Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience - Chapters 1 - 5

Followers

"Values, norms, cohesiveness. Followers are a critical part of the leadership equation, but their role has not always been appreciated, at least in empirical research"

Implicit prejudice

Although most people purport to judge others by their merits, research shows that implicit prejudice often distorts their judgments. The insidious nature of implicit prejudice lies in the fact that one is by nature unconscious of it.

Out-Group

Not part of the in-group.

Perceptual set

The tendency or bias to perceive one thing and not another. Many factors can trigger a perceptual set, such as feelings, needs, prior experience, and expectations.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to make external attributions (blame the situation) for one's own failures yet make internal attributions (take credit) for one's successes.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail

Heroic theory

leadership is a general personal trait expressed independently of the situation in which the leadership is manifested

Development Plan

Creating a written development plan that capitalizes on available books, seminars, college courses, e-learning modules, and so forth to acquire the knowledge underlying a particular development need

Individualized Feedback

Feedback in the form of personality, intelligence, values, or interest test scores or leadership behavior ratings

Personalized power

Individuals who have a high need for personalized power are relatively selfish, impulsive, uninhibited, and lacking in self-control. These individuals exercise power for their own needs, not for the good of the group or the organization.

In-Group

Members are distinguished by their high degree of loyalty, commitment, and trust felt toward the leader.

Motivation to manage

Miner described the motivation to manage in terms of six composites: • Maintaining good relationships with authority figures. • Wanting to compete for recognition and advancement. • Beingactiveandassertive. • Wanting to exercise influence over subordinates. • Being visibly different from followers. • Being willing to do routine administrative tasks.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Occurs when our expectations or predictions play a causal role in bringing about the events we predict.

In-group favoritism

Providing favors and acts of kindnessto people who are like ourselves.

Training Programs

Refers to leadership development activities that typically involve personnel attend- ing a class, often for several days or even a week.

Interactions

Represented by the overlapping areas in the Interactional framework model

Active followers

self-starters who take initiative for themselves

Simulations and games

structured activities designed to mirror some of the challenges or deci- sions commonly faced in the work environment.

Leadership

A complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers, and the situation. Do the right things!

Single-Loop Learning

A kind of learning between the individual and the environment in which learners seek relatively little feedback that may significantly confront their fundamental ideas or actions.

Legitimate power

A person's organizational role. It can be though of as one's formal or official authority.

Projective personality test

A personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test

Double-Loop Learning

A willingness to confront one's own views and an invitation to others to do so, too. It springs from an appreciation that openness to information and power sharing with others can lead to better recognition and definition of problems, improved communi- cation, and increased decision-making effectiveness.

Mentor

An experienced person willing to take you under her or his wing

Pragmatist Followers

Are rarely committed to their group's work goals, but they have learned not to make waves. Because they do not like to stick out, pragmatists tend to be mediocre performers who can clog the arteries of many organizations. Because it can be difficult to discern just where they stand on issues, they present an ambiguous image with both positive and negative characteristics. In organizational settings, pragmatists may become experts in mastering the bureaucratic rules which can be used to protect them.

Teacher-Mentor

Cares about developing others and works beside them as a role model.

Revolutionary-Crusader

Challenges the status quo and guides adaptation.

Moral potency

Comprised of three main components - Moral ownership, moral courage, and Moral efficacy.

Academic Tradition

Consists of articles that use data and statistical techniques to make inferences about effective leadership

Values

Constructs representing generalized behaviors or states of affairs that are considered by the individual to be important.

Passive followers

Display none of the characteristics of the exemplary follower (discussed next). They rely on the leader to do all the thinking. Furthermore, their work lacks enthusiasm. Lacking initiative and a sense of responsibility, passive followers require constant direction. Leaders may see them as lazy, incompetent, or even stupid. Sometimes, however, passive followers adopt this style to help them cope with a leader who expects followers to behave that way.

Dependent, uncritical thinking

Does not consider possibilities beyond what he/she is told

Ethical climate

Ethical standards and norms have been consistently, clearly, and pervasively communicated throughout the orga- nization and embraced and enforced by organizational leaders in both word and example.

Alienated followers

Habitually point out all the negative aspects of the organization to others. While alienated followers may see themselves as mavericks who have a healthy skepticism of the organization, leaders often see them as cynical, negative, and adversarial.

