Life Span Chapter 2
autonomy vs shame and doubt
1 - 3 yrs
How do you tell the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is to ask yourself two question
1) Is the behavior voluntary (operant conditioning) or is involuntary (classical conditioning) 2) Does the learning involve an association between two stimuli (classical conditiongs) or between a response and an outcome (operant conditioning)
Erickson's 8 stages of psychosocial development
1) trust vs mistrust 2) autonomy vs shame and doubt 3) initiative vs.guilt 4) industry vs. inferiority 5) identity vs role confusion. 6) intimacy vs isolation 7) generativity vs. stagnation 8) integrity vs. despair
initiative vs. isolation
3-6 yrs
Piaget believed that children begin to think logicaly in a consistent way at about _________years of age. At this time, they enter the ________________ stage.
6; concrete operational
According to Piaget, during the preschool years (up to age ______________,) children are in the ____________ stage. A hallmark of this stage is that children begin to think magically and poetically. another hallmark is that sometimes the child's thinking is __________, or focused on seeing the world solely from his or her own perspective.
6; preoperational; egocentric
6) An American psychologist who explained complex human behaviors in terms of operant conditioning was
B.F. Skinner
10) According to ________________, the learning of more complex responses is the result of ______________conditioning, in which a person learns that a particular behavior produces a particular __________________, such as a reward. This type oflearning is also called ________________ conditioning.
B.F. Skinner;operant; consequence, instrumental
Learning
Behaviorism focuses on the sequences and processes involved in the ________
trust vs. mistrust
Birth to 1 yr.
14) (Thinking Critically) The behavior of infant monkeys separated from their mothers led researcher ___________ to investigate the origins of ____________in infant monkeys. these studies, which demonstrated that infant monkeys clung more often to "surrogate" mothers that provided ________ (food/contact comfort), disproved _______ theory's idea that infants seek to satisfy oral needs and ___________view that reinforcement directs behavior.
Harry Harlow: attachment; contact comfort; psychoanalytic; behaviorism's
14) accommodation
In Piaget's theor, accommodation is the process in which old ideas are restructured to incorporate new experiences.
13) assimilation
In Piaget's theory - assimilation is the process by which new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas.
12) cognitive equilibrium
In Piaget's theory - cognitive equilibrium is a state of mental balance, in which a person's thoughts aboaut the world seem not to clash with each other or with his or her experiences.
17) apprenticeship in thinking
In Vygotsky's view, an apprenticeship in thinking is the process by which each person develops new competecies by learning from skilled mentors or tutors
10) self-efficacy
In social learning theory is the belief that one is effective
18) zone of proximal development
In sociolcultural theory, developmental growth occurs when mentors draw children into the zone of proximal development, which is the range of skills, knowlege, and concepts the child is close to acquiring but cannot master without help.
Skinner
Influential theorist who outlined the principles of operant conditioning.
15) information processing
Information processing is a perspective that compares human thinking processes to the way a computer analyzes data
In classical conditioning, which was discovered by the Russian scientist ________ and is also called ____________conditioning, a person or an animal learns to associate a (n) ______________stimulus with a meaningful one.
Ivan Pavlov; respondent; neutral
7) Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a tone becauase they associated the tone with food. Pavlov's experiment with dogs was an early demonstration of
Classical Conditioning In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus - in this case, the bell -- is associated with a meaningful stimulus - in this case food.
grand
Comprhensive theory of development that has proven to be inadequate in explaining the full range of human development
1)Which developmental theoriest have been criticized for suggesting that every child, in every culture, in every nation, passes trough certain fixed stages?
Freud, Erikson and Piaget
6)Who would be most likely to agree with the statement, "anything can be learned"?
John Watson Jean Piaget: PIaget formulated a cognitive theory of development Vygotsky formulated a sociocultural theory or development Erikson formulated a psychoanalytic theory of development
conditioning
Learning process tha toccurs through the associatio of two stimuli or through the use of reinforcement.
