Master Psychology Set (GRE+MCAT)
Mnemonic: Sympathetic
"fight or flight" (OMG he's looking at me)
pragmatics (language)
"practical" rules of using language the meaning of words and grammar used semantically, except within context (inferred meanings); taking turns speaking -->idioms "he could eat a horse"=hungry
Mnemonic:Parasympathetic
"rest and digest"(IDC...)
cortisol
"stress hormone"; regulated/modulates changes that occur in body in response to stress (blood sugar levels; metabolism; immune response; etc.) higher and prolonged levels (e.g. w/ chronic stress)=negative effects
Visual cortex
(AKA striate cortex) (occipital lobe) has to do with sensation or perception of visual information
Cerebral Cortex
(Forebrain) Complex perceptual , cognitive, and behavioral processes
Reticular formation
(Hindbrain) Arousal and alertness
Medulla oblongata
(Hindbrain) Vital functioning such as breathing, digestion
Cerebellum
(Hindbrain)Refined motor movements
Inferior and superior colliculi
(Midbrain) Sensorimotor reflexes
Parasympathetic Nervous System
(NS )the branch of the ANS to conserve energy; Resting and sleeping states, reducing heart rate and constricting bronchi; Managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions
Sympathetic Nervous System
(NS) activated by stress; School stress, life and death decisions, rage/fear reactions; Increases heart rate; Redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion; Increases blood glucose concentration; Relaxes the bronchi; Decreases digestion and peristalsis; Dilates eyes to maximize light intake; Releases Epinephrine into the bloodstream
Big 5 traits of personality
(OCEAN) Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion- tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Agreeableness Neuroticism - measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
Basal ganglia
(forebrain) Movement
Rooting reflex
(in babies) the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
Osmoreceptors
(in hypothalamus) may trigger the release of antidiuretic hormone to increase water reabsorption as a part of fluid balance
Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)
(person) inferred existence of synapses. He thought the synaptic transmission was an electrical process FALSE. It's actually chemical!
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
(person) measured speed of a nerve impulse
Franz Gall (1758-1828)
(person) phrenology: if a particular trait was well-developed, the part of the brain responsible for it would expand. This expansion would cause a bulge in the skull, so one should be able to measure psychological attributes by measuring the skull. ( FALSE)
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
(person) the brain had specific parts for specific functions and that the removal of one part weakens the whole brain.
PET
(positron emission topography) scans glucose metabolism of radioactive tracer to measure activity in various brain regions
Primary motor cortex
(prefrontal lobe) initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles; projection area of the brain
Prefrontal cortex
(prefrontal lobe) manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions; supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion impulse control and long-term planning; a lesion here may cause a person to be more impulsive, less in control of behavior, or depressed.
Broca's Area
(prefrontal lobe) very important for speech production; usually found in the dominant hemisphere (left for most people)
Cognitive theory criticisms
(similar to behavioralist)-addresses how person thinks, rather than why original problem developed-->removing symptoms might not cure the problem
Wernicke's area
(temporal lobe) associated with language reception and comprehension
Auditory cortex
(temporal lobe) the primary site of the most sound processing including speech, music, and other sound information
Pearson r correlation coefficient
-1 to 1; graph's correlation coefficient -between people and between other tests Low=bad, high=good reliability (x-axis=first test scored, y-axis=second test scored, should be r=1 if scored same)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
-550 true/false/not sure questions -high validity because constructed with highly discriminatory items -3 validity scales (questions assessing lying, carelessness, faking) -more related to DSM-V than CPI -compares responses to responses of those with known mental disorders (multiple mental personality inventory-->disorders)
APA publications
-American Psychologist (official journal) -Psychological Bulletin (papers) -Psychological Abstracts (index, summary of every literature in psych) -PsychINFO (database/online format of Psychological Abstracts)
parenting styles
-Authoritarian-strict; children withdrawn/unhappy -permissive-allowed whatever; children happy but no self-control or self-reliance -authoritative-firm/fair; children self-reliant, self confident, happy
Why Multi-axial system eliminated in DSM-V?