Short-Term versus long-term

How a parent chooses to balance spending time with children now as compared with investments in a career that may provide greater benefits for the family in the long run

Visionary-Alchemist

Imagines possibilities that can benefit all members and brings them into reality

Followership

In the context of the interactional framework, the question "What is leadership?" cannot be separated from the question "What is followership?" There is no simple line dividing them; they merge. The relationship between leadership and followership can be represented by borrowing a concept from topographical mathematics: the Möbius strip

Need for power

Individuals with a high need for power derive psychological satisfaction from influencing others

Exchange

Influencing a target through the exchange of favors

After Event Reviews

Involve reflection and facilitated discussion on personal leadership experiences such as what the potential impact of alternative leadership behaviors might have been and how individuals believe they might behave differ- ently in the future.

Moral justification

Involves reinterpreting otherwise immoral behavior in terms of a higher purpose. This is most dramatically revealed in the behavior of combatants in war.

Vision

Leaders who pull people together on the basis of shared beliefs and a common sense of organizational purpose and belonging

Empathy

Leaders who show they understand the world as we see and experience it.

Consistent

Leaders whose changes are understood as a process of evolution in light of relevant new evidence.

Case Studies

Leadership situations and are used as a vehicle for leadership discussions.

Development Planning

More than a plan—it is really a process. Good development plans are constantly being revised as new skills are learned or new opportunities to develop skills become available.

Influence tactics

One person's actual behaviors designed to change another person's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors.

Overclaiming credit

Overrating the quality of our own work and our contributions to the groups and teams we belong to.

In-Basket Exercises

Participants are given a limited amount of time to prioritize and respond to a number of notes, letters, and phone messages from a fictitious manager's in-basket. This technique is particularly useful in assessing and improving a manag- er's planning and time management skills.

Displacement of responsibility

People may violate personal moral standards by attributing responsibility to others. Nazi concentration camp guards, for example, attempted to avoid moral responsibility for their behavior by claiming they were merely carrying out orders.

Disregard or Distortion of consquences

People minimize the harm caused by their behavior. This can be a problem in bureaucracies when decision makers are relatively insulated by their position from directly observing the consequences of their decisions.

Mentoring

Personal relationship in which a more experienced mentor (usually someone two to four levels higher in an organization) acts as a guide, role model, and sponsor of a less experienced protégé. Mentors provide protégés with knowledge, advice, challenge, counsel, and support about career opportunities, organizational strategy and policy, office politics, and so forth

Principle-centered leadership

Postulates a fundamental interdependence between the personal, the interpersonal, the managerial, and the organizational levels of leadership.

Conflicts of interest

Potential benefit derived from making a decision or recommendation

Ethics

Principles of right conduct or a system of moral values.

Formal Coaching

Programs that are individualized by their nature, but several common features deserve mention. There is a one-on-one relationship between the manager and the coach (that is, an internal or exter- nal consultant) that lasts from six months to more than a year. The process usually begins with the manager's completion of extensive tests of per- sonality, intelligence, interests, and value; 360-degree feedback instru- ments; and interviews by the coach of other individuals in the manager's world of work. As the result of the assessment phase of this process, both the manager and the coach have a clear picture of development needs

Father-Judge

Provides oversight, control, moral guidance, and caring protectiveness.

Glass Cliff

Refers to the intriguing finding that female candidates for an executive position are more likely to be hired than equally qualified male candidates when an organization's performance is declining.

Theory Y

Reflects a view that most people are intrinsically motivated by their work. Rather than needing to be coaxed or coerced to work productively, such people value a sense of achievement, personal growth, pride in contribut- ing to their organization, and respect for a job well done.

Diffusion of responsibility

Reprehensible behavior becomes easier to engage in and live with if others are behaving the same way. When everyone is responsible, it seems, no one is responsible.

Return on Investment

Return on investment is a ratio between net profit and cost of investment. A high ROI means the investment's gains compare favorably to its cost.

Role Playing

Role playing has the advantage of letting trainees actually practice relevant skills and thus has greater transferability to the workplace than do didactic lectures or abstract discussions about leadership.

Moral person

Seen as a principled decision maker who cares about people and the broader society.

Service Learning

Service-learning is an educational approach that combines learning objectives with community service in order to provide a pragmatic, progressive learning experience while meeting societal needs.

