MAC 143 chapter 6

share

# of people watching / # of TV households with the TV on share is more accurate than ratings share is always higher than ratings for a show

Four big broadcast networks

ABC, NBC, CBS, FOX

10. Why did the anthology drama fade as a network programming staple? (4 reasons)

ANTHOLOGY DRAMA: a popular form of early TV programming that brought live dramatic theater to television; influenced by stage plays, anthologies offered new teleplays (scripts written for television), casts, directors, writers, and sets from week to week e.g. Alfred Hitchcock Presents, the Twilight Zone ended for both economic and political reasons 1st, advertisers disliked anthologies because they often presented stories containing complex human problems that were not easily solved. The commercials that interrupted the drama, however, told upbeat stories in which problems were easily solved by purchasing a product; by contrast, anthologies made the simplicity of the commercial pitch ring false a 2nd reason for the demise of anthology dramas was a change in audience. The people who could afford TV sets in the early 1950s could also afford tickets to a play. For these viewers, the anthology drama was a welcome addition given their cultural tastes. By 1956, however, 71% of all US households had TV sets, as working and middle class families were increasingly able to afford television and the prices of sets dropped. Anthology dramas were not a popular in this newly expanded market 3rd, anthology dramas were expensive to produce -- double the cost of most other TV genres in the 1950s. Each week meant a completely new storyline, as well as new writers, casts, and expensive sets. Sponsors and networks came to realize that it would be less expensive to use the same cast and set each week, and it would also be easier to build audience allegiance with an ongoing program 4th, anthologies that dealt seriously with the changing social landscape were sometimes labeled "politically controversial." Eventually both sponsors and networks came to prefer less controversial programming

15. Why are cable companies treated more like electronic publishers than common carriers?

ELECTRONIC PUBLISHERS: communication businesses, such as broadcasters or cable TV companies, that are entitled to choose what channels or content to carry COMMON CARRIERS: a communication or transportation business, such as a phone company or a taxi service, that is required by law to offer service on a first-come, first-served basis to whoever can pay the rate; such companies do not get involved in content Cable companies wanted the same "publishing" freedoms and legal protections that broadcast and print media enjoyed in selecting content cable companies wanted to choose what channels to carry FCC argued that cable systems were common carriers -- services that do not get involved in content in 1979, US Supreme Court upheld the rights of cable companies to determine channel content and defined the industry as a form of "electronic publishing" although the FCC could no longer mandate channels' content, the Court said that communities could "request" access channels as part of contract negotiations in the franchising process. Access channels are no longer a requirement, but most cable companies continue to offer them in some form to remain on good terms with their communities

important issues around expansion of cable TV

MUST CARRY RULES must carry certain programming, specifically local programming, good for local environment (local ads, promoting local competition) ACCESS CHANNELS cable companies not only have to carry certain programming, but have to pay for it local programming funded by cable company support content that comes from local community FRANCHISING PROCESS lots of communities just have one cable company COMMON CARRIER VS. ELECTRONIC PUBLISHER

18. What are the differences between off-network and first-run syndication?

OFF-NETWORK SYNDICATION: in television, the process whereby older programs that no longer run during prime time are made available for reruns to local stations, cable operators, online services, and foreign markets reruns FIRST-RUN SYNDICATION: in television, the process whereby new programs are specifically produced for sale in syndication markets rather than for network television

13. What rules and regulations did the government impose to restrict the networks' power?

PRIME TIME ACCESS RULE (PTAR): an FCC regulation that reduced networks' control of prime-time programming to encourage more local news and public-affairs programs, often between 6 and 7 PM FINANCIAL INTEREST AND SYNDICATION RULES (fin-syn): rules that prohibited the major networks from running their own syndication companies or from charging production companies additional fees after shows had completed their prime-time runs; most fin-syn rules were rescinded in the mid-1990s the Justice Department limited the networks' production of non-news shows, requiring them to seek most of their programming from independent production companies and film studios with the growth of cable and home video in the 1990s, the FCC gradually phased out the ban limiting network production because the TV market was more competitive many independent companies and TV critics complain that the corporations that now own the networks -- Disney, CBS, News Corp, and Comcast/GE -- exert too much power and control over broadcast television content