15) A major pioneer of the sociocultural perspective
Lev Vygotsky
36) The pioneer of this perspective was ________, who was primariy interested in the development of __________competencies.
Lev Vygotsky; cognitive
Genital stage
Mature sexual interests that last throughtout adulthood emerge.
27) Professor Swenson believes that much or our learning involves associating neutral stimuli with meaningful stimuli. He would most likely agree with the writings of _____________.
Pavlov, In classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov, an organism comes to associate a neutral stimulus with meaningful one and then responds to the former stimulus as if it were the latter
What is the phallic stage
Pleasure is derived from genital stimulation
Erikson
Psychoanalytic theorist who viewed development as a series of psychosocial crises.
Pavlov
Russian scientis who outlined the principles of classical conditioning
16) sociocultural theory
Sociocultural theory seeks to explain development as the result of a dynamic interaction between developing persons and the surrounding social and cultural forces.
1)Behaviorist study what people actually do , not what they might be thinking. T/F
T
2)Erickson's eight developmental stages are centered not on a body part but on each person's relationship to the social environment.T/F
T
During the 1960's, humanism was blamed for the abuse of psychedelic drugs, for sexual liberation, and for New Age philosophy. Humanism is also criticized for not appreciating the diverse cultures of people. T/F
T
In part, cognitive theory examine how an indeividual's understandingss and expectiations affect his or her behavior.T/F
T
Most contemporary researchers have adopted an eclectic perspective on development.T/F
T
Oral Stage: The mouth is the focus of pleasurable sensations, and sucking is the most stimulating activity. T/F
T
Rather than adopting any theory exclusively, most develpomentalists take an eclectic perspective and use many or all of the theories. T/F
T
The central idea of humanism is the all people have the same basic needs. T/F
T
What is the anal stage
The anus is the focus of pleasurable sensations, and toilet training is the most important activity.
Freud
The developer of psychoanalytic theoery
guided participation
The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations.
reinforcement
The process by which the consequences of a behavior make the behavior more likely to occur
modeling
The process of learning by imitating another person's behavior
psychoanalytic
Theory of personality and development that emphasizes unconscious forces.
humanism
Theory that stresses the shared basic needs of all people, and the potential of all humans for good.
A pigeon is rewarded for producing a particular response, and so learns to produce that response to obtain rewards. Psychologists describe this chain of events as ________ ____________.
This is an example of operant conditioning because a response recurs due to its consequences.
7) Clasical conditioning is to _______________ as operant conditionis is to ________________-.
Vygotsky; Watson
Sociocutlural and universal (humanism and evolutionary therory are multicultural and mutlidisciplinary.)
Which make them particularly pertinent to current developmental science. Together they provide a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.
3)behaviorism
a grand theory, empahsizes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned; also called learning theory.
2)psychoanalytic theory
a grand theory, interprets human development in terms of inner drives and motives, many of which oare irrational and unconscious
11) cognitive theory
a grant theory, emphasizes that the way people think and understand the world shapes their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors.
8) conditioning
a process of learning, as described by Pavlov or Skinner
11) In Piaget's theoery, cognitive equilibrium refers to
a state of mental balance
Which of the theories are stage theories?
a. Psychoanalytic and cognitive theories are stage theories
13)A child who must modify and old idea in order to incorporate a new experience is using the process of
accommodation Assimilation occurs when new experiences do not class with existing ideas. Cognitive equilibrium is mental balance, which occurs when ideas and experiences do not clash. Unconditional positive regard: ` This is Rogers' term for how people should accept others without conditions.
1) The purpose of a developmental theory is to
accomplish all of the following goals: 1) provide a broad and coherent view of the cmplex influences on human development 2) offer guidance for practical issues encountered by parents, teachers, and therapists 3) generate testable hypotheses about development
identity vs. role confusion
adolescence
3) behaviorism
aemphasizes the impact of the immediate envirnoment on behavior
8)Behaviorists have found that they can often solve a person's eemingly complex psychological problem by _________-
altering the environment (analyzing the pt & admitting the existence of the unconscious) These are psychoanalytic approaches to treating psychological problems (administering well-designed punishments):Behaviorists generally do not recommend the use of punishment.
