Making America Midterm

Arminianism

"Arminian" tendencies, meaning the thought that human efforts could lead to salvation. As opposed to the orthodox Calvinist dogma of divine omnipotence and human helplessness. This point holds that man is the final arbiter of his election, and that God elects him on the basis of foreseen faith which is exercised by libertarian free will, thus making man ultimately decisive.

Warren Planting and Replanting

"I like a Plantation in a pure Soil, that is, where People are not Displanted, to the end, to Plant in others." Displanting (that is, removing) people, he observed, could not be peaceful; doing so, obviously, "is rather an Extirpation, then a Plantation (Francis Bacon) --Even though the English hoped to do better than the Spanish, even though the initial colonial rhetoric of the English suggested that Indians held a special status, even though Indian salvation was, after all, one ostensible reason for colonization, there always remained a tension between words and deeds. -John Eliot established "praying towns" in Massachusetts where Indians who converted to Chrstianity could live. However, neighboring colonists often encroached on these towns which led to tensions. -Perhaps no word summarizes English colonization in North America better than "replacement," because it was the removal or subjugation, and then replacement, of some Native Americans with other bodies that eventually defined the English strategy. Without a general practice of removing Indians by killing them, exporting them as slaves, and pushing many of the rest west or north or south or simply away, African enslavement would have had no room to grow in any American colony -One solution, soon obvious to the colonists, to the problem of how to remove hostile Indians was the Atlantic slave trade: it offered the English a way to remove Indians from the region (for a profit) and then replace them with bodies who would work the land in a way meaningful to the colonizers. And in fact, enslaved Indians were overwhelmingly war captives, their enslavement a by-product of conflicts centrally about control of the land -Most sales of Indians to the West Indies occurred with the express approval of colonial legislatures: the merchants, supposedly more venal, were not merely acting alone. On August 16,1676, as King Philip's War was slowly winding down, an act in the town of Providence declared the undersigners to have a "Right with Some others to a percell of Indians" recently arrived, to sell them, and to return to the town any who did not sell -It seems clear that Williams believed that Native Americans ranked above Africans in an English racial hierarchy. The former could be reduced to the status of the latter only in situations like the Pequot War, in which they had been captured as combatants fighting for a side deemed beyond redemption in a war against God's chosen people -Throughout the century, hints of this sort of distinction between Indians and Africans appeared. In 1660, the Ipswich, Massachusetts, quarterly court explained, "The law is undeniable that the indian may have the same distribusion of Justice with our selves." In other words, the court held that Indians should be treated equally with English colonists by colonial laws, an idea that perhaps stemmed from an English perception that Indians were beginning to accept Christianity. -The origins of an African's enslavement remained invisible to most New England colonists, but the same could not be said for the origins of an Indian's, since most Indians enslaved in New England (though not all) were captured in a war. Indeed, at the point of sale into the Atlantic system, it was very likely that a merchant or a colonist could have said with certainty exactly where and how that Indian had been enslaved. The English colonists demonstrated in their documentation that they knew their names, and they knew their families. They sold people they knew into the West Indies, anyway. -The Atlantic slave trade was a process, consisting of a series of moments in which people of diverse nations and cultures (African elites, European merchants, Indian adversaries) all agreed, at various times in different places, to capture and commodify other people. If enough had said no, the system might have faltered. But people predictably, tragically, said yes,

Herdon Seafaring

- These records show that seafaring work presented particular problems for eighteenth-century towns and that town leaders responded with particular solutions that emphasized the dependence of seafaring families. Seamen, with their frequent and prolonged absences, necessitated the intervention of town leaders to see to both their public and their familial responsibilities - And because of what were often meager wages, seamen who came close to the edge of economic ruin found themselves and their families the object of discipline, control, and public charity monitored by town leaders - Seafaring thus presented a dilemma in gender roles for eighteenth-century New England communities and implicitly challenged the normative (white) pattern of male adulthood. While they shouldered the work of adult males, many seafarers—white men or men of color—never successfully shouldered the family and community responsibilities that New Englanders expected of adult males - While at sea, sailors lived in a community that allowed them to forget—for a time— the fact that they existed on the margins of society because of their poverty and (for many) their race. But their families, and the towns where they lived, never enjoyed a similar illusion. For the wives and children who lived with the uncertain economic benefits of the job, and for the towns who supported seafaring families when all other resources failed, the costs of seafaring were high. - When white seafaring men could not adequately govern or provide for their own households, they joined a dependent class already inhabited by men who had been relegated there by race. In eighteenth-century Rhode Island, most men of color in close contact with whites lived not as heads of households but in a dependent status as slaves, servants, or poor laborers constantly on the verge of needing town support. Seafaring gave many young men the illusion of independence and adulthood, but in fact the personal cost was high. Cut off from the towns that claimed them, seafarers could not enter the adult male world of their home communities. When they returned to land, many sailors followed a pattern of transience that emphasized their separation from the place they once called home. - Town leaders stood ready to maintain a seafaring family when other sources had failed. Families and friends usually formed the first line of defense for seamen and their families. Primus Thompson had maintained himself during the first weeks following his accident because a friend had given him money "charitably." Where seafaring families constituted the majority of a town's population, widespread mutual support was the norm

Lepore Go Along With Us

-After her capture, for the next three months, Rowlandson, the wife of a prominent Puritan minister, lived among the Indians; she ate Indian food, slept in Indian wigwams, learned Indian ways. And always, she prayed. In long treks through the bitter winter, on foot and on horseback, across rivers and through swamps, she accompanied a group of Nipmucks and their captives as they traveled westward and then, in early spring, turned eastward again. Finally, on May 2, Mary Rowlandson was "redeemed" when a twenty-pound ransom was paid for her release -Yet, within this Calvinist framework, Mary Rowlandson was not only redeemed from captivity, captivity also redeemed her. "Redemption had, and has, several shades of meaning. In one sense (emancipation through payment), the ransom redeemed Rowlandson from physical bondage; in another sense (delivery through spiritual salvation), her bondage itself redeemed her Bondage from sin by teaching her to stand still and accept God's will. Twenty pounds bought her freedom; captivity saved her soul. -In writing her narrative, Mary Rowlandson was attempting, at least in part, to "redeem" herself from both the horrors— and the complicity— of captivity. Perhaps she believed that, if only she could describe it fully, the "dolefull sight" that had "so daunted" her spirit would free her from the nightmares that continued to haunt her -In describing her captivity, Mary Rowlandson made clear that even while /she lived among the Indians she had always remained, at heart, thoroughly English. she recoiled from her heathen surroundings, stressing her revulsion at nearly all things Indian— Indian food ("filthy trash"), Indian houses, Indian dances— at the same time as she proclaimed her fondness (and her homesickness) for all things English -Printer was an Indian who was captured by the Nipmucks too. He was a praying Indian -Mary Rowlandson reconciled herself to her captivity by writing about it; James Printer (Indian scribe for Rowlandson who help negotiate her release) reconciled himself with the English by bringing in the scalps or heads of enemy Indians. Words and wounds are not equivalent, but they are sometimes analogous. James Printer picked up a hatchet and killed Indians, Mary Rowlandson picked up a pen and wrote about them. Both responses helped these former captives redeem themselves and return to English society.

