related to integrity include honesty, loyalty, fairness, justice, and altruism. Several types of behaviors are related to integrity. 1. One important indicator of integrity is the extent to which one is honest and truthful rather than deceptive. Leaders lose credibility when people discover that they have lied or made claims that are grossly distorted. 2. Another indicator of integrity is keeping promises. People are reluctant to negotiate agreements with a leader who cannot be trusted to keep promises. 3. A third indicator of integrity is the extent to which a leader fulfils the responsibility of service and loyalty to followers. The trust of followers will be lost if they discover the leader exploited or manipulated them in pursuit of self-interest. 4. A fourth indicator of integrity is the extent to which a leader can be trusted not to indiscriminately repeat something said in the utmost confidence. People will not pass on important but sensitive information to a leader who cannot be trusted to keep a secret. A key determinant of perceived integrity is the extent to which a leader's behavior is consistent with values articulated repeatedly to followers. A leader who hopes to inspire others to support an ideology or vision must set an example in his or her own behavior. 5. Finally, integrity also means taking responsibility for one's actions and decisions. Leaders appear weak and undependable when they make a decision or take a position on an issue, then try to deny responsibility later if the decision is unsuccessful or the position becomes controversial. Lack of integrity is common among managers whose careers derail, whereas successful managers are regarded as having strong integrity. The Project GLOBE study identified integrity as a universally endorsed attribute of outstanding leadership.
Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills (how the relevance of a trait or skill depends on the situation)
Managers need many types of skills to fulfill their role requirements, but the relative importance of the skills depends on the leadership situation. Relevant situational moderator variables include: - managerial level - type of organization - leader stress - the nature of the external environment.
Trait: Narcissism
Narcissism is a personality syndrome that includes several traits relevant to effective leadership, such as a strong need for esteem (e.g., prestige, status, attention, admiration, adulation), a strong personalized need for power, low emotional maturity, and low integrity. FLAWS. Narcissists in leadership positions have a number of characteristic flaws. - They surround themselves with subordinates who are loyal and uncritical. - They make decisions without gathering adequate information about the environment. - - Objective advice is not sought or accepted from subordinates and peers. - They tend to undertake ambitious, grandiose projects to glorify themselves, but in the absence of an adequate analysis of the situation, the projects are likely to be risky and unrealistic. - When a project is not going well, they tend to ignore or reject negative information, thereby missing the opportunity to correct problems in time to avert a disaster. - When failure is finally evident, the narcissistic leader refuses to admit any responsibility, but instead finds scapegoats to blame. Even initiatives that involve improving corporate social responsibility are likely to be short-lived and unsustainable. -Given the dysfunctional nature of such behaviors, it is not surprising that research has shown that firms led by narcissistic CEOs are more likely to manipulate accounting data, they tend to overpay for acquisitions, and they are more vulnerable to litigation. - Extreme narcissists are unable to plan for an orderly succession of leadership. They see themselves as indispensable and cling to power, in contrast to emotionally mature executives who are able to retire gracefully when their job is done and it is time for new leadership. + POSITIVES. Despite the many negative aspects of narcissism, this personality syndrome may also have some positive aspects, at least in limited situations. Research on U.S. presidents (and CEOs of computer and software companies 2007 found that some of the most and least successful leaders were narcissistic. The strong self-confidence and optimism of narcissistic leaders facilitates their efforts to influence others to pursue bold, innovative objectives, which may or may not prove to be feasible and worthwhile. Despite questionable motives for proposing risky new initiatives, a narcissistic person is sometimes successful in leading an organization's response to serious threats or unusual opportunities. However, a narcissistic leader is less likely to be effective than a leader who has strong self-confidence and optimism combined with a socialized power orientation and high emotional maturity.
Trait: Internal Locus of Control
People with a strong internal locus of control orientation (called "internals") believe that events in their lives are determined more by their own actions than by chance or uncontrollable forces. In contrast, people with a strong external control orientation (called "externals") believe that events are determined mostly by chance or fate and they can do little to improve their lives. Individuals with a strong internal orientation take responsibility for their actions, are future-oriented, and use persuasion tactics. They are more flexible, adaptive, and innovative, and learn from setbacks. Studies suggest that having a strong internal locus of control is positively associated with managerial effectiveness, particularly in dynamic environments. However, it is not always linked to socially responsible behavior, as some leaders with an internal orientation may engage in risky strategies for political gain (Such as US presidents, Keller & Foster, 2012)
Trait: Need for Affiliation
People with a strong need for affiliation receive great satisfaction from being liked and accepted by others, and they enjoy working with people who are friendly and cooperative. Most studies find a negative correlation between the need for affiliation and managerial effectiveness. - prioritize maintaining positive relationships with their subordinates over achieving task objectives, avoid conflict, make decisions to gain approval, show favoritism, and dispense rewards based on personal relationships rather than performance. This behavior can leave subordinates feeling uncertain and without clear direction. - having a strong need for affiliation as a manager is not ideal, but having a very low need for affiliation can also have negative consequences. Managers with low affiliation needs may prefer to be alone and may lack the motivation to engage in social and public relation activities essential for building interpersonal relationships with subordinates, superiors, and peers. This can lead to ineffective interpersonal skills and a lack of confidence in influencing others. Therefore, a MODERATE level of affiliation motivation is deemed ideal for managers.