40) Psychoanalytic theory is limited by its emphasis on the ___________ ____________. Behaviorism is limited by failure to recognize the existence of ________ _______. The limits of these theories were apparent to ____________ and _________, who founded the theory called _________.
animalistic id; free will; Abraham Maslow; Carl Rogers ; humanism
In Vygotsky's view, the best way to accomplish the goals of learning is through an _____________ __ ______________, in which the tutor engages the learner in joint activities.
apprenticeship in thinking
22) According to Piaget, people adapt to new experiences either by reinterpreting them to fit into, or __________ with, old idea's. Some new experiences force people to revamp old ideas so that they can __________new experiences.
assimilate; acommodate
Behaviorists have formulated laws of behavior that are believed to apply _________ (only at certain ages/at all ages). The learning process, which is called ______________, takes two forms: _______________ and __________and _____________ ______________
at all ages; conditioning; classical conditioning; operant conditioning
Which theory (ies) emphasize (s) conscious organization of experience? Unconscious urges? Observable behavior? Individually?
b. conscious experience: behaviorism, soicolcultural, evolutionary, humanism Unconscious urges; psychoanalytic Observable behvior; behaviorism individuality; humanis
33) Dr. Bazzi believes that development is a lifelong process of gradual and continuous growth. Based on this information, with which of the following theories would Dr. Bazzi most likely agree?
behaviorism Each of the other theories emphasizes that development is a discontinuous process that occurs in stages. Remember: The grand theorists were all men, born more than a hundred years ago, whose ancestors were from Western Europe and North America.
7) A major theory in American psychology, which opposed psychoanalytic theory, was _________. This theory, was emergerd early in the twentieth century under the influence of ____________, is also called ______ theory because of its emphasis on learning behavior step by step.
behaviorism; John B. Watson; learning
b) You flinch when someone yells, "Duck!"
classical
d) The pupil of your eye dilates (opens wider) after you enter a darkened theater.
classical
21) When new experiences challenge existing understanding, creating a kind of imbalance, the individual experiences ____________________ _________________ which eventually leads to cognitive growth.
cognitive disequilibrium
20) According to Piaget, cognitive development is guided by the need to maintain a state of mental balance, called _________- ______________.
cognitive equilibrium
15) The structure and development of thought processes and the way those thought processes shape our attitudes, beliefs, values, assumptions, and behaviors are the focus of ____________ theory. an important pioneer of cognitive theory is _________.
cognitive: jean Piaget
30) I am 8 yrs old. Although I understand some logical priniples,. I have trouble thinks about hypothetical concepts. According to Piaget. I am in the __________ stage of development.
concrete operational During Piaget's concrete operational stage children can understand and apply logical operation's but only to what they personally see, hear, touch and experience.
One of Freud's most influential ideas was that each stage includes its own potential __________. 1 - oral 2 - anal 3 - phallic 4 - genital
conflicts
How does each theory view the child?
d. Freud's psycholoanlysis viewed childhood as all important. Erikson extends development through adulthood. Piaget considered chldhood a major learning period. The nonstage theories consider chldhood important but do not limit development to that period.
A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that priovides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older is called a ____________ ___________.
developmental theory
45) One controversial idea stemming from evolutionary theory is that women and men are selected for _________ ( the same/different) patterns of mating and sexual behavior. According to this argument, women benefit by seeking _____ (one steady mate/multiple sexual partners), while men spread their genes more widely if they have________(one/many) sexual partners and dozens of off spring. Critics of this idea contend that a ___________ explanattion rather than a bilogical one accounts for these differences.
different; one steady mate; many;sociocultural
13) When an individual's existing understanding no longer fit his or her present experiences, the result is called
disequilibrium
31) 2 yrr old Jamailhas a simple understanding for "Dad". Each time he encounteres a man with a chld, he calls him "Dad". When he learns that these other men are not "Dad," Jamail experiences _____________-
disequilibrium When Jamail experiences something that conflicts with his existing understanding, he experiences disequilibrium. Piaget believed that this could lead to cognitive growth.