Atlantic Begennings

-American treasure was key in fueling Spanish campaigns in Europe. Relative poverty made the Atlantic ventures attractive to other countries that wanted similar gains so they could compete with Spain for dominance in Europe. -Religious dissidents during the Reformation period were prepared to move across the ocean to escape persecution. -30 years war made previous refuges in Europe unsafe for dissidants such as the Puritans. Many made arrangements to emigrate to New England and Virginia. -Among Europeans, the Iberians took the lead in seaborne trade and exploration partyly because of their location but also due to their long experience of Muslim presence. North African scholars had preserved much of the ancient learning of the Greeks and Romans that had been lost in Western Europe. They were far advanced in mathematics and philosophy. All of the lands surrounding the ocean were changed by the beginning of regular transatlantic contact. Continents whose great centers were inland became reoriented toward the coast, and previously marginal peoples and lands were now in the forefront of development. England, for example, went from being, as the poet John Donne wrote, "the suburbs of the Old World," to a position of leadership in the new commerce -Portugal explored the African coast, engaging in and adding to the existing trade that Muslim traders had established. They later build bases and forts along the coast of Angola, invaded Morocco. -Great empires in the Western Hemisphere, in the Valle of Mexico, the Mississippi River and the Peruvian highlands had collapsed and declined in the centuries before 1492, perhaps due to adverse climate conditions, drought.

Phillip's Columbus's View of America

-Columbus thought he had reached parts of Asia previously unknown when he first arrived in the Americas. He also though he had approached the terrestrial paradise mentioned in the bible. His responses to the lands and peoples he encountered were conditioned by a variety of sources, not all of them easily comprehensible to a 20th century mind. -Columbus had to justify the support he received from merchant-banker in Seville and the monarchs of Spain by finding profitable opportunities across the ocean. At the time he knew of two economic modes for trading outside Europe, the Portuguese system of factories and trade outposts on the African coasts, and one based on mining and agriculture that the Europeans used in the Azores and the Madeiras. He originally planned to use the Portuguese method in Asia, but once he reached the Carribean he realized that this method was unprofitable with the small scale trade in the Carribean. -Columbus came to believe that settlement was the best hope for making profits in the Caribbean. -In Lisbon he acquired authentic reports, rumors and personal experience and physical evidence about sailing the Atlantic. He would rely on all of these as sources of knowledge. -Columbus offered wholly exaggerated accounts of the financial opportunities on the islands, continuing to model his descriptions on Marco Polo and the Bible. -after realizing that large-scale commerce didn't exist on the islands he found, he revised his plans toward European colonization and long-term settlement. He shifted from the African model to one based on European experiences in the Atlantic islands, where commercial plants and livestock were introduced and made Atlantic islands profitable. -he also had direct experience from travels in Africa. He would follow Portuguese precendents in approaching native rulers in the Caribbean as well. He seized Indian interpreters just as the Portuguese did in Africa.

Autobiography of Ben Franklin Consumption

-Franklin travels to London for numerous buisiness ventures, highlighting links across the Atlantic, growht of cross-atlantic buisiness ties -Franklin shows off fancy clothes when he returns home from philadelphia. Gives his old friends some coin. -he publishes a pamphlet in England from America -biography can be seen as an ode to commercial success, showing that sucess in buisiness was a status symbol -publishing works (inlcuding the biography in Britain). -Letter from Mr Vaughn saying that his biography was a good example of a rising poeple. to impress upon the British the virtues of the American society

Amerigo Vespucci

-I have found a continent more densely peopled and abounding in animals than Europe, Asia and Africa in South America. -he found a race gentle and amenable -they live without a king or master, marry as many wives as these please . No church, religion. -however, canabilism, much violence, cruely killing each other. Emphasis on violence is clear, contrasts with more idyllic -the people Vespucci emerge also eat salted human flesh of their enemies. -when they had the opportunity to copulate with Christians they defiled and prostituted themselves -they live 150 years, rarely fall ill and cure themselves with roots and hebs. -they are not hunters but are good at fishing -the land is fertile and pleasing -the natives suggested their was much gold inland. If the bible's terrestrial paradice exists, it is not far from these parts no doubt.

Chapter 7 A Due Form of Government

-In Massachusetts, Winthrop and the men of the general court had unlimited authority to exercise any kind of government they chose over the colony. Their philosophy of government clothed their civil rule in the guise of divine authority. They could have easily become an oligarchy, but they did not. --quickly the charter of the Mass Bay company, by Wintrhop's own volution was transformed "by a general vote of the people" include the common men of the colony into a constitution that transformed the council into a legislative assembly and expanded the term "freemen" to the people of the colony, not just the members of the Mass Bay company. The trading company was transformed into a commonwealth. -freemen met in a great general courts and vote on govenors, and assistants who make laws -the reason why they did this is likely because of their covenant they felt they had with god. After they agreed to be bound by God's laws, they needed a government to enforce those laws, created by joint compact, a second covenant. Winthrop felt that the special commission had to have a covenant between the settlers and the men who ruled them. -Winthrop also likely believed that people would submit to him more if they had a voice in choosing the leadership. In order to prevent "the wrong kind of people" from choosing poor leaders, Winthrop limited freemanship to church member, counting on ministers to give the people sound advice. -the ministers were not allowed to have a political leadership position, Winthrop didn't want a theocracy. -however, even in Winthrop's authority had to be renewed by the people every year, it was absolute otherwise, and gave wide purview to keep zealots and scamps under control. Could punish heresy without legal perveiw.

Working the Fields in a Developing Economy

-It was difficult to build farms on New England's first frontier that could guarantee their owners the level of prosperity an d civilization to which, in the Old World, they ha d been accustomed. " In a thinly settled country, where most family heads could acquire an independent freehold, the mean s to avoid working for others, help was simply too scarce and too expensive In Essex County during the first half-century, by comparison, we can be confident that the proportion of male farm servants to the farming population as a whole did not exceed 4 percent. -So irregular, indeed, was the employment of hired help in this land of economic independence that the occupational designation of "labourer " almost disappeared. Still, in the regular round of field chores an d property maintenance , it was the rare husbandman who placed much reliance on neighbors or strangers employed by the day. He was not encouraged, therefore, as in England to strike out on his own. In the new colony, where there was work to be do e and few alternative sources of labor, parents preferred that their sons spend their young adulthood, even beyond the age of marriage, developing the family estate Despite all their intentions to recreate the Old Country in which they ha d grown up , these emigrants ended up scuttling the freer portion of the labor system on which the English rural economy had relied. On this particular segment of the early American frontier, a n d at least among men , work relationships collapsed in upon the family. these New England households were singularly dedicated to the management of their own economies is not to argue for their economic autonomy. The web of local exchange was a part of life in New England from its foundation. Most of what rural householders exchanged, however— and this was true of the entire colonial period as even a cursory examination of contemporary account books will show—was not labor, but produce , and rented capital equipment New England farmers were reluctant to purchase imported servants, not from any preference for free labor, but because the marginal productivity of their lands was not high enough to justify the cost. They relied on their sons for the task of farm development, because offspring provided an inexpensive, efficient, an d available version of the bound labor that prevailed everywhere in early America where manpow r was scarce. Estate owners discovered that their lands were most profitably managed when they rented them out to single farming families. Often obliged by their agreements to make capital improvements, in addition to rental payments, these tenant families proved to be the most effective agents for the transfer of English agricultural custom to the larger landholdings of the northern colonie

Morgan the Jamestown Fiasco (Indian Relations)

-John Smith led the colonies relations with Powhatan, helped them trade for food. He thought that the Indians could be incorporated into the English settlement, but he was not magnatimous and thought kindness was wasted on savages. Instead he bullied and browbeat Powhatan out of hundreds of bushels of corn. He basically thought that the Indians could be valuable slaves for the English. He wanted to conquer them and use them as labor. -With Smith no longer in chage, there was no way that Indians would be incorporated into the settlement. Relations with the Indians deteriorated and hostilities erupted between the two sides. -English were intially dependent on the Indians for their food, having failed to grow things themselves. Nevertheless they were suicidially hostile to the Indians, even burning the corn of the Indians instead of taking it for themselves in war -the fact that the Indians were surviving in the wilderness, and the English (who thought themselves superior) were not, led to a challenge to the self-esteem of the English. To be condescended to by heathans was intolerable, and it drove the English to need to attack the Indians to prove their superiority by force. .