"Removes artificial distinctions" between medical and mental disorders
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibition (SSRIs)
Antidepressant-acts only on serotonin; most frequently prescribed; few side effects
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Antidepressant-dangerous/one of last resorts; inhibits monoamine enzymes irreversibly (cell must make new enzymes) -->enzymes that oxidize/remove neurotransmitters
(DSM-V) Chapter- Neurodevelopmental disorders
Appearance during childhood Intellectual disability-statistically low IQ; difficulties in life skills
role playing (behavioral counterconditioning)
-allows client to practice new behaviors/responses
Attracted to people who:
-are near us (we get to know them) -are physically attractive -have attitudes similar to our own -like us back (reciprocity)
navigation techniques
-atmospheric pressure (birds) -infrasound-low freq sound of coast (birds) -magnetic sense (birds, bees) -sun compass (birds, bees) -star compass (bees) -polarized light-when sun blocked by clouds (bees)
hindbrain structures
-begins where spinal cord ends medulla, pons, cerebellum, and the base of the reticular formation (connects brain to spine)
Sex-typed behavior
-behavior stereotypical to gender -low during prepubescence; high in young adulthood; lower again after
(DSM-V) Chapter- Paraphilic disorders
-condition in which a person's sexual arousal and gratification depend on fantasizing about and engaging in sexual behavior that is atypical and extreme -pedophilia and exhibitionist disorders=illegal -other disorders can cause personal distress, for which someone might seek treatment
ANOVA (analysis of variance)
-differences among MEANS of continuous (numerical) variables -more flexible than t-tests-->can analyze differences among MORE THAN 2 groups (even if diff sample sizes)
prolactin
-hormone-helps females produce milk -also metabolism, regulation of the immune system, and pancreatic development (stuff for milk to be good) (promotes lactation)
G. Kelly
-personal constructs determine personality and behavior -based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"
social facilitation
-presence of others help or hurt performance -->presence helps with easy tasks; hurts complex tasks (being surrounded by social facilitates better or worse task)
Homeostasis
-regulation of internal environment -controlled by negative feedback loop ex: thermostat
self-awareness vs self-consciousness
-self-awareness is a state -self-consciousness is a trait
Piaget's stages
-sensorimotor (0-2yrs) -preoperational (2-7yrs) -concrete operational (7-12yrs) -formal operational (12+yrs) (ages-->0-2-7-12-) (formal=last; formal=classiest, best)
modeling (behavioral counterconditioning)
-social learning principles (exposes client to more adaptive behaviors/people's reactions; hope to cause imitation)
demand characteristic research problem
-subjects act in ways they think experiment wants/expects (act in a way that you think experimenter demands)
Neonate (newborn) reflexes
-sucking-object near mouth -head turning-stroke cheek -Moro reflex-throwing arms/legs because of loud noise -Babinski reflex-fanning toes when touching bottom of feet -Palmar reflex-hand grasping when object in hand (Mor-OH-->loud noise; babin-SKI-->skis on feet; PALM-ar-->palms grasp
trait v state
-traits=relatively enduring characteristics -states=temporary feelings/characteristics (e.g. tired)
natural language mediators
-using sound, patterns, meanings of words already known to assist learning new info (e.g. 30 days past September, April June....)
Sir F. Galton
-wealthy Englishmen, traveled, studied for fun; random contributions -first to use statistics in psych -created correlation coefficient -wrote Hereditary Genius -promoted eugenics-selective human breeding to strengthen species
Major depressive disorder
1+ major depressive episode
Kohlberg's Moral Development
1. No punishment 2. Yes reward 3. Social Approval 4. Follow law 5. Follow law (if logical) 6. Ethical principles
sleep cycle length; how many cycles per night?