8) A child who calls all furrry animals "doggie" will experience cognitive _________when she encounters a hairless breed fro the first time. This may cause her to revamp her concept of "dog" in order to ___________ the new experience.
disequilibrium; accommodate
35) Sociocultural theory sees human development as the result of __________ __________ between developing persons and the surrounding _____ and ____________________ forces.
dynamic interaction; societal; cultural
Do the theories use the same methodology? How does each make use of the scientific method?
e. Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Rogers, Maslow, and Vygotsky all used more qualitative methodology than the behaviorists, social learning theorists, and evolutionary theorist. They focused on observation rather than quantitative research.
4) Erikson's psychosocial theory of human development describes.
eight crises all people are thought to face
Erik Erikson's theory of development, which focuses on social and cultural influences, describes _______ (number) developmental stages, each characterized by a particular developmental ____________ related to the person's relationship to the social and cultural environment. Unlike Freud, Erikson proposed stages of development that (span/do not span) a person's lifetime.
eight; crises (challenge); span
7) sociocultural theoery
empasizes the cultural context in development
5) cognitive theory
emphasizes how our thoughts shape our actions
1) aychoanalytic theory
emphasizes inherited tendencies that foster species'survival and reproduction
11) evolutionary theory
emphasizes inherited tendencies that foster speices' survival and reporduction
4) social learning theory
emphasizes that people learn by oberservation of others
10) Which developmental theory suggest that each person is born with genetic tendencies that direct development?
evolutionary
44) The application of Darwin's _____________ theory to the study of human development is relatively recent. According to this theory, two long-standing and __________based drives for every species are ____________and ____________. Through the procss of _______ ________genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, oveer generations, to become more frequent.
evolutionary; biologically;survial;reproduction;selective adaptation
How do theories view adult development
f. Freud believed that development occurred during childhood and that nothing significant occurred during adulthood. Erikson believed that development was lifelong. The nonstage theorist also believed that development continued throughoout the life span.
19) In Piaget's final stage, the __________ ________stage, reasoning expands from the purely concrete to encompass ________________thinking. Piaget believed most children enter this stage by age.
formal operational; abstract (hypothetical): 12
Children with ADHA have a functional deficit to which part of brain?
fronto-stiatal
middle adulthood
generativity vs. stagnation
Which theory (ies) emphasize(s) the impact of early experiences in development?
c Freud's psychoanalysis emphasizes early experiences. Erikson considers childhood an important period, but extends development through old age.
34) In contrast to the grand theories, the newer theories draw from the finding of ____________ (one/many) discipline(s) They are also _______.
many; multicultural
29) After, watching several older children climbing around a new junglegym, 5 yr Jennie decides to try it herself. Which of the follwing best accounts for her behavior?
modeling Evidently, Jennie has learned by observing the other chlidren at play, which is key to social learning theory.
Psychoanalytic theory interprets human development in terms of inner _________and __________, which are ____________(conscious/unconscious) and _____________ and originate in ______________.
motives;drives;unconscious;irrational;child-hood
41) According to Maslow, all people have the same basic _______________, which form a ____________ . In order, there are 5 _______ ______ ________ _______ __________ .
needs; hierarchy; physicolgical, safety and security, love and belonging, respect and esteem, self-actualization
37) Vygotsky believed that these competencies result from the interaction between ____________ and more skilled members of the society, acting as _________.
novices; tutors (or mentors)
a) After receiving a mild shock from the "invisible fence" surrounding his yard, a dog no longer crosses the boundary.
operant
c) You ask more questions in class after the professor praises you for a good question.
operant
3) Which of the following is the correct order of the psychosexual stages proposed by Freud?
oral stage; anal stage; genital; stage; latency; phallic
What are the 3 types of theories called Grand theories.
psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory. * They are grand in scope but inadequate in the face of recent research findings.