Puritan Dillema Chapter 4 The Way to a New England

-Massachusetts Bay company moved their place of meeting to the colony, instead of in Europe. This was important because the governor of the company could double as the governor of the colony without having to report back to Europe. General court of company could become the legislature of the colony on the ground. --this also effectively removed the colony from control by the crown. This enabled the colonists to focus on creating in new England the kind of society God demanded of all his servants but none had achieved, since there was little European oversight. --Winthrop felt that England could not be saved in a holy way in England, the only hope was to cross the ocean and establish a government of Christ in exile. -they felt that the pure church they were to establish in the New world would someday rescue its English parent from the mire of corruption. But they were worried that their leaving looked like desertion, or separatism. They often protested any claims of separatism. They published a statement avowing their great affection for the church of England to prove their loyalty.

Presbytrians vs Congregationalists

-One group, the Presbytrians, wanted the bishops to be replaced by another organization, with churches and clergy arranged in a pyramidal structure. The other group, the Congregationists, wanted to destroy the bishops and let each individual church be sufficient unto itself. The Presbyterians wanted to admit to the church everyone who didn't commit some terrible sin, but the Congregatinalists had a higher standard, wanting people to prove they were chosen for salvation by god beyond a reasonable doubt. -the majority of immigrants were probably Congregationalist. The problem was that the Congregationalists were always judging their neighbors holiness, the critrea for admission. As they gatherd in their pure churches, they placed the mark of holiness on their own head and the mark of damnation on their neighbors. This induced an intellectual arrongance which bred separatist thought. -independence of congregations also could lead to seperatism. No way for govt and church to police orthodoxy without church structure.

Powhatan's Address

-Powhatan is mystified by English hostility doesn't understand why the English don't respond with kindess to the generocity of the Indians. -Powhatan as a rational actor - When Powhatan saw the English continually raiding villages despite his overtures to John Smith, this accomplished statesman and stern ruler determined to starve the English into submission through intermittent war. His policy was partially successful. English weakness and the marriage of Pocahantas to settler John Rolfe in 161 4 brought an uneasy truce that lasted until Powhatan's death in 1618. -Powhatan tried to demonstrate his authority by arranging a mock execution of Smith. He had Pocahantas, his young daughter, halt the Proceedings by throwing herself upon the prisoner in a symbolic adoption gesture. Smith, perhaps understandably, misinterpreted the gesture as an expression of love for the English, thus supplying one of the earliest Anglo-American fables. "What will it avail you to take that which perforce, you may quietly have with love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provision and flee to the woods, whereby you must famish, by wronging us your friends? And why are you thus jealous of our love, seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you with what you cannot get but by our labors?"

John Smith "A True Relation"

-Smith was impressed with the majesty of Powhatan's garb and entourage "for a savage". Smith and Powhatan were on relatviely good terms. -Powhatan wanted the English to forsake Jamestown and live with them. He wanted hatchets and copper in return for corn and venison from the Indians. Smith agreed to the second demand. -New England was bounteous in timber -shades of American Dream "as far as your merit can take you." -people should come to America since they can live as well as their labor can provide. -freedom that doesn't exist in England, to pursue profit with your own labor

Morgan the Persistant Vision

-The Virginia company started to incentivize settlers by giving them individual plots of land in the colony. Recongition that men needed a greater stake in the colony to be most productive. -Sir Edwin Sandys was particularly active in incentivizing productivity and encouraging development in areas other than Tobacco. -Sandys also tried to get as many poor people from England to come to Virignia as sharecroppers. -a more democratic system of law was introduced to succeed the military governance that was implemented previously. The law was based on English common law and featured increased representation by the inahbitants. This was also to incentivize settleres to come and be productive. -Sandys also brought in Indian families to be incorporated within the colonies, putting them in schools where they would learn about civility and Christianity. -however the Indians were alarmed by the spread of the English, and launched a surprise attack, massacring 347 English. This finally allowed those English who had pressed for war with the Indians free rein, ending hopes for an integrated society. Many Indians were killed afterwords by the English. -In 1624, after revelations that many colonists had died, the king dissolved the Company and placed Virginia under his own control. Many say that Sandys is to blame for the high death rate by sending many ill-equiped settlers to a colony that was unable to receive them and support them. Lack of resources for all the new people coming in. -nevertheless, some Virginians were doing well, had resources during this starving time.

Toward Racism Chapter 16

-Virginia slaved were introduced into a system of production that was already in working order. However, slavery required new methods of disciplining the labor force, methods that were linked to racial contempt. -early on, slaves were perceived much as the servants were, as lazy, irresponsible, unfaithful and dishonest, getting drunk whenever possible. -stereotypes of the poor in England were often identical with the discriptons of Blacks expressed in colonies. The poor and the blacks were the vile and brutish part of mankind -the freedmen were initially not hostile to the slaves, they did not resent their substitution on the fields. Some even made love to each other. This fact led the elites to fear that the blacks and the freedmen might unite and overwhelm the elites. -to combat this problem, the unspoken solution was racism, to separate dangerous free whites from dangerous slaves by a screen of racial contempt. -at the time that Virginians were beginning to buy blacks in large numbers they were also buying Indian slaves. Indians were thus seen in large numbers in the colonies, and were seen as slaves. Under these circumstances it was easy for Virginians to extend to blacks some of the bad feelings they harbored toward Indians. Both groups were lumped together in a basket of racist hatred. -the assembly went through great pains to separate the white and the blacks. Interacial marriages were forbidden. --Later the assembly fatly forbade emancipation except by approval by the governor and council, and authorized the seizure and sale of any Black person whose owner attempted to free him.

Chapter 6 A Special Commision

-Winthrop felt that god had given them a special commsiion to produce a great and holy society. Thus every sin was righteously punished. Families became little cells of righteousness where the mother and father disciplined their children, servants and any boarders they took in. It was forbidden to live alone. It was requriedd to attend church. --the whole population was basically a police force against sin. --in a colony where everyone was burdened with principles, the danger of withdrawals was always constant. It was always possible that the colony might splinter into many holy utopias, each with their own special type of holiness. --English puritans wanted an end to bishops and archbishops, to the idolatrous rituals and trappings that exalted the clergy instead of god. However they disagreed on some things. -state was responsible in supressing heresy, seperatism from the Church of England.

Chapter 18 Toward the Republic

-common interests could become bonds of common identity while the tensions that had surfaced in Bacon's rebellion continued to agitate the colony. Once the small planter felt less exploited by taxation and began to prosper a little, he became less turbulent, less dangerous, more respectable. Then his elite neighbors became not extortionists but powerful protector of common interests. --by the second quarter of the 18th century, Virginians had established the conditions for the mixture of slavery and freedom that would prevail for another century: a slave labor force isolated from the rest of society by race and racism; a body of large planters firmly commited to the country and skilled in politics and a larger body of small planters who had been persuaded that their interests were well served by their big neighbors (now that they were no longer exploited). -because of slaves, the lower classes regarded themselves as free, less at the whim of the elites. Because of slavery, Aristocrats could more safely preach equality in a slave society than in a free one. Replaced by slave labor out of the political equation, all white men could see themselves as equal, not exploited -this fact made Virginians very ardent Republicans. Virginia achieved a society, where most of the poor were enslaved. -In Republican thought, poverty was a big threat, the or contributed nothing to the common welfare, and an ambitious adventurer could buy them with bread and lead them in revolt to establish tyranny. Many thought it was better to enslave the poor than be enslaved by them. -Thus Virginia replaced its poor labor force with slave labor, establishing a class of the poorest people, but one that could be controlled. --Racism absorbed in Virginia the fear and contempt that men in England felt for the inarticulate lower classes. Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty. There were now too few free poor on hand to matter.

