lifespan lecture module 2

Similarly, infants' babbling initially includes all language sounds but by ____ months, the sounds they make are the same as the ones found in their own native tongue.

9

example of false beliefs

" Suppose a child is aware that a box of candy has been removed from its original location and is now hidden in a cabinet. The child is asked where a second person, let's call him Sam, will look for the candy. Even though the child knows Sam was not present for the hiding, the child does not attribute a false belief to Sam but assumes that Sam will search in the appropriate hiding place, as if Sam must know what the child knows to be tru

Self-regulation

(also called "inhibitory control") involves the ability to stop oneself from making an automatic response &/or making oneself choose a different or new response. It requires the ability to monitor & control one's own behavior, emotions & thoughts, changing them to fit the situation. It allows for ignoring distractions & inhibiting natural tendencies.

Pretend play

(or the use of make-believe) is a perfect opportunity for development of theory of mind. It seems to begin around age 2. In social pretend play, children play out roles, taking or playing out the actions, thoughts & beliefs of the characters they play. Pellegrini (2009) has shown that the more children are involved in social pretend play, the more quickly they advance in their theory of mind

Code-switching

(or using different forms of language with peers rather than elders) is also learned gradually.

Dishabituation _________________ is shown with new stimuli that have subtle differences from the previous ones. The ability to discriminate between colors has been shown in infants older than 3 months but not before.

(renewed interest)

Working memory

(sometimes called short-term memory) holds & processes information being worked on, manipulates it, encodes it or retrieves it. Following Piaget, preschoolers are "centered" in that they can only process one thing at a time. Working memory increases and improves with age.

Deferred imitation

(the ability to imitate an act performed earlier at a later time) has been used to assess both mental representation & recall.

metacognition

(thinking about thinking, or the understanding of the mind). Between ages 2 & 5, children begin to realize that thinking takes place inside the mind.

Cognitive flexibility

is the ability to shift or transition from thinking about one concept to another, depending upon the situation.

Babies' understanding of agency seems clear by ____ months, as they try to get others to do things for them. Their understanding of others' intentions, feelings & other internal states is a more difficult attainment.

12

Most children's speech is intelligible by others by age ____. If it is still not by age 4, speech language intervention is indicated.

3

What current research shows us is that by age ---, children are able to understand that 2 people can believe different things (Rakoczy et al., 2007). By age 4, children have been shown to understand that people presented with different descriptions of the same event develop different beliefs (Eisbach, 2004). And by age 4 or 5, children are realizing that they & others can hold false beliefs (Moses et al., 2000).

3

The average 2-year-old knows about ____________ words, a 3-year-old 900 to 1,000 words. The average 5-year-old will understand around 15,000 words and by around age 6, they will use around 2,600 words & understand more than 20,000 (Owens, 2001).

500

Theory of Mind

Also called "naive psychology", meaning understanding that people's behavior is due to their internal mental states. such as desires, emotions and beliefs. It is crucial for establishing a healthy social life. the early understanding of symbols and of language

Preoperational Thought & Understanding Numbers

Beginning to use symbols, as have developed representational thought

How Language is Learned

Chomsky's (1968) theory of language acquisition is that children have an innate, instinctive predisposition for language learning. Similarly, Pinker (1994) sees it as instinctual with evolutionary origins. Others (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992, 2000) suggest that it does not require innate knowledge but is due to the general analytic capacity of the brain.

example of Recognition memory

DeCasper and Fifer's (1980) study even showed that 3-day-old babies will learn to suck harder for the reward of hearing their mothers' voices (which they had heard before birth).

Executive Functions

Defined by Banich (2009) as "a set of abilities required to effortfully guide behavior toward a goal, particularly in routine situations". They increase incrementally from ages 2 to 5 and have been shown to predict later academic success (McClelland & Cameron, 2012).