19. What are the ratings and shares in TV audience measurement?

RATING: in TV audience measurement, a statistical estimate expressed as a percentage of households tuned to a program in the local or national market being sampled SHARE: in TV audience measurement, a statistical estimate of the percentage of homes tuned to a certain program, compared with those simply using their sets at the time of sample television is an industry in which networks, producers, and distributors target, guarantee, and "sell" viewers in blocks to advertisers audience measurement tells advertisers not only how many people are watching but, more important, what kinds of people are watching

affiliate stations

a radio or TV station that, though independently owned, signs a contract to be part of a network and receives money to carry the network's programs; in exchange, the network reserves time slots, which it sells to national advertisers

What are the differences among sketch, situation, and domestic comedies on television?

SKETCH COMEDY short television comedy skits that are usually segments of TV variety shows; sometimes known as vaudeo, the marriage of vaudeville and video included singers, dancers, acrobats, animal acts, stand-up comics, and ventriloquists e.g. Saturday Night Live SITUATION COMEDY a type of comedy that series that features a recurring cast and set as well as several narrative scenes; each episode establishes a situation, complicates it, develops increasing confusion among its characters, and then resolves the complications sitcom e.g. New Girl, Seinfeld DOMESTIC COMEDY a TV hybrid of the sitcom in which characters and settings are usually more important than complicated situations; it generally features a domestic problem or work issue that characters have to solve e.g. The Office, Modern Family

16. How did the Telecommunications Act of 1996 change the economic shape and future of the television and cable industries?

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996: the sweeping update of telecommunications law that led to a wave of media consolidation got rid of regulatory barriers, allowing regional phone companies, long-distance carriers, and cable companies to enter one another's markets for the first time, owners could operate TV or radio stations in the same market where they owned a cable system Congress hoped that the new rules would spur competition and lower both phone and cable rates, but this has not usually happened. Instead, cable and phone companies have merged operations in many markets, keeping prices at a premium and competition to a minimum the 1996 act has had a mixed impact on cable customers. Cable companies argued that it would lead to more competition and innovations in programming, services, and technology. But, in fact, there is not extensive competition in cable cable companies offer what they call the "triple play" -- or bundling digital cable television, broadband Internet, and telephone service

O&Os

TV stations "owned and operated" by networks

Murrow "Wires and Lights in a Box," 1958

WHAT DOES MURROW THINK OF AUDIENCES? -becoming complacent, no control over what getting through media -"we must at all costs shield the sensitive citizens from anything that is unpleasant" [sarcasm] -"American public is more reasonable, restrained, and more mature than most of our industry's programmers believe" WHAT DOES MURROW THINK OF ADVERTISERS? -advertisers have too much power -clash between corporate and public interests -we need more meaningful content, educational -too much selling -"television should produce some itching pills rather than this endless outpouring of tranquilizers" -itching pills get you going, less of a passive audience WHAT DOES MURROW THINK OF NEWS ORGANIZATIONS? -more focused on what they can sell than what's really important -sheltering people from reality --> not in public interest -sponsor-controlled messaging frightened by imbalance, strive to reach largest audience possible WHAT DOES MURROW THINK OF BROADCASTING INDUSTRY? -new power, think about doing things differently WHAT DOES MURROW THINK OF TV AS A WHOLE? -more public interest, more educational -not being used in the way that it should LOOK NOW, PAY LATER -will pay for TV's low culture content culturally and intellectually

evergreens

in TV syndication, popular, lucrative, and enduring network reruns, such as the Andy Griffith Show or I Love Lucy shows that still continue to bring in money for a long time

pay-per-view (PPV)

a cable-television service that allows customers to select a particular movie for a fee, or to pay $25 to $40 for a special onetime event (such as a sporting event)