Lepore Habitations of Cruelty

-conflict with the Indians led to death of colonists and damage to property. The separation of the one from the other was counted among the greatest devastations of the war -Colonial writers understood the destruction of houses as a blow not only to their property but also to the very Englishness of the landscape. -Nearly all of the damage to the English during King Philip's War— the burning of houses, the spilling of blood, the English becoming Indianized— was understood as attacks on bounded systems. While disorder threatened to rule New England, military strategists sought means to draw a line to keep Indians— and chaos— out. -But the concern with barriers was not limited to physical, geographical boundaries. It extended also to violations of English bodies, and, perhaps most terrifyingly of all, to Algonquian encroachments on English culture. Everywhere, there were barbarians at the gate. -If, at the level of political theory, identity would soon be defined as ownership of one's self, property had already become identity at the level of popular belief— what one owned defined who one was. As England moved away from a feudal land system and kinship-based social relations, this idea provided the basis of class relations in the emerging capitalist economy -As the colonists perceived it, their world had been made bare. Left naked, English bodies and English land were no longer recognizable— naked men, after all, were barbarians, and naked land a wilderness. It was, in fact, the "nakedness" of America and of its native peoples— signaling the land's vacancy and the Indians' savagery— that had made English colonization possible in the first place -If doors marked liminal spaces between inside and outside, order and chaos, and houses represented the English body, those same houses also represented the English family— a house destroyed was a family destroyed. To leave the house was to risk tearing the family apart, a husband running in one direction, his wife in another. And a family torn asunder was yet another sign of chaos.

Frethorne

-much sickness, scurvy in Virginia, bloody flux -never ate anything put peas and water gruel. -English took two Indians alive and made slaves of them. -they are outnumbered 32 against 3000 with regard to the Indians -he wants his parents to send food. Or better, to pay a sum of money to get him out of bondage (redeem me) -Indians took English tools and killed captain, putting his head on a pole. Now the Indians can use guns too.

Morgan Reasons for Jamestown early starvation

-one issue that led to the early struggles of Jamestown was the fact that the colony was made up in large part by Gentlemen who had little experience or skills in manual labor. The Company sent to the colony an oversupply of men who were not prepared to tackle the work of settling in the wilderness. Specialized craftsmen were also sent like jewelmakers and and glassmakers, people who were also useless. (they hoped for profitable industries) -the colonies laws also prescribed working hours that were insufficient to provide the labor to support the colony. Only 4 hours of work per day were required in some cases. -Eventually in 1617 the English started planting Tobacco, which greatly turned the fortunes of Jamestown around. -communal system of labor, where everyone worked collectiely for the good of the colony, and then the spoils would be split contributed to lack of productivity. People lacked motivation, without possiblity for individual gain. The larggard received as much as someone who worked hard. -switch to private enterprise led to increased productivty

Christopher Columbus Letter to Raphael Sanchez

-says he found many islands filled with people that he has taken possession of for Spain. -Harbors are fertile to an excessive degree -there are many kinds of mines of metals, fruits, plants -the natvies give up their possessions easily in return for worthless European goods -the natives believe that the Europeans came from the sky -there is also a group of people on one of the islands that are ferocious and are like cannibals -if he had more time and ships he would have explored more, but he has found much natural bounty -exaggerated financial opportunities on the island like a salesman -prasing god, relligious shit

Chapter 15 Towards Slavery

-slavery provided a means of compelling men to a maximum amount of labor without the great risk of rebellion that Virginians faced. It offered incomparable advantages in keeping labor docile. -The transformation of free men into slaves would have been tricky, so instead the Virginians didn't enslave anyone, they bought men who were already enslaved. -slavery took off early in Barbados, but not so much in Virginia. However, by 1660, slavery became an advantageous strategy for the Virginians. -Virginia developed her plantation system without slaves, and slavery introduced no novelties to methods of production. The whip was already used on servants, there were already separate quarters for sevants, labor was already supervised by an overseer, their masters already lived in fear of servants rebelling. -the substitution of slaves for servants ended the threat of freedmen rebelling, as the annual number of importer servants dropped, so did the number of freedmen. -since slaves didn't have an incentive to work like the servants did (they were freed after 7 years of good work) violence had to be used liberally as an incentive.

Key to the Indies Warren Rise of New England Commerce

-slowdown of immigration meant that New England's economy could no longer rely on continual injections of capital from new arrivals purchasing the necessities of beginning life in a new country. -however this slowdown was offset by a new source of commerce, trade with Barbados and other West Indies islands. New England provided agriculture and fishing goods to the West indies in retrn for sugar and Tobacco. -this also brought slavery to New England, and the commonwealth became a society with slaves, but not a slave society as in the south. Slavery was only marginal to commerce in 17th century New Engand. It was also fortunate that the place was rich in commodities that were dearly needed in the West Indies. And so it was that New England merchants and fishers and farmers provisioned the great sugar colonies and over the seventeenth century turned substantial profits in the process. -New England grew quickly, fueled by this commerce, industry and buildings were built. However, many in England were also alarmed that New England was growing more and more autonomous from England, more distinct. -New England became an enterprising free market culture outmaneuvering the mercantilist British. The New England merchants drew their power by bucking the state-imposed economic order and operating instead as the market rewarded. -The "key of the Indies" remains such a wonderfully apt metaphor. New England trade opened to commerce what had long been immured, while the commodities New England had to offer served to open the gates to West Indian commerce. This became a comprehensive economic system of products and surpluses and profits, and even in the seventeenth century interested observers saw that New England held the key to the entire enterprise. -New England commodities provided the energy that was consumed and then burned calorie by calorie in slave labor, converted ultimately into a commodity perfect for the world market.

Long-term English Relations with Indians

-tension between Indians as potential recipients of God's word to people to be enslaved, mindless savages -Indians as allies, John Smith, William Berkeley, Edwin Sandys, Praying Indians in Deer Island -Indians as savage enemies, Lepore, King Philip's War

Harlot

-the natives lack skill and judgement in the knowledge and use of our things. They esteem our rifles before things of greater value. -emphasis on how Indians saw European devices and thought they were god-like -the natives lack skill and judgement in the knowledge and use of our things. They esteem our rifles before things of greater value. -it is probable that they should desire our friendship and love -they believe there are many gods, concept of heavan, -I tried to spread the word of god and the bible -many Indians desired Christianity and revered the book.

The Losers Morgan Chapter 11

-the society that Virginians had established during the first 50 years of the colony's existence had been geared to function in the face of heavy mortality. New workers arrived annually to replace the dead ones. -however, the rising number of freedmen soon started to cut into their former master's profits, either because they were growing tobacco and depressing the price, or did nothing and were delinquents, corrupting the labor force and contributing nothing to the colony's profits. More and more freedmen started to live longer as living conditions improved, and increasing numbers of indentured servants became free as they survived. -to solve this issue, the men who ran Virginia began to alter their society in ways that curtailed and threatened the independence of the freeman and worsened the lot of the servant. Terms of servitude were revised to give masters a longer hold over their indentured labor, by extending the number of years required or by punishing runaways and those who broke laws with longer terms. -Virginians with capital to spare began buying up land, and soon most of the land in Virginia was owned by a small few individuals. Thus the servants who became free found it increasingly difficult to locate workable land that was not already claimed. They frequently rented from the rich landowners or moved to the frontiers where they came in conflict with Indians. -however, more important that they actual rent obtained by the landlords was the fact that the artificial scarcity of land kept freedmen available for hire. -by mid 1600s, Virginian society comprised the rich landowners, established house holders with one or more servants, freedmen who were entitled to set up households by were finding this hard to do, and indentured servants. -discontented freedmen and displaced Indians often lived in close proximity to each other, and both had an uncertain place in the way of life in Virginia. New freedmen couldn't afford land elsewhere so they moved to the frontier with the Indians. They believed that the Indians were inferior to them.