Results showed that in a 100-hour week, children in the UMC families heard on average 215,000 words. Those in the LMC group heard around 125,000 words. Those in the poor/welfare group heard around 62,000. Even the quality or content of parents' conversations with their children differed, with those conversing the most asking more questions and explaining things in more detail. Those who conversed the least tended to give more orders, rules & regulations.

Hart & Risley study

__________________ showed that 4-year-olds would use more complex sentences if their parents did.

Huttenlocher

perspective-taking

If a child can't figure out what the listener needs to hear, he/she will only talk about what is noteworthy for themselves.

attributions to language learning

Individual differences in environments (home & preschool) within cultures account for the speed with which children's vocabularies grow. How much mothers speak to 18-month-olds impacts on both vocabulary growth & how quickly familiar words are later comprehended at 24 months (Fernald et al., 2006). Mothers' responsivity to babies & young children has also been shown to result in quicker vocabulary growth

example of object concept

Meltzoff and Borton showed that 1-month-old infants showed preferential looking at pictures of pacifiers they had experienced but not seen (either bumpy or smooth ones). This suggests that other properties of objects are constructed or inferred from how objects are experienced in different ways. (sensory integration)

Piaget believed that 2 processes helped with developing a more realistic theory of mind.

These included the ability to decenter (hold multiple ideas in the mind at the same time) & the actual experience of social interactions where people encounter others with differing feelings, thoughts & desires from their own

It involves a narrative, or description that takes into account what the recipient needs to hear in order to understand. It depends upon the listener.

Pragmatics

All of this has implications for the use of anatomically-correct dolls when it comes to identification of sexual abuse in preschoolers, whether they understand the representative nature of the dolls to themselves.

Symbolic Artifacts

Use of words to describe mental states is taken as a sign of this growing capacity. Researchers have shown that children already begin to use words for feelings or desires (like "feel", "need", "want") around age 2 & by age 3, they begin to use words for cognitive functions (like "think", "forget", "remember").

Theory of Mind

Symbolic Artifacts

These symbols are representations of things (like pictures, maps or models). Counter to expectation, young children have difficulty with separating them from what they represent, as the symbols themselves are concrete objects. This is true of what preschoolers see on TV as well, as they have difficulty understanding that what they are seeing is happening elsewhere, not actually on the TV screen. (Interestingly, if the edges of the screen are covered and they are told it is a window, they will respond to the information, since what they see is no longer a symbolic representation.) Understanding of scale models as representations is even more difficult (DeLoache, 1987), with 3-year-olds recognizing it but not 2-year-olds.

_____________________ are seen as major skills in executive functions.

Working memory, self-regulation & cognitive flexibility

If that doesn't work, they will modify their schemas to fit better (______________)

accommodation

some research has shown that children with autism have fewer or less ______________ mirror neurons

active

Symbols

are things that stand for something else, like words & numbers

When faced with something new, they try to understand it by integrating it into schemas they already know (________________).

assimilation

This is further shown in Piaget's conservation tasks, where a child is shown two identical glasses containing the same amount of water. When the water from one is poured into a taller, thinner glass, the child assumes that the one in the taller glass contains more water. The child has "_________________" on the one characteristic (the height of the water in the taller glass) & doesn't understand or realize that the process can be reversed by pouring the water back into the original glass.

centered

Whereas Piaget emphasized the individual exploration of the world in order to learn about it & drive cognitive development, Vygotsky's focus was on the _____________nature of learning. He saw children's learning as through interacting with others who displayed more skills, who either became models or provided direct instruction.

collaborative

Vygotsky did not see it happening in stages. He also didn't focus on the constructivistic aspect. His focus was on the importance of____________ or society on knowledge transmission. This is why his theory is called sociocultural. His theory is a dynamic one, relating learning to development (learning can lead development & development can lead learning).