According to Freud's _________ theory, children experience sexual pleasures and desires during the first six years as they pass through three stages. From infancy through 3 stages. From infancy to early childhood to the preschool years, these stages are the ________ stage, the _________stage, and the ________stage.
psychoanalytic; oral; anal phallic
11) Which grand theory of deelopment focuses on emotions?
psychoanalytical is the answer Behaviorism focuses on actions Cognitive theory focuses on thoughts
9) modeling
refers to the process by which we observe other people's behavior and then copy it.
The process of repeating a consequence to make it more likely that the behavior in question will recur is called__________________
reinforcement
12) You teach your dog to "speak" by giving her a treat each time she does so. This is an example of
reinforcement Teaching your dog in this way is an example of operant, rather than classical (respondent), conditioning. Modelilng involves learning by imitating others.
6) unconditional positive regard
seeing others with appreciation and without condtions
9) According to Piaget, an infant first comes to know the world through
senses and motor abilities These behaviors are typical of infants and in the sensorimotor state
2)Of the following terms, the one that does NOT describe a stage of Freud's theory of childhood sexuality is
sensorimotor This is one of Piage's stages of cognitive development
12) Which is the correct sequence of stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
sensorimotor, peroperational, concrete operational, formal operational
16) In Piaget's first stage of development, the _________ stage, children experince the world thorugh their senses and motor abilities. This stage occurs between birth and age ____________
sensorimotor; 2
28) A confirmed neo-Freudian. Dr. Thomas strongly endorses the views of Erik Erikson. She would most likely disagree with Freud regarding the importance of
sexual urges in development Unlike Freud, who emphasized sexual urges in development, Erikson put more emphasis on family and culture.
3) We are more likely to imitate the behavior of others if we particularly admire and identify which them. This belief finds expression in
social learning theory.
12) The extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the ways that people learn new behaviors by observing others is called _________________ __________theory. the process whereby a child patterns his or her behavior after a parent or teacher, for example, is called ______________ (also called ___________________).
social learning; modeling ; observational learning
9) newer theories
sociocultural, evolutionary, humanism
5) Which of the following theories does NOT belong with the others?
sociocutural This is a new age as it has two instead of 1 view.
10) modeling
the process whereby a person learns by imitating someone else's behavior
The zone of proximal development refers to
the range of skills a learner can exercise with assistance but cannot perform independently.
2) humanism
theory that genes determine every aspect of development
5) According to Erikson, an adult who has diffifulty establishing a secure, mutual relationship with a life partner might never have resolved the crisis or
trust versus mistrust
13) This process is most likely to occur when an observer is ____________ or __________ and when the model is _________ & _________. This type of learning is also affected by the individual's _______and interpretations. One crucial interpretation involves a sense of ______________.
uncertain; inexperienced; admirable and powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer;perceptions; self-efficacy.
42) Rogers thought people should give each other ________ ________ _____________.
unconditional positive regard
14) children with ADHA have a functional deficit in a part of the brain that makes it hard for them to
walk normally
43) Humanists emphasize _________________ (what people have in common/national, ethic, and cultural differences) humanism flourished during the decades of the _____________-.
what people have in common; 1960's
39) According to Vygotsky, a tutor draws a child into the ______ ____ ____ ______ which is defined as the range of skills that a person can acquired with _________but cannot master independently.
zone of proximal development; help
What does sociocultural theory focus on
how each person's development is shaped by unique interactions with tutors and other environmental experiences. Humanism focuses on the shared impules and common needs of all humanity.
Developmental theories form the basis for educated guesses, or ___________, about behavior; they generate _____________, and they offer _______________ guidance.
hypotheses; discoveries; practical
Piaget
influential theorist who developed astate theory of cognitive development
4) Dr. Iverson believes the computer, and how it processes doata, is an excellent model for studying human thinking. Dr. Iverson is evidently a proponent of which theory?
information processing This term describes development
23) A newer aproach to cognitive theory, called ____________ _____________, compares human thinking to the way a ___________________. Proponents of this approach believe that a step-by-step description of the ______- of human thought aids our understanding of cognitive development at every age.
information processing; computer processes data; mechanisms
32) 4 Yr old Bjorn takes great pride in successfully undertaking new activities. Erikson would probably say that Bjorn is capably meeting the psychosocial challenge of __________.
initiative vs. guilt Children at this stage feel either adventurous or guilty.