Morgan Boom

-there was a boom in Tobacco sale during the 1620s, lasted until 1630 when the price tumbled. During this period the colonists grew as much Tobacco as they could, the govt actually had to set a limit on individual growing, so that other important products could be grown. -Despite attempts to diversify, everyone wanted to grow Tobacco, no other commodities stood a chance it competition with the sure thing the colonists knew Tobacco to be. -Although the government required everyone to plant a certain amount of corn, men would risk prosecution and hunger to grow Tobacco. -plantation owners needed labor to grow Tobacco, thus they rushed to stake out claims to men, stole them, lured them and bought and sold them. The tobacco boom enabled oppression. -workers brought in under the Sandys program were divided into tenants, bond servants and duty boys. Tenants were under supervision of agents of the company that founded a planatation, but they were entitled to returns on half of what they earned. Bond Servants belonged completely to their master, and had to give up everything they earned in return for food, clothing and shelter. Duty boys were bound as servants for 7 years under any planters who would pay 10 pounds for them. After 7 years they became tenants. -while the Virginia company was failing in London, a number of its officers in the colony were growing rich. In order to do so, they not only rendered less than faithful service to their employers, but they also reduced other Virginians to a condition, while short of slavery, was some distance from freedom. -servants were abused, sometimes beaten -in boom-time Virginia we see the fleeting ugliness of private enterprise operating temprorarily wihout check, not only greed magnified by opportunity, producing fortunes for a few and misery for many. -in the treatment of labor in boomtime Virginia and the rising hatred of Indians, we can begin to discern some of the forces that would lead to slavery.

Chapter 10 17th Century Nihlism

-when she arrived in New England, Anne Hutchinson adopted John Cotton as her preacher. Cotton opposed "Arminian" tendencies, meaning the thought that human efforts could lead to salvation. As opposed to the orthodox Calvinist dogma of divine omnipotence and human helplessness. Cotton brought people back from these increasingly Arminian beliefs. --however, Hutchinson took Cotton's teachings in a dangerous direction. Her beliefs known as Antinominanism taught that since man was utterly helpless, when God acted to save him, he placed the holy ghost within him, and thereafter the man's life was directed by the holy ghost. Thus then, the man himself ceased to be. -Hutchinson's view that the person of the holy ghost dwells in a justified person was dangerously close to a belief in immediate personal revelation. It threatened the fundamental conviction of Puritan life, that God's will could be discovered only through the bible. -Many followed Hutchinson's views, and weekly meetings were held at her house. Soon she thought that a justified person, at the direction of the holy ghost within him could discern whether another person was justified. Thus Hutchinson and her follwers started to declare certain people justified or damned. -she later claimed that all the ministers in Massachusetts were damned and unfit to preach the gospel. -Hutchinson later endorsed her brother and law as the first teacher of her views in the Boston church. Winthrop opposed his election. However this angered many people in New England, who felt that this was not Winthrop's place to interfere in theology instead of governance. -eventually the colony was divided into two hostile camps in 1637, one centered in Boston that followed Hutchinson and the others spread out around it. Hutchinson's followers visted other churches and heckled the minister frequently. -Winthrop convened synods of minsters where they condemned Hutchinson's views, trying to discredit them and display the strength of orthodoxy against heresy. This didn't persuade Hutchinson, and thus Wheelwright her brother and law. -thus Wheelwright was banished by the general court since he didn't abandon his herecies. Next they tried to banish Hutchinson. After a long and bitter theological duel in the court, where Hutchinson demonstrated great wit and nearly escaped banishment, she was kicked out. This represented an unsavory triumph of arbitrary power, but it restored unity in the church

Chapter 11 The New England Way

-with the expulsion of Anne Hutchinson the freemen demonstrated that they were still commited to Winthrop's mission of a city on a hill. -however there was debate on how best to achieve this, and the deputies under Winthrop, as they gained more autonomy and power began to clash with him as Wintrhop tried to reduce their role. while weakening the deputies, Winthrop strenghtend the elected magistrates over the deputies. The government maintined wide discresionary powers. No laws could be passed without the majority of the magistrates. -however, the clergy wanted a more limited government, and clashed with Winthrop -later the Bodies of Liberty were drafted, a code and a bill of rights to protected the people from arbitrary government, set out laws and state principles. -body of liberties guaranteed right of freemen to elect all officeers of government annually, separtiation of church and state., crimes that deserved death. The Body of Liberties was one of the earliest protections of individual rights in America.[2] Unlike many of the English sources of the time, the Body of Liberties were express in many of their grants and far more supportive of individual rights.[2] Despite these grants, the rights were modifiable by the General Court. To varying degrees, the document contained rights that would later be included in the Bill of Rights. Many of the other rights are now considered fundamental components of procedural due process, such as rights to notice and hearing before the court. The rights also contained in the Bill of Rights included freedom of speech, a right against uncompensated takings, a right to bail, a right to jury trial, a right against cruel and unusual punishment, and a right against double jeopardy.[2

Antinominanism

Antinomianism literally means being "against or opposed to the law",[1] and was a term used by critics of those Massachusetts colonists who advocated the preaching of "free grace" as opposed to "legal" preaching. The term implied behavior that was not only immoral, but also heterodox, being beyond the limits of religious orthodoxy. Her beliefs known as Antinominanism taught that since man was utterly helpless, when God acted to save him, he placed the holy ghost within him, and thereafter the man's life was directed by the holy ghost. Thus then, the man himself ceased to be.

Olaudah Equiano

As his time with Pascal progresses, Equiano professes a growing attachment to his master and a desire to "imbibe" and "imitate" the English culture in which he is immersed (p. 133). He can "now speak English tolerably well" and "embrace[s] every occasion of improvement . . . [having] long wished to be able to read and write" (p. 132-133). During stopovers in England, Captain Pascal sends Equiano to wait upon two sisters known as the Miss Guerins. They become, in a sense, patrons to Equiano, not only treating him kindly but also supporting his education and his interest in Christianity by sending him to school. The Guerins are also instrumental in persuading Pascal to allow Equiano to be baptized into the church. Instead, he is purchased by Mr. Robert King, a "charitable and humane" Quaker merchant who employs him in a variety of positions, from loading boats to clerking and serving as a personal groom, in addition to occasionally hiring out Equiano"s services to other merchants (p. 192). One of King's boat captains, an Englishman named Thomas Farmer, relies heavily on Equiano and frequently hires him for voyages from the West Indies to North America. Equiano acquires a small amount of savings and is "determined to . . . obtain my freedom, and to return to Old England" (p. 268, p. 250). King encourages him in his entrepreneurial pursuits, proposing that when Equiano has saved enough money "to purchase my freedom . . . he would let me have it for forty pounds sterling money, which was only the same price he gave for me" (p. 260).

Atlantisism

Atlantic history involves decentering the narrative away from capital cities to the places on the margins where the trade and exchange actually took place Older approaches formulated history in terms of European empires and followed transatlantic links between centers in the Old World and colonies or stations in Africa and America. Each colony or station was an isolated island that communicated only with the parent country. These were stories in which conflict and rivalry between empires loomed largest -If, by contrast, we approach the several hundred years following Columbus's first voyage through an Atlantic lens, we see that the links and exchanges were as often between people of many different origins as they were within strictly imperial lines. One could go so far as to say that no colony or venture could have survived if its people had not exchanged and traded with all comers, whether they were from supposedly enemy empires or from indigenous people. Finally, looking Atlantically means recognizing the high degree of uncertainty and the ever-present specter of failure that everyone lived with in the early modern period. Carefully constructed relationships could crumble without warning because of changed policies or personnel in places thousands of miles away. Epidemic disease made all plans vulnerable, as did the presence of pirates. The whole construct ran on trust: every merchant who sent out a cargo and everyone who adventured her or his own person was forced to trust in the many people who would play a role in deciding where and how that person or cargo ended up.