culture

According to Piaget, with experience, children will be able to take into account multiple pieces of information, called _____________, developing more logical thought

decentration

ome research suggests that newborns can notice differences between small numbers (as seen in Antell & Keating's (1983) study showing______________ to a change in number of items displayed). Wynn (1992) even found that 5-month-olds seem to understand some simple addition & subtraction (with placing dolls behind screens, then removing one).

dishabituation

Development is now considered _________________ in that it can continue at different rates in different domains

domain-specific

habituation paradigm

due to infants' tendency to focus on new stimuli & show less interest in old stimuli

Piaget studied the understanding of the mind via "perspective-taking", which he believed showed _____________ in the Preoperational Stage.

egocentrism

Reese & Fivush (1993), among others, have found that for mothers who use an _______________ (discussing children's past experiences with lots of detail), their children's narratives (Remember? descriptions of events) are more detailed & complete. Their children also remember past life events better

elaborative style

The processes of assimilation & accommodation are constantly occurring as people strive for cognitive ________________, a balance between the two. Disequilibrium, or a mismatch between schemas and the world, leads to cognitive growth.

equilibrium

Siegler & Ramani (2008)

examined how different grade 1 children's knowledge is about numbers, with higher SES children good at "number line estimation" (line with "1" at one end, "10" at another, point out where a "7" should go). The researchers hypothesized that lower SES parents didn't play number or counting games as much with their children, so developed a board game to teach it (like Snakes & Ladders). With repeated play for 2 weeks, the lower SES children's scores in "number line estimation" improved remarkably.

In fact, Mix et al. (2011) gave children who had failed on a task matching numbers of items toys to take home for 6 weeks. There was significant improvement at retesting 6 weeks later.

example of exploratory play.

Contemporary researchers suggest it is growth in _______________ (like self-regulation, which allowed for inhibitory control) that leads to advances in perspective-taking.

executive functions

Intentionality, involving attentional control, goal-setting & response choice is all a part of the process of what is known as ____________________

executive functions

To measure how much children are able to take others' perspective when it comes to what they know, ______________ are used. Here, one person has the right information but another has false or inaccurate information (or it's the same person at a different time).

false belief tasks

A strategy known as ________________ is what allows children to learn words so quickly after only 1 or 2 exposures to them. The word is understood in context, with words for objects learned more quickly than words for actions

fast mapping

(Vygotsky) "Every function in a child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; ________________________. This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All of the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals."

first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)

With the rapid, interrelated cognitive & social development during the first 6 months of life, there are corresponding brain developments. Axons are myelinating rapidly which increases efficiency (particularly in the ____________________). These impact on planning ability, memory skills, motor control & balance. Better motor skills allow for greater ability to explore the environment.

frontal lobes, in the hippocampus, & the cerebellum

Elkind called Piaget the "________________" due to his influence on study & understanding of child development, but Vygotsky's theories are highly influential, as well.

giant in the nursery

social experiences teach children how to think & stimulate learning. Rogoff (1990) explains how this _____________ (or apprenticeship in thinking) with a sensitive "teacher" who is aware of the child's needs, helps the child to progress more than he or she could alone

guided participation

Over time, the baby________________ to the new stimulus, suggesting boredom with it (seen by shorter looking times, less sucking on the pacifier, etc.).

habituates

the speed of_______________has been correlated with later performance on tests of intelligence, suggesting that recognition speed may indicate how efficiently children will later process information (Bornstein & Columbo, 2010).

habituation

To study object permanence, Piaget developed the ________________(interesting object placed near baby, then covered with a cloth so can't see...does the baby look for it?). His & current research suggests that this doesn't occur until 8 to 12 months of age. Before that, truly "out of sight is out of mind". Some new research does, however, suggest that object permanence may develop earlier

hidden object test

Animism

is another common error seen at this stage: the belief that inanimate objects are alive & have intentions & feelings. Such an example is when a child sees the sun as happy because it is shining.

Pragmatics

is how to use language in order to communicate effectively.