Leadership Attributes: Aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motives, and values
Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way, and some examples are self-confidence, extroversion, emotional maturity, and energy level. Social needs and motives are also important traits, because they influence a person's attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain behavior. Examples include the need for achievement, esteem, affiliation, power, and independence. Considerable evidence shows that most traits are jointly determined by learning and by an inherited capacity to gain satisfaction from particular types of stimuli or experiences. Some traits (e.g., social needs) are probably more influenced by learning than others (temperament, physiological needs).
The Big Five Personality Traits and leadership
Research shows that effective leaders generally score higher on extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness to learning, and lower on neuroticism. However, the results are not always consistent across different studies or organizations due to the use of different measures to represent the five factors and different criterion variables. Cautions against assuming that leadership is solely the domain of extroverts and provides examples of reserved individuals who have had significant impacts as leaders. Some scholars believe taxonomies with more specific traits may be better than the Big Five model (narrower, compound). Further research is needed to determine the relationship between specific leader traits and leadership effectiveness.
Trait: Self-Confidence
Self-confidence is positively related to leadership effectiveness and advancement (research found it is essential for charismatic leadership). Confident leaders take on difficult tasks, set challenging objectives, and persist in pursuing goals. They are decisive in a crisis and take an action-oriented approach to problem-solving. However, excessive self-confidence can lead to dysfunctional behaviors such as arrogance, autocracy, and intolerance of dissenting views. In such situations, moderately high self-confidence may be better than extremely high or low self-confidence. An arrogant manager may also have difficulty developing cooperative relationships, potentially derailing their career
Trait: Power Motivation
Someone with a high need for power enjoys influencing people and events and is more likely to seek positions of authority. Most studies find a strong relationship between need for power and advancement to higher levels of management in large organizations. People with a strong need for power seek positions of authority and power, and they are likely to be more attuned to the power politics of organizations. Individuals with a strong need for power are more likely to seek positions of authority, and studies show that this trait is important for managerial roles that require the use of power and influence. However, a manager's effectiveness also depends on how their need for power is expressed. Those with a socialized power orientation, who use power for the benefit of others and the organization, tend to be more effective leaders than those with a personalized power orientation, who use power to aggrandize themselves and control subordinates. Managers with a socialized power orientation are more likely to use a participative, coaching style of managerial behavior and are less likely to be coercive and autocratic.
Findings: Personality Traits and Effective Leadership
Specific Traits Related to Leadership Effectiveness are: - High energy level and stress tolerance. - Internal locus of control orientation. - Emotional stability and maturity - High core self-evaluations. - Personal integrity. - Socialized power motivation. - Moderately high achievement orientation. - Moderately high self-confidence. - Moderately low need for affiliation.
Technical Skills
Technical skills are important for managers as they include knowledge about methods, processes, and equipment needed to conduct specialized activities. This knowledge is acquired through education, training, and job experience, and managers who supervise others need extensive knowledge of the techniques and equipment used by subordinates. Technical expertise is needed to deal with disruptions in work and is related to the effectiveness of civilian and military leaders, especially at lower levels of management. Technical knowledge is also relevant for entrepreneurial managers, as it is the fertile ground for inspiration to yield innovative products. Finally, managers need extensive knowledge of their competitors' products and services to effectively plan and strategize. E.g., Elon Musk, Mark Zukerberg, Steve Jobs
Trait: High energy level and stress tolerance
The trait research finds that energy level, physical stamina, and stress tolerance are associated with managerial effectiveness. These traits help managers deal with the demands and pressures of their jobs, including stressful interpersonal situations, making important decisions, and solving problems effectively. In addition to making better decisions, a leader with high stress tolerance and composure is more likely to stay calm and provide confident, decisive direction to subordinates in a crisis.
Trait: Core Self-Evaluation
While there is ample evidence that the traits of self-confidence, internal locus of control, and emotional stability are linked to leadership emergence and effectiveness, some of the research also indicates that the combination of these traits, coupled with high self-esteem, is especially important. Such core self- evaluations reflect a broad personality trait that involves "a basic, fundamental appraisal of one's worthiness, effectiveness, and capability as a person". Studies indicate that CEOs and leaders with high core self-evaluations have better outcomes and are more likely to instill confidence in followers and inspire them to achieve better outcomes, such as winning more games, having better attendance, and instilling confidence in followers.
Leadership Attributes: Values
internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and immoral. Examples include fairness and justice, honesty, freedom, equality, altruism, loyalty, civility (courtesy and politeness), pragmatism, and performance orientation (excellence). Values are important because they influence a person's preferences, perception of problems, and choice of behavior. (Values relevant for ethical leadership and values studied in cross-cultural research).
Leadership Attributes: Self-concepts, self-identities, and social identities
involve values and beliefs about a person's occupation, relationships to others, and worthwhile roles and activities. It is usually assumed that people are intrinsically motivated to defend their self-esteem and to maintain consistency among their core values, social identities, and behavior.