Crisis Politics

Bacon's rebellion, Salem Witch Trials

William Berkeley

Berkeley's governorship of Virginia was almost continuous from this date until his death, except during much of the period of the English Commonwealth (1652-59). His first years as governor were very successful. Berkeley experimented with crop diversification, encouraged manufacturing, promoted expansion, and coped successfully with both Indian and Dutch hostilities. His loyalty to the crown during the English Civil Wars led him to declare Virginia an asylum for Charles II and his friends -Berkeley wanted to coexist with Indians, he invited friendly Indians to send their children to b brought up as English. Virginia's Indians as tributaries rather than to destryo them. He did however agree that hostile Indians could be enslaved. Berkeley's second period as governor after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 was marred by Indian attacks on the frontier, economic depression, crop failures, and high taxes. It was also marred by the ambitions of his cousin by marriage, Nathaniel Bacon. Berkeley wanted to foster trade with the Indians; Bacon was for their removal from the colony and in 1676 led an expedition against the Indians. Berkeley called it rebellion, and the forces of the two men clashed. Berkeley fought the rebels with great ferocity and bloodshed. (During the rebellion, Bacon died of natural causes.) Berkeley was recalled by Charles II to explain his behaviour but died before he had a chance to report to the king.

English Civil War and New England

Berkeley, and much of Virginia backed the monarchists. Despite the resistance of the Virginia Cavaliers, Virginian Puritan Richard Bennett was made Governor answering to Cromwell in 1652, followed by two more nominal "Commonwealth Governors". Nonetheless, the colony was rewarded for its loyalty to the Crown by Charles the II following the Restoration when he dubbed it the Old Dominion. -Berkeley was returned as govenor after the restoration in 1660 Colonial support for the Commonwealth presented problems upon the restoration to the throne of Charles II in 1660. Charles sought to extend royal influence over the colonies, which Massachusetts resisted more than the other colonies. For example, the colonial government repeatedly refused requests by Charles and his agents to allow the Church of England to become established, and it resisted adherence to the Navigation Acts, laws that constrained colonial trade.

Town Patriarchy

Colonial Patriarchy: "the assumption that it was natural for communities to be organized along the lines of families consisting of adult men and the people over whom they had power and for whom they had responsibility." The robe of patriarchy covered more than wives and children—it covered all inhabitants of a household, including slaves and servants. Unless poor transient seamen and their families moved frequently to avoid being forcibly removed by town council order, they usually found themselves back in their hometowns, whether or not they wanted to be there. Councilmen like those in Jamestown were anxious to situate needy transients within the borders of the responsible town before serious illness or other emergency froze them in their tracks as unwelcome dependents elsewhere - The actions town leaders took in dealing with unfortunate seamen and their families were often the same as those taken on behalf of servants. In the eyes of the town fathers, both groups needed direction, care, and control. Rhode Island law specifically empowered town councils to send poor and problematic young men to sea instead of binding them out as indentured servants within the town's borders.24 Councilmen did not hesitate to make use of this law New England town leaders acted within this communitarian understanding of patriarchy. Town councilmen, overseers of the poor, deputies, and other officials functioned as the heads of a public family, and all inhabitants within their town came under their power and had claim to their care. - Seafaring families were not the only transients. Numerous people who were not legally settled inhabitants dwelled within the borders of every Rhode Island town. Some of these people eventually purchased land and became permanent members of the community. Some were itinerant tradespeople and artisans whose vocations would eventually take them on to other towns. But some were poor people with no way of acquiring settlement—they lived by their labor in a precarious existence, perpetually on the edge of distress

Dominion of New England

Following the English Restoration in 1660, King Charles II sought to streamline the administration of these colonial territories. Charles and his government began a process that brought a number of the colonies under direct crown control. One reason for these actions was the cost of administration of individual colonies; another significant reason was the regulation of trade. The Dominion of New England in America (1686-1689) was an administrative union of English colonies covering New England and the Mid-Atlantic Colonies (save for the Colony of Pennsylvania). Its political structure represented centralized control more akin to the model used by the Spanish monarchy through the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The dominion was unacceptable to most colonists, because they deeply resented being stripped of their traditional rights. Governor Sir Edmund Andros tried to make legal and structural changes, but most of these were undone and the Dominion was overthrown as soon as word was received that King James had left the throne in England. One notable change was the introduction of the Church of England into Massachusetts, whose Puritan leaders had previously refused to allow it any sort of foothold. Leisler's Rebellion in New York City and other popular revolts in orhter states deposed the dominion's lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson. After these events, the colonies that had been assembled into the dominion reverted to their previous forms of government, although some governed formally without a charter. New charters were eventually issued by the new joint rulers King William III and Queen Mary II.

Virginia Slavery Legislation

Hugh David to be soundly whipped, before an assembly of Negroes and others for abusing himself to the dishonor of God and shame of Christians, by defiling his body in lying with a negro; which fault he is to acknowledge next Sabbath day. -1630-1691 Be it enacted That in case any English servant shall run away in company with any negroes who are incapable of making satisfaction by addition of time, Be it enacted that the English so running away in company with them shall serve for the time of the said negroes absence as they are to do for their own by a former act -Robert Sweet to do penance in church according to laws of England, for getting a negro woman with child and the woman whipt. -It is hereby enacted by the authority aforesaid, that from and after the publication of this law, it shall not be lawful for any negro or other slave to carry or arm himself with any club, staff, gun, sword, or any other weapon of defence or offence, nor to go to depart from his master's ground without a certificate from his master, mistress or overseer

Anne Hutchinson Trial

Hutchinson was brought to trial on 7 November 1637, with Wheelwright banished and other court business taken care of. The trial was presided over by Governor John Winthrop, on the charge of "traducing [slandering] the ministers". Other charges against her were laid out by Winthrop, including being one who "troubled the peace of the commonwealth and churches", promoting and divulging opinions that had caused recent troubles, and continuing to hold meetings at her home despite a recent synod that had condemned them They found it difficult to charge her because she had never spoken her opinions in public, unlike Wheelwright and the other men who had been tried, nor had she ever signed any statements about them. Winthrop's first two lines of prosecution were to portray her as a co-conspirator of others who had openly caused trouble in the colony, and then to fault her for holding conventicles. Question by question, Hutchinson effectively stonewalled him in her responses The remainder of the trial was spent on this last charge. The prosecution intended to demonstrate that Hutchinson had made disparaging remarks about the colony's ministers, and to use the October meeting as their evidence.[58] Six ministers had presented to the court their written versions of the October conference, and Hutchinson agreed with the substance of their statements. Her defence was that she had spoken reluctantly and in private, that she "must either speak false or true in my answers" in the ministerial context of the meeting. During the morning of the second day of the trial, it appeared that Hutchinson had been given some legal counsel the previous evening, and she had more to say. She continued to criticise the ministers of violating their mandate of confidentiality. She said that they had deceived the court by not telling about her reluctance to share her thoughts with them. She insisted that the ministers testify under oath, which they were very hesitant to do. "You have no power over my body, neither can you do me any harm—for I am in the hands of the eternal Jehovah, my Saviour, I am at his appointment, the bounds of my habitation are cast in heaven, no further do I esteem of any mortal man than creatures in his hand, I fear none but the great Jehovah, which hath foretold me of these things, and I do verily believe that he will deliver me out of our hands. Therefore take heed how you proceed against me—for I know that, for this you go about to do to me, God will ruin you and your posterity and this whole state" -this last quote proved her to be armenian and in contempt of court, seditious and she was banished. Immediate Revelation. She said that god spoke to her and revealed the truth to her.