Need to have own intentionality in order to understand others' intentions. Research into understanding this distinguish between agency (acting without being pushed to do so) & _________________ (having a plan or goal to drive an action).

intention

Woodward (1998) did show some awareness of others' ____________ with 6-month-olds, as babies noted a change in the goal of reaching for a specific toy

intentionality

Recognition memory

is ability to tell the difference between new & old experiences

Recognition memory

is ability to tell the difference between new & old experiences. It is demonstrated in babies using the habituation paradigm, showing that recognition is present from birth.

Phonology

is the sounds used in a language. Newborns have been shown to have a preference for voices speaking in the same language as their mothers (Locke, 1993). The fine discrimination becomes even more acute as 6 month-olds have been shown to notice differences in languages spoken other than their native tongue (Kuhl et al., 2006). If raised in a bilingual home however, this ability remains for both languages.

Irreversibility

is the young child's view that once things are changed, they can't be reversed or changed to their original state.

Semantics

is understanding which words & which word parts express meaning. (word meanings)

As applied to cognitive development, Vygotsky saw growth as happening through using tools (or signs). Tools were whatever people use to enable them to think or learn, with the most important one being______________.

language

It is important to note that the development of theory of mind is closely linked to __________________

language development

Hart & Risley (1992, 1995)

made monthly visits to homes of 9-month-olds where parents were either poor/on welfare, lower middle-class (LMC, mostly blue-collar), or upper middle-class (UMC, at least one parent a professional). Although all parents were involved with their children, significant differences were seen between groups in terms of how much and how parents talked to them.

Piaget believed that early behaviors are reflexive & unintentional. He believed that by 4 to 8 months, showed a larger repertoire of responses to stimuli. If the behavior produced an interesting event, the behavior would be repeated. He called this __________________, but not see it as intentional behavior yet.

making interesting sights last

Another concentration task (different than the number one discussed previously or the liquid one described above) is one focusing on ________________, where 2 identical pieces of clay are shown, then one is rolled out. When asked which has more, Piaget found that children in the preoperational stage believed that the now-longer one had more clay than the other.

mass

According to Piaget, at around 8 to 12 months, infants will show ___________________, which requires mental representation & planning. They will put something aside in order to achieve a goal.

means-end behavior

The concept of object permanence, or understanding that objects still exist even when they are not being experienced. This requires ______________ or representational thought and is an important step towards language-learning because language uses symbols.

mental representation

More recently, researchers have shown what appears to be intentional behavior in infants as young as 3 months (Rovee-Collier & Barr, 2001), as infants learn to move their foot which is connected by a string to a mobile, in order to make the mobile ____________________.

move

In fact, Nelson (2007) has suggested that practice of _______________ helps in developing autobiographical memories. She even goes so far as to suggest that infantile amnesia (problems remembering anything before age 3 or 4) is due to a lack of language mastery by that age. It is narrative conversations that help encode them for later memory recall.

narrative recollections

Research on the importance of vocabulary growth shows it doesn't matter what language it is in order to achieve milestones at the same age. It does, however, depend upon the language as to which types of words are learned more easily. There is a _____________ is some languages (like English) & in others (like Mandarin Chinese), verbs are learned as easily as nouns.

noun bias

To study number skills, Piaget developed the______________, which simply places two rows of objects (one above the other) & asks if one or the other row has the same number as or more than the other. This is something that preschoolers are adept at, but when one of the rows is spread out, they'll tend to say that the more spread-out row has more. This result exhibits what Piaget called centration, or a tendency to focus on only one characteristic (only one thing at a time). They miss the relationships between characteristics, so will draw illogical conclusions.

number conservation task

An _____________is knowing about objects (which includes people as objects) & their characteristics.

object concept

centration

or a tendency to focus on only one characteristic (only one thing at a time). They miss the relationships between characteristics, so will draw illogical conclusions

Slow mapping,

or learning all the details of what a word means requires much more exposure to it.

object permanence

or understanding that objects still exist even when they are not being experienced