episodic series

a narrative form well suited to television because the main characters appear every week, sets and locales remain the same, and technical crews stay with the program; episodic series feature new adventures each week, but a handful of characters emerge with whom viewers can regularly identify episodic series come in two types: chapter shows and serial programs

serial programs

a radio or TV program, such as a soap opera, that features continuing story lines from day to day or week to week e.g. General Hospital

social learning theory (the basics)

a theory within media effects research that suggests a link between the mass media and behavior (e.g. violent media programs and aggressive behavior) Bandura developed social learning theory as a four-step process: ATTENTION (the subject must attend to the media and witness the aggressive behavior) RETENTION (the subject must retain the memory for later retrieval) MOTOR REPRODUCTION (the subject must be able to physically imitate the behavior) MOTIVATION (there must be a social reward or reinforcement to encourage modeling of the behavior) critics note that there is no link between media content and aggression. They argue that social learning theory simply makes television, film, and other media scapegoats for larger social problems relating to violence. Others suggest that experiencing media depictions of aggression can actually help viewers let off steam peacefully through a catharsis effect

20. What are the main reasons some municipalities are building their own cable systems?

after suffering through years of rising rates and limited expansion of services, some small US cities have decided to challenge the private monopolies of cable giants by building competing, publicly owned cable systems in most cases, they're operated by the community-owned, nonprofit electric utilities as nonprofit entities, the municipal operations are less expensive for cable subscribers

kinescope

an early film projection system that served as a kind of peep show in which viewers looked through a hole and saw images moving on a tiny plate

time shifting

the process whereby television viewers record shows and watch them later, when it is convenient for them

How has cable news changed TV?

cable news has significantly changed the TV news game by offering viewers info and stories in a 24/7 loop viewers no longer have to wait until 5:30 or 6:30 PM to watch the national network news stories instead, cable channels offer viewers news updates and breaking stories at any time, plus constant online news updates cable news also challenges the network program formulas. Daily opinion programs such as MSNBCs Rachel Maddow Show and Fox New's Sean Hannity Show often celebrate argument, opinion, and speculation over traditional reporting based on verified facts. These programs emerged primarily because of their low cost compared with that of traditional network news satirical "fake news" programs like The Daily Show and The Colbert Report present a challenge to traditional news outlets by discussing the news in larger contexts, something the traditional daily broadcasts may not do

video-on-demand (VOD)

cable television technology that enables viewers to instantly order programming such as movies to be digitally delivered to their sets this service enables customers to choose among hundreds of titles and watch their selection whenever they want in the same way as a video, pausing and fast-forwarding when desired along with services like Netflix, digital video recorders (DVRs), and video iPods, digital VOD services today are ending the era of the local video store

14. How did the cable pose a challenge to broadcasting, and how did the FCC respond to cable's early development?

by the early 1970s, cable's rapid growth, capacity for more channels, and better reception led the FCC to seriously examine industry issues. In 1972, the commission updated or enacted 2 regulations with long-term effects on cable's expansion: must-carry rules and access-channel updates MUST-CARRY RULES: rules established by the FCC requiring all cable operators to assign channels to and carry all local TV broadcasts on their systems, thereby ensuring that local network affiliates, independent stations (those not carrying network programs), and public television channels would benefit from a cable's clearer reception ACCESS CHANNELS: in cable television, a tier of nonbroadcast channels dedicated to local education, government, and the public LEASED CHANNELS: in cable television, channels that allow citizens to buy time for producing programs or presenting their own viewpoints

narrowcasting

any specialized electronic programming or media channel aimed at a target audience the providing of specialized programming for diverse and fragmented groups attracting both advertisers and audiences, cable programs provide access to certain target audiences that cannot be guaranteed in broadcasting. For example, a golf-equipment manufacturer can buy ads on the Golf Channel and reach only golf enthusiasts as cable channels have become more and more like specialized magazines or radio formats, they have siphoned off network viewers, and the networks' role as the chief programmer of our shared culture has eroded in addition, through its greater channel capacity, cable has provided more access. In many communities, various public, government, and educational channels have made it possible for anyone to air a point of view or produce a TV program. When it has lived up to its potential, cable has offered the public greater opportunities to participate more fully in the democratic promise of television