Chapter 13 Bacon's Rebellion

In 1673, Nathaniel Bacon, a distant relative of Governor Berkeley, emigrated from England under murky circumstances and set up a small plantation on the James River. He rose rapidly in public esteem and was appointed to the governor's council. The Indian issue soon polarized the two men. A further problem was Berkeley's attempt to find a compromise. Berkeley's policy was to preserve the friendship and loyalty of the subject Indians while assuring the settlers that they were not hostil After failing to extract a promise of action against the tribes, Bacon recruited a small armed force and in 1676 conducted two forays against the enemy. Berkeley was incensed, but Bacon became a popular hero and was elected to the House of Burgesses. When Bacon tried to take his seat in the assembly, he was arrested by the governor's agents. -a set of measures were enacted to pacify the discontented Virginians. The right to vote was restored to freemen with no land, representatives were chosen in each county when the county levies were being laid. Vestries of parish churches were to be elected rather than chosen. Councillors were no longer to be exempt from levies. Overall though, these laws did nothing to reverse the trend toward a more severe exploitation of servants Soon released, Bacon raised a small army again and marched on Jamestown.After passage of these laws, Bacon arrived with 500 followers in Jamestown to demand a commission to lead militia against the Native Americans. The governor, however, refused to yield to the pressure. When Bacon had his men take aim at Berkeley, he responded by "baring his breast" to Bacon and told Bacon to shoot him. Seeing that the Governor would not be moved, Bacon then had his men take aim at the assembled burgesses, who quickly granted Bacon his commission. -However, the governor later made the commission void, saying it was obtained by force. Finally, Bacon decided to take on Berkeley, declaring himself at odds with Berekely in a denunciation. He stated his intension to kill all the Indians and to resdistribute some of the ill-gotten gains of the rich upper classes. Berkeley quickly returned with soldiers of his own and branded Bacon a rebel. The rebel forces initially prevailed, but they doubted their ability to hold out in Jamestown for an extended period and opted to torch the village instead. Before an English naval squadron could arrive to aid Berkeley and his forces, Bacon died from dysentery on October 26, 1676. John Ingram took over leadership of the rebellion, but many followers drifted away. The rebellion did not last long after that.

King Philip's War

King Philip's War, sometimes called the First Indian War, Metacom's War, Metacomet's War, or Metacom's Rebellion,[2] was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day New England and English colonists and their Native American allies in 1675-78 Metacom (c. 1638-1676) was the second son of Wampanoag chief Massasoit, who had coexisted peacefully with the Pilgrims. Metacom succeeded his father in 1662 and reacted against the European settlers' continued encroaching onto Wampanoag lands. At Taunton in 1671, he was humiliated when colonists forced him to sign a new peace agreement that included the surrender of Indian guns. When officials in Plymouth Colony hanged three Wampanoags in 1675 for the murder of a Christianized Indian, Metacom's alliance launched a united assault on colonial towns throughout the region. Metacom's forces enjoyed initial victories in the first year, but then the Native American alliance began to unravel. By the end of the conflict, the Wampanoags and their Narragansett allies were almost completely destroyed

Zuckerman Social Context of Democracy

Nonetheless, order was obtained in the eighteenth-century town, and it was obtained by concord far more than by compulsion. Consensus governed the communities of provincial Massachusetts, and harmony and homogeneity were the regular-and required-realities of local life. Effective action necessitated a public opinion approaching if not attaining unanimity, and public policy was accordingly bent toward securing such unanimity. - a minority was not allowed To oversimplify perhaps, the town meeting solved the problem of enforcement by evading it, The meeting gave institutional expression to the imperatives of peace. In the meetings consensus was reached, and individual consent and group opinion were placed in the service of social conformity. There the men of the province established their agreements on policies and places, and there they legitimized those agreements so that subsequent deviation from those accords became socially illegitimate and personally immoral as well, Of course, absolute inclusiveness never prevailed in provincial Massachusetts-women could not vote at all, and neither could anyone under 21-and property and residence qualifications, introduced in 1692, were probably adhered to as often as they were ignored, so that even the participation of adult males was something less than universal. This logic of competence governed the exclusion of women and children and also accounted for the antipathy to voting by tenants. The basis of the prohibitions which were insisted upon was never so much an objection to poverty per se-the stake-in-society argumentas to the tenant's concomitant status of dependence, the pervasive assumption of which emerged clearly in a contested election in Haverhill in 1748. Had to be independent to vote, if you were a white property owning man you were independent. Of course, the townsmen of the eighteenth century placed no premium on independence as such. Massachusetts townsmen were expected to be independent but not too independent; ultimately, they were supposed on their own to arrive at the same actions and commitments as their neighbors. Any genuine independence, excessive or insufficient, was denigrated if not altogether denied a place in the community For one thing, the ideal of "townsmen together" 20 implied the power of each town to control its own affairs, and that control not only extended to but also depended upon communal control of its membership. From the founding of the first towns communities retained the right to accept only those whom they wished, and that right persisted without challenge to the time of the Revolution. "Such whose dispositions do not suit us, whose society will be hurtful to us," were simply refused admission as enemies of harmony and homogeneity -people could also be kicked out Yet democracy devoid of legitimate difference, dissent, and conflict is something less than democracy; and men who are finally to vote only as their neighbors vote have something less than the full range of democratic optionsThus we can maintain the appearance of democracy only so long as we dwell on elections and elections alone, instead of the entire electoral process. As soon as we depart from that focus, the town meetings of Massachusetts fall short of any decent democratic standard

Deer Island Indians

Over the years, Deer Island has had several different uses. During King Philip's War (also known as Metacomet's War) in the 1670s, it was used as a place of internment. Christian "Praying Indians" were moved from Marlborough and Natick in spite of the efforts of John Eliot,[8] the minister of Roxbury, to prevent it. Most went to Deer Island During the winter of 1675-76 between 500 and 1,100 American Indians were held on the island and, without adequate food or shelter and because of exposure to harsh winter weather, many died. -Finally, on February 29,1676, the Massachusetts Council, "having seriously considered the state of the Indians now Confyned to deare Island," issued a four-part order. This stipulated, first, that "a guard of six or eight English men be posted to ensure that no Indians escaped the island; second, that these guards put all the Indians to work, "some to spining, others to breaking up land to plant on, others to gett fish & clams"; third, that the colonists who owned Deer Island and other islands used to confine the Indians be compensated for the use of their land; and fourth, that Captain Daniel Henchman, the officer in charge of the island, ensure that the Indians "live soberly and religiously." -The condition of the Indians living on the islands, however, continued to deteriorate. In March Henchman reported to the Council that "the said Indians are in great distress for want of food -the Indians were later released from the island, but many died of starvation during the winter before

Pochahontas

Pocahontas (born Matoaka, known as Amonute, c. 1596-1617) was a Native American[2][3][4] notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief[2] of a network of tributary tribal nations in the Tsenacommacah She may have saved the life of John Smith, getting the Indians to spare him, but the validity of this is unclear. Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca. When the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe In 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the "civilized savage" in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, and attended a masque at Whitehall Palace.