Babies showing an _____________ to new stimuli. looking at it longer, sucking on the pacifier harder, blood pressure & heart rate decrease

orienting response

Grammar errors include ______________ ("I see good"), which occur because young children are still learning exceptions to the rules of grammar. It is applying the rules, but too much so. Still, by age 3, Eisenberg et al. (2012) found that ¾ of what was said was grammatically correct.

overregularization

the preferential response paradigm, where babies are presented with multiple stimuli & what they respond to most is noted. When it comes to vision, this is called the _________________, which has been used to examine visual acuity, or the amount of detail a baby can see.

preferential looking paradigm

the __________________, where babies are presented with multiple stimuli & what they respond to most is noted. When it comes to vision, this is called the preferential looking paradigm, which has been used to examine visual acuity, or the amount of detail a baby can see.

preferential response paradigm

Pellegrini (2009) has shown that the more children are involved in social _____________, the more quickly they advance in their theory of mind

pretend play

Research has shown that if mothers have frequent ____________ conversations with their children & talk about mental states, their children's skills in perspective-taking develop more quickly. The same has been found in advancement for children with siblings (especially older ones).

reciprocal

Gelman et al.'s (1978, 1982, 1998)

research on 2 & 3-year-olds demonstrated that they understand the one-to-one principle of counting but by age 3 to 5, it doesn't matter from what direction they count items (the "order-irrelevance principle"). She also demonstrated with the "magic numbers game" that children younger than Piaget would have expected can pay attention to more variables, but not necessarily reliably so.

Note that just as for vocabulary learning, bilingual children reach milestones about the ______________ time as children raised in one-language homes.

same

The passing on of formal knowledge was extremely important, because learning culturally-defined concepts (or what he called______________) gave the learner an internal organizing system for ideas. It also helped with using the ideas more effectively

scientific concepts

Recall memory

seems to develop later in infancy, as it requires the ability to remember an experience that occurred in the past (mental representation).

Around 8 months of age, babies will search for a hidden object, as sign of object permanence & recall. This is where _________________ comes in, with young babies following "out of sight, out of mind" when it comes to their parents not being there. But, around age 8 months, this changes

separation anxiety

Having learned the sound system of a language (phonology), its semantics (word meanings), next is using words in sentences to make sense. Making words into sentences that make sense is called ______________

syntax or grammar.

Mirror neurons

tend to be found in the motor cortex & are activated when one performs an action, as well as when one observes another performing it. Rizzolatti & Craignero (2004), who first did this research with monkeys, suggest that this "mirror system transforms visual information into knowledge". This has also been shown via brain imaging with humans.

Flavell, Flavell, & Green (1983) & Pillow (2008) have shown that children come to know a lot of things between ages 3 and 5:

that they can know something that others don't; that others can't see their thoughts; and that individual differences exist in mental states.

The most prominent features of autism have early developmental roots. Difficulties in social development relate to impairments in basic skills necessary for building a ______________: joint attention, imitation, and the turn-taking routines needed to cement solid interpersonal relationships

theory of mind

He tested Egocentrism with the "___________", where the child is seated at a table with a diorama of a mountain & are asked which picture shows what they see & which shows what someone seated at the other side of the table sees. Egocentrism (& centration) causes the preoperational child to assume that the other's perspective is the same as theirs.

three mountains task

At first, a baby at this age will look for parent(s), then fuss & cry, showing distress. This distress will increase in duration over time, suggesting recall of parents lasts longer. Kagan et al. (1978) have shown that this phenomenon seems to be a ______________ across cultures & is due to the developing cognitive abilities of recall memory as well as object permanence.

universal

What is known as the ______________seems to occur once children know about 50 words (with extremely rapid vocabulary growth between 18 and 24 months).

vocabulary spurt

theory of the mind

which is children's awareness of their and others' mental processes (which is also called metacognition... knowledge of how the mind works & the ability to control the mind, or thinking about thinking)