What were quiz shows popular and why did they fail?

compared with dramas and sitcoms, quiz shows were (and are) cheap to produce, with inexpensive sets and mostly nonactors as guests these programs also offered the sponsor the opportunity to have its name displayed on the set throughout the program the problem was that most of these shows were rigged. To heighten the drama and get rid of guests whom the sponsors or producers did not find appealing, key contestants were rehearsed and given the answers big-money prime-time quiz shows ended (quiz show scandals: Charles Van Doren on a quiz show, won a large sum of money, fame even landed him a job on NBC's Today Show, Van Doren later admitted to cheating)

3. How did the sponsorship of network programs change during the 1950s?

early TV programs were often developed, produced, and supported by a single sponsor many of the top-rated programs in the 1950s even included the sponsor's name in the title (e.g. Colgate Comedy Hour) having a single sponsor for a show meant that the advertiser could easily influence the program's content in the early 1950s, the broadcast networks became increasingly unhappy with the lack of creative control in this arrangement David Sarnoff, then head of RCA/NBC, and William Paley, head of CBS, saw an opportunity to diminish the sponsor's role Sarnoff appointed Weaver as the president of NBC previously an advertising executive, Weaver undermined his former profession by INCREASING PROGRAM LENGTH from 15 minutes (then the standard for radio programs) to 30 minutes or longer, substantially raising program costs for advertisers and discouraging some from sponsoring programs in addition, the introduction of two new types of programs -- the MAGAZINE FORMAT and the TV SPECTACULAR -- greatly helped the networks gain control over content the magazine program featured multiple segments -- news, talk, comedy, and music -- similar to the content variety found in a general interest or newsmagazine of the day such as Life or Time NBC introduced the Today show as a 3 hour morning talk-news program and then later introduced the 90 minute Tonight Show. Because both shows ran daily rather than weekly, studio production costs were prohibitive for a single sponsor. Consequently, NBC offered spot ads within the shows: advertisers paid the network for 30 to 60 second time slots. The network, not the sponsor, now produced and owned the programs or bought them from independent producers the television spectacular is today recognized as the television special. At NBC, Weaver bought the rights to special programs, like the Broadway production of Peter Pan, and sold spot ads to multiple sponsors class notes: extend shows, time slots for commercials instead of sponsoring whole show, lots of sponsors instead of one sponsor pressuring content

random sample

everyone has an equal chance of being chosen

1. What were the major technical standards established for television in the 1940s? What happened to analog television?

figuring out how to push TV as a business and elevate it to a mass medium meant creating a coherent set of technical standards for product manufacturers. The National Television System Committee (NTSC), a group representing major electronics firms, began outlining industrywide manufacturing practices and compromising on technical standards. As a result, in 1941 that Federal Communications Commission (FCC) adopted an analog standard (based on radio waves) for all US TV sets the US continued to use analog signals until 2009, when they were replaced by digital signals. These translate TV images and sounds into binary codes (ones and zeros like computers use) and allow for improved image quality and sound The best digital TV signals are HDTV, or high-definition television, which offer the highest revolution and sharpest image receiving a "hi-def" picture depends on 2 things: the programmer must use a high-definition signal, and consumers must have HDTV equipment to receive and view it not only ha the switch to digital signals increased channel capacity and improved reception for traditional home sets, but it has also opened up new avenues for receiving and viewing television on laptops, smartphones, and iPads

first-run

first time not seen in prime time

Nixon Kennedy Debate (1960)

going into election, Kennedy = senator, Nixon= vice president Kennedy better prepped for television (posture, wore black suit to stand out against black and white) Nixon (looked nervous, gray suit blended in) people who saw TV thought Kennedy won, people who heard it on the radio thought Nixon won Kennedy better adapted to televised debate