Colonies of Settlement vs Colonies of Extraction

Settler colonialism is a form of colonial formation whereby foreign people move into a region. An imperial power oversees the immigration of these settlers who consent, often only temporarily, to government by that authority. This colonization sometimes leads, by a variety of means, to depopulation of the previous inhabitants, and the settlers take over the land left vacant by the previous residents. Unlike other forms of colonialism, the "colonizing authority" (the imperial power) is not always the same nationality as the "colonizing workforce" (the settlers) in cases of settler colonialism. The settlers are, however, generally viewed by the colonizing authority as racially superior to the previous inhabitants, giving their social movements and political demands greater legitimacy than those of colonized peoples in the eyes of the home government. Exploitation colonialism is the national economic policy of conquering a country to exploit its natural resources and its native population. The practice of exploitation colonialism contrasts with settler colonialism, the policy of conquering a country to establish a branch of the metropole (Motherland), and for the exploitation of its natural resources and native population

Navigation Acts of 1660

The Navigation Acts were a series of English laws that restricted the use of foreign ships for trade between every country except England They were first enacted in 1651 and were repealed nearly 200 years later in 1849. They reflected the policy of mercantilism, which sought to keep all the benefits of trade inside the Empire, and to minimise the loss of gold and silver to foreigners. They prohibited the colonies from trading directly with the Netherlands, Spain, France, and their colonies. The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the American Revolution. The Navigation Acts required all of a colony's imports to be either bought from England or resold by English merchants in England, no matter what price could be obtained elsewhere.

Pequot War

The Pequot War was an armed conflict between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the English colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their Native American allies (the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes) which occurred between 1634 and 1638. The Pequots lost the war. At the end, about seven hundred Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.[1] Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies.[2] Other survivors were dispersed. The result was the elimination of the Pequot as a viable polity in what is present-day Southern New England

Causes of the Salem Witch Trial

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. The trials resulted in the executions of twenty people, The episode is one of the Colonial America's most notorious cases of mass hysteria. It has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process The economic hardships and slowdown of population growth could have caused widespread scapegoating which, during this period, manifested itself as persecution of so-called witches, due to the widely accepted belief that "witches existed, were capable of causing physical harm to others and could control natural forces." s, the mass hysteria in Salem also developed from the turmoil of the wars with the Indians and the French, The average townsperson believed in the existence of witches, so the idea of witchcraft was nothing new to them. People thought that God intervened in their everyday lives, and they believed that everything was a message from God. Since life had become very tough in the relatively new colony with an Indian war raging less than seventy miles away, people believed the devil was close at hand. The proximity of Salem to the frontier involved their inhabitants in both Indian wars. Many refugees from the fighting relocated in Salem. Militiamen from the area often fought in these wars. The local military and political officials transferred messages from the front lines to Boston. All of these made Salem very much affected by the fighting. And as it turns out, many people involved in the witchcraft crisis had intimate involvement with the Indian Wars Mixon portrays the witchcraft trials as an example of scapegoating provoked by deteriorating economic conditions brought on by a harsh winter and a food shortage. With these various conditions lowering the quality of life for Salem villagers, the people became angry and upset. Naturally, they looked for a way to release their anger, and maybe even release some of their jealousies or personal resentments. They began to blame others and to scapegoat, leading to one of the most tragic events in colonial American history.

Key to the Indies Slavery

The historian Ira Berlin has argued that a crucial marker for understanding the first two hundred years of European settlement in North America is the distinction between a "society with slaves" and a "slave society." In the former, slavery was not necessarily kinder or gentler, but it was "marginal to the central productive processes," making the institution just "one form of labor among many." In "slave societies," by contrast, "slavery stood at the center of economic production, and the master-slave relationship provided the model for all social relations." -however in reality, slavery was indirectly integral to the economic fortunes of New England through the Barbados Trade -More noticeable still, to be enslaved in the West Indies was often to have been given a death sentence. The astonishing profits to be made from sugar were perhaps matched only by the mortality rates of the people who grew the crop. Henry Winthrop was hardly the only member of the Winthrop family to show enthusiasm for slavery. The Winthrops' early and eager participation in the West Indian market soon led to slave owning and trading. West Indies planters even reached out to the Winthrops to replenish their pool of slave labor with captured Indians -Family ties inevitably became slave-owning bonds, since so much of these merchants' energy was spent in the West Indies. Records, though sporadic and scattered, do hint at a progression: that the first merchant families helped introduce slavery to New England through their close ties to slave societies, and that this introduction then facilitated the slow spread of slavery throughout the region and down through the social ranks given that large-scale plantation slavery never developed in New England, chattel slavery in New England might be seen as a vanity project of the very wealthy. But it is perhaps a universal truth that the many strive for what the wealthy few already possess. Accordingly, the extension of slaveholding to less prominent families proceeded apace.

Lepore What''s In a Name

To say that war cultivates language is not to ignore what else war does: war kills. Indeed, it is the central claim of this book that wounds and words— the injuries and their interpretation— cannot be separated, that acts of war generate acts of narration, and that both types of acts are often joined in a common purpose: defining the geographical, political, cultural, and sometimes racial and national boundaries between peoples. If you kill me and call my resistance "treachery," you have succeeded not only in killing me (and in so doing, ensuring that I will not be able to call your attack a "massacre"), but you have also succeeded in calling me and my kind a treacherous people. In attacking me, you have kept me out of your territory; in calling my resistance "treachery," you make clear that I was not worthy to be your neighbor. "Language is, after all, one of the crucial ways of distinguishing between men and beasts," and, as I argue, the language of cruelty and savagery was the vocabulary Puritans adapted to this end.22 English colonists in New England defined themselves against both the Indians' savagery and the Spaniards' cruelty: between these two similar yet distinct "others," one considered inhuman and one human Like all literate Europeans in the New World, Hubbard and Mather had a veritable monopoly on making meaning, or at least on translating and recording the meaning of what they saw and did, and even of what they supposed the Indians to have seen, done, and said. And herein lies the circularity of the "literall advantage : speaking Apes" cannot respond in writing to the writers who label them inhuman. the question this study asks is slightly different: I f war is, at least in part, a contest for meaning, can it ever be a fair fight when only one side has access to those perfect instruments of empire, pens, paper, and printing presses?

Morgan Chapter 12 Discontent

Virginians were selected partially for the purpose of being exploited by rich masters. The wretches who were rescued from idleness and unemployment in England were sufficiently able-bodied to work in the fields. Thus the population was young and predominantly male. -these young men were rebellious and resentful toward their masters, and often tried to help servants run away, stole hogs from rich people and ate them. When free they settled far into Indian territories where they might drag the whole colony into war. And at the polls they voted against the interests of their masters in the House of Burgesses. -however, because they didn't vote in the interests of the rich, a law was passed allowing only the landowners and housekeepers to choose burgesses. -guns were plentiful in Virginia, and these rebellious young men were usually armed, making them even more dangerous. These men were also needed to defend the colony against the French and Dutch during colonial wars, and the planters that led these freedmen were worried that they might get shot in the back. -at this point the pressure on the tobacco growers (or basically everyone in the colony) reached a breaking point. In 1661 York county weathered a servant rebellion. In 1663 a group of nine servants planned to steal their masters arms and demand their freedom. Two mutinies were stifled by governor Berkeley in 1674.

Aztec Spears

the Aztec ruler Moctechuzoma first went out to Cortez and his man and offered gifts and flowers, necklaces -the Aztecs thought that the Spainards were divine, as demonstrated when Motecuhzoma sacrificed captives in honor of the messengers that spoke to the Spainiards because "they had completed a difficult mission and had seen the gods." -the Aztecs were terffied of the Spaniards' cannon, their eating habits and their habit of covering their bodies -after a fiesta they killed Mexicans who were celebrating with them, trapping them and then massacring them. -after this the Spanish waged war against the Mexicans, attacking by land, followed by sea via warships. The Mexicans tried to resist, but the chiefs did not lead them. The fighers muntied againt the chiefs and killed them, the second time in history that the Aztecs had killed their own leaders. -the Aztecs were routed, outgunned and unable to resist. -Portrayal of Montezuma as terrified of the Spanish, weak. His followers lost respect for him. -focus of the Spanish on gold, showing their greed in the treasure room