Action-observation-reflection model

Shows that lead- ership development is enhanced when the experience involves three different processes: action, observation, and reflection

Socialized power

Socialized power, on the other hand, implies a more emotionally mature expression of the motive. Socialized power is exercised in the service of higher goals to oth- ers or organizations and often involves self-sacrifice toward those ends. It often involves an em

Management

Suggests words like efficiency, planning, paperwork, proce- dures, regulations, control, and consistency. Do things Right!

Informal Coaching

Takes place whenever a leader helps followers to change their behaviors. According to Peterson and Hicks, the best informal coaching gener- ally consists of five steps: forging a partnership, inspiring commitment, growing skills, promoting persistence, and shaping the environment

Warrior Knight

Takes risks and action in a crisis

Situation

Task, stress, environment. •Leadership often makes sense only in the context of how the leader and followers interact in a given situation. •The situation may be the most ambiguous aspect of the leadership framework.

Coaching

The "process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities they need to develop and become more successful."

Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ)

The IBQ is designed to assess nine types of influence tactics. Its scales give us a convenient overview of various methods of influencing others.

Spiral of experience

The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience: -Experience is not just a matter of what events happen to you; it also depends on how you perceive those events. -Perception affects all three phases of the action-observation-reflection model. -People actively shape and construct their experiences

Power

The capacity to produce effects on others or the potential to influence others.

Influence

The change in a target agent's attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors as the result of influence tactics.

Attribution

The explanations we develop for the behaviors or actions we attend to

Moral courage

The fortitude to face risk and overcome fears associated with taking ethical action.

Interactional Framework

The framework depicts leadership as a function of three elements—the leader, the followers, and the situation. (Fiedler/Hollander)

Coersive power

The opposite of reward power, is the potential to influ- ence others through the administration of negative sanctions or the re- moval of positive events. In other words, it is the ability to control others through the fear of punishment or the loss of valued outcomes.

Referent power

The potential influence one has due to the strength of the relationship between the leader and the followers. When people admire a leader and see her as a role model, we say she has referent power.

Reward power

The potential to influence others due to one's control over desired resources. This can include the power to give raises, bonuses, and promotions; to grant tenure; to select people for special as- signments or desirable activities; to distribute desired resources like com- puters, offices, parking places, or travel money; to intercede positively on another's behalf; to recognize with awards and praise; and so on.

Expert power

The power of knowledge. The ability to influence through a relative expertise in particular areas.

Moral reasoning

The process leaders use to make decisions about ethical and unethical behaviors.

Pecking order

The status differential between mem- bers of a group.

Action Learning

The use of actual work issues and challenges as the developmental activity itself. The basic philosophy of action learning is that for adults in particular, the best learning is learning by doing.

Troubadour Tradition

These books and articles often consist of nothing more than the opinions or score-settling reminiscences of former leaders.

Leader

This element if the interactional framework examines primarily what the leader brings as an individual to the leadership equation. This can include unique personal history, interests, character traits, and motivation.

Actor / Observer difference

This refers to the fact that people who are observing an action are much more likely than the actor to make the fundamental attribution error.

Pressure tactics

Threats or persistent reminders used to influence targets.

Consultation

When agents ask targets to participate in planning an activity.

Legitimizing tactics

When agents make requests based on their position or authority.

Coalition tactics

When agents seek the aid or support of others to influence the target

Personal appeals

When an agent asks another to do a favor out of friendship

Ingratiation

When an agent attempts to get you in a good mood before making a re- quest.

Inspirational appeals

When an agent makes a request or proposal designed to arouse enthusiasm or emotions in targets.

Rational persuasion

When an agent uses logical arguments or factual evidence to influence others.

Interactive Leadership

encouraging participation and shared power and information, but went far beyond what is com- monly thought of as participative management.

Passive followers

passive, may even dodge responsibility, and need constant supervision

Exemplary Followers

present a consistent picture to both leaders and co-workers of being inde- pendent, innovative, and willing to stand up to superiors. They apply their talents for the benefit of the organization even when confronted with bureaucratic stumbling blocks or passive or pragmatist co-workers. Effective leaders appreciate the value of exemplary followers. When one of the authors was serving in a follower role in a staff position, he was introduced by his leader to a conference as "my favorite subordinate be- cause he's a loyal 'No-Man.'"

Independent, critical thinking

think for themselves and offer constructive advice or even creative solutions