5. How did satellite distribution change the cable industry?

in 1960, AT&T launched Telstar, the first communication satellite capable of receiving, amplifying, and returning signals. Telstar was able to process and relay telephone and occasional television signals between the United States and Europe advances in satellite technology in the 1970s dramatically changes the fortunes of cable by creating a reliable system for the distribution of programming to cable companies across the nation the first cable network to use satellites for regular transmission of TV programming was Home Box Office (HBO), which began delivering programming such as uncut, commercial-free movies and exclusive live coverage of major boxing matches for a monthly fee in 1975 the second cable network began in 1976, when media owner Ted Turner distributed his small Atlanta broadcast TV station, WTBS, to cable systems across the country

basic cable

in cable programming, a tier of channels composed of local broadcast signals, nonbroadcast access access channels (for local government, education, and general public use), a few regional PBS stations, a variety of cable channels downlinked from communication satellites (e.g. Disney, CNN, Comedy Central, Weather Channel), superstations and others, depending on the cable system's capacity and regional interests

premium channels

in cable programming, a tier of channels that subscribers can order at an additional monthly fee over their basic cable service; these may include movie channels and interactive services lure customers with the promise of no advertising, recent and classic Hollywood movies, and original movies or series like HBO's True Blood or Boardwalk Empire and Showtime's Weeds or Dexter premium services also include pay-per-view (PPV) programs; video-on-demand (VOD); and interactive services that enable consumers to use their televisions to bank, shop, play games, and access the internet

cultivation effect (the basics)

in media research, the idea that heavy television viewing leads individuals to perceive reality in ways that are consistent with the portrayals they see on television this area of media effects research has pushed researchers past a focus on how the media affects individual behavior and toward a focus on larger ideas about the impact on perception the cultivation effect suggests that the more time individuals spend viewing television and absorbing its viewpoints, the more likely their views of reality will be "cultivated" by the images and portrayals they see on television according to the cultivation effect, media messages interact in complicated ways with personal, social, political, and cultural factors; they are one of a number of important factors in determining individual behavior and defining social values some critics have charged that cultivation research has provided limited evidence to support its findings in addition, some have argued that the cultivation effects recorded by Gerber's studies have been so minimal as to be benign and that, when compared side-by-side, the perceptions of heavy television viewers and nonviewers in terms of the "mean world" syndrome are virtually identical

chapter shows

in television production, any situation comedy or dramatic program whose narrative structure includes self-contained stories that feature a problem, a series of conflicts, and a resolution from week to week e.g. The Big Bang Theory, CSI

prime time

in television programming, the hours between 8 and 11 PM (or 7 and 10 PM in the Midwest), when networks have traditionally drawn their largest audiences and charged their highest advertising rates 8-11, the new shows, latest episode, most viewership for live viewing

analog

in television, standard broadcast signals made of radio waves (replaced by digital standards in 2009)

deficit financing

in television, the process whereby a TV production company leases its programs to a network for a license fee that is actually less than the cost of production; the company hopes to recoup this loss later in rerun syndication shows making content at a loss, fees

fringe time

in television, the time slot either immediately before the evening's prime-time schedule (called early fringe) or immediately following the local evening news or the network's late-night talk shows (called late fringe) before and after prime time, for first time shows and repeats

digital

in television, the type of signals that are transmitted as binary code

multiple-system operators (MSOs)

large corporations that own numerous cable television systems

superstations

local independent TV stations, such as WTBS in Atlanta or WGN in Chicago, that have uplinked their signals onto a communication satellite to make themselves available nationwide

representative sample

not purely random, sometimes divide by gender and then choose randomly (because with random sample could get all men)

rating

ratings matter to advertisers and media producers # of people watching / # of households there are Neilson does ratings ratings - live live + same day live + 7

syndication

re-runs, how the production company makes money back plus some, renting out to other stations

off-network syndication

run in local network, cable network before broadcast

sample

small part of everyone

multichannel video programming distributors (MVPDs)

the cable industry's name for its largest revenue generators, including cable companies and DBS providers

third screens

the computer-type screens on which consumers can view television, movies, music, newspapers, and books