24) According to this approach, cognition begins with __________________ from the five senses; proceeds to __________ reactions, connections, and stored _________; and concludes with some form of _____________.
input;brain;memories;output
Older adulthood
integrity vs. despair
young adulthood
intimacy vs isolation
9) Modeling, an integral part of social learning theory, is so called because it _________
involves people's patterning their behavior after that of others.
4)conditioning
is a learning process that occurs either through the association of two stimuli (classical conditioning ) or through the use of positive or negative reinforcement or punishment (operant conditioning).
1) developmental theory
is a systematic statement of principles and geralizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.
19) humanism
is a theory that stresses the shared basic needs of all people, and the potential of all humans for good
5)classical conditioning
is the process by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful one so that both are responded to in the same way; also called respndent conditioning.
7)reinforcement
is the process by which a particular action is followed by something desired
6)operant conditioning
is the process by which a response is graudall learned through reinforcement or punishment; also called instrumental conditioning.
20) selective addaptation
is the process why which humans and other species gradually adjust to their environment. Whether a genetic trait increases or decrease over generations depends on whether it contributes to survival and reproductive ability
What is a helpful way to distinquish the grand theories of development (psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory) from the newer theories(sociocultural theory and the universal perspective [humanism and evolutionary theory]
is to remember that while each of the grand theories emphasizes a single factor in develpment (unconscious processes in the case of psychoanalytic theory for example, the newer theories are broader in scope in that each draws upon multiple factors in explaining development.
What does the Evolutionary theory emphasize
it emphasizes inherited genetic tendencies that fostered survival of the human species.
nurture
All the environmnetal (nongenetic) influences on development.
nurture
All the genetic influences on development
norm
An average, or standard, measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population.
Watson
An early and especially strong proponent of learning theory in America
8) social learning theory
An extention of behaviorism, emphasizes that people oftern learn new behaviors through oberservation and imitation of other people.
respondent
Another name for the type of conditioning developed by Pavlov
eclectic
Developmental perspective that accepts elements from several theories.
21) eclectic perspective
Developmentalists who work from an eclectile perspetive accept elements from several theories instead of adhering to only a single perspective.
54) Dr.Cleaver's developmental research draws upon inisights from several theoretical perspectives. Evidently, Dr. cleaver is working from a ___________ perspective.
Eclectic Eclectic theorists draw from anyy of the man theories as the situation dictates.
5)Of the major developmental theories, cognitive theory give the most emphaisis to the interaction of gene and experience in shaping development. T/F
F Evolutionary theory emphasizzes the interaction of genes and experience.
6)According to Piaget, a state of cognitive equilibrium must be attained before cognitive growth can occur.T/F
F On conrary, disequilibrium often fosters greater growth.
According to Piaget, children begin to think only when they reach preschool age.T/F
F The hallmark of Piaget's theory is that ,a at every age, indiuiduals think about the world in unique ways.
4)Few developmental theorists today believe that humans have instincts or abilities that arise from our species biological heritage. T/F
F This assumption lies at the heart of evvoluntary theory
3)Sociocultural theory arose from the firelds of archeology, biology, and ethology. T/F
F This is true of evolutionary theory. Sociocultural theory draws on research in education anthropology, and history..
10) According to Piaget, the stage of cognitive development that generally characterizes preschool children (2 to 6 yrs old ) is the
preoperational stage sensorimotor stage: The sensorimotor stage describes development from birth until 2 yrs of age oral stage: This is a psychoanalytic stage described by Freud psychosocial stage: This refers to Psychosocial stage of Erikson's stages
2) Which developmental theory emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives and motives on behavior?
psychoanalytic