1.5 hrs; 4-6 cycles every night
Mean IQ of US (and SD)
100; standard deviation of 15 or 16
identity vs. role confusion
12-20; physiological revolution; favorable outcome is fidelity, unique and integrated person; unfavorable outcome is confusion about one's identity
Adolescence
13-19ys; begins with puberty; adrenal and pituitary glands secrete hormones (androgen for boys; estrogen for girls) causing second sex characteristics
Dorothy Dix
19th century American advocate of asylum reform
figure-ground pattern
2 different figures based on which shade you look at (vase/faces)
linear perspective (depth cue)
2 parallel lines converge in distance
H. Eysenck
2 personality-type dimensions: introversion-extraversion and stable-unstable (neuroticism) -->formed a cross w/ 4 quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine (I-SEnCT-->intersect. 4 quadrants)
Choroidal vessels and Retinal vessels
2 sets of blood vessels that supply nutrients to the eye
Stage we spend most of end of night?
2+REM
intimacy vs. isolation
20-40; favorable outcome is love, ability to have intimate relationship with others, committing oneself to another person and one's goals
What are the 3 stages of a physiological response to stressors?
3 stages, Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
Stage we spend most of beginning of night?
3+4
Standard normal distributions
34 : 14 : 2 : 0.26 (normal distrib curve: 0.26%, 2%, 13%, 34%, 34%, 13%, 2%, 0.26%)
ventricles
4 cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid insulating brain from shock
generatively vs. stagnation
40-65; resolution includes capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society
Likert Scale
5-7 point scale of strongly agree, neither, strongly disagree with a particular statement (Like-how much you like the statement)
Self Determination Theory
A need based theory which emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These three needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationship with oneself and others. Autonomy- need to do things independently Competence- need to excel at difficult tasks Relatedness= need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships.
Patient H.M.
A patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy caused severe anterograde amnesia (can't form new memories)
dual-code hypothesis
A. Paivio Visual and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel (with word "dog"; can either picture dog, think of the word "dog", or both)
social comparison theory
-Festinger -Evaluate own actions by comparing to others--> we constantly make self and other evaluations across a variety of domains
J. Locke
British philosopher who suggested that infants had no predetermined tendencies, that they were blank slates (tabula rasa) to be written on by experience
Thurstone Scale
Checkmark items you agree with (each item has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be) (check through scale)
archetypes
Analytical/Jung universal concepts passed down since beginning of man; allows us to organize experiences w/ consistent themes (shown through cross-cultural similarity in symbols, myths, etc.) PERSONA SHADOW ANIMA ANIMUS
anima
Analytical/Jung-archetype -female elements that a man possesses; complements own maleness (female animal in man) (ma=mom, female)
animus
Analytical/Jung-archetype -male elements a female possesses; complements own femaleness (male animal in woman)
shadow
Analytical/Jung-archetype -person's dark side, often projected onto others (symbolized by devils and evil spirits)
persona
Analytical/Jung-archetype -person's outer mask/mediator to external world (symbolized by cultures via masks)
psyche
Analytical/Jung-conscious part of the unconscious
(DSM-V) Anorexia nervosa
Feeding and eating disorder Person does not maintain healthy body weight, has a distorted body image leading to belief that they are overweight when actually abnormally thin one of few disorders that can lead to death
Mnemonic: Functions of the Hypothalamus—the Four Fs:
Feeding, Fighting, Flighting, (sexual) Functioning
Genital stage
Freud's fifth and final stage; begins in puberty, lasts til adulthood; if previous stages have been successfully resolved, person will enter normal heterosexual relationships
oral stage
Freud's first stage (0-1); gratification from putting things in the mouth; libidinal energy centered around the mouth
Latency stage
Freud's fourth stage; happens when libido is sublimated; lasts until puberty
anal stage
Freud's second stage (1-3); libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through elimination and retention of waste materials
Frued vs. Jung vs. Alder
Frued- assumption is that person is motivated by unborn instincts Jung- person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes Alder: assumes people are motivated by striving for superiority
Optic nerve
Ganglion