21. Why has television's role as a national cultural center changed over the years? What are programmers doing to retain some of their influence?

the concept of a visual, affordable mass medium, giving citizens entertainment and information that they could all talk about the next day had great appeal however, since its creation, commercial television has tended to serve the interests of profit more often that those of democracy despite this, television remains the main storytelling medium of our time the development of cable, VCRs and DVD players, DVRS, the internet and smartphone services has fragmented television's audience by appealing to viewer's individual and special needs these changes and services, by providing more specialized and individual choices, also alter television's former role as a national unifying cultural force, potentially de-emphasizing the idea that we are all citizens who are part of a larger nation and world. Moreover, many cable channels survive mostly by recycling old television shows and movies. Although cable is creating more and more original quality programming, it hasn't fully become an alternative to broadcasting. In fact, given that television networks and many leading cable channels are now owned by the same media conglomerates, cable has evolved into something of an extension of the networks

retransmission fees

the fee that cable providers pay to broadcast networks for the right to carry their channels

How have computers and mobile devices challenged the TV and cable industries?

the multifunctionality of 3rd and 4th screen devices means that consumers may no longer need television sets -- just as landline telephones have fallen out of favor as more people rely solely on their mobile phones

network era

the period in television history, roughly from the mid-1950s to the late 1970s, that refers to the dominance of the Big Three networks -- ABC, CBS, and NBC -- over programming and prime-time viewing habits; the era began eroding with a decline in viewing and with the development of VCRs, cable, and new TV networks

Explain the impact of the quiz show scandals.

the sponsors' pressure on TV executives to rig the programs and the subsequent fraud put an end to any role that major sponsors had in creating TV content the fraud undermined Americans' expectation of the democratic promise of television -- to bring inexpensive information and entertainment into every household. Many people had trusted their own eyes -- what they saw on TV -- more than the words they heard on radio or read in print. But the scandals provided the first dramatic indication that TV images could be manipulated. the quiz-show scandals also magnified the division between "high" and "low" culture attitudes toward television. The fact that Charles Van Doren had come from a family of Ivy League Intellectuals and cheated for fame and money drove a wedge between intellectuals -- who were already skeptical of television -- and the popular new medium. This was best expressed by FCC commissioner Newton Minow, who labeled game shows, westerns, cartoons, and other popular genres as part of televisions "vast wasteland." Critics have used the wasteland metaphor ever since to admonish the TV industry for failing to live up to its potential after the scandal, quiz shows were kept out of network prime time for 40 years non-network, non-prime-time, independently produced programs like Jeopardy and Wheel of Fortune eventually made a comeback (renamed game shows) and later with quiz shows in prime time (ABC's Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) class notes: quiz shows rigged results: end to sponsor-created content, skeptism of television and its content, attitudes of TV as low culture (put TV in low-culture class, couldn't trust and rely on it)

population

universe, everyone in the sample

What has happened to the audience in the digital era of third screens?

we can now watch our favorite shows on DVRs after they first air, on laptops for free or for a nominal cost, or on smartphones not only is TV being reinvented, but its audiences -- although fragmented -- are also growing these new online viewing experiences are often labeled "third screens" usually meaning that computer-type screens are the third major way we view content (movie screens and traditional TV sets are the 1st and 2nd screens) we are still watching TV, but at different times, places, and on different types of screens the internet has transformed the way many of us, especially younger generations, watch movies, TV, and cable programming (YouTube, Hulu, etc.) viewers can stream full seasons of current or older programs, and some movies and documentaries on their computer, TV, or mobile device third screens operate as catch-up services, allowing viewers and fans to "catch up" on movies and programs that played earlier in theaters or on television consumers can stream programming to their television sets, and newer television sets that are internet ready allowing TV to become one of the latest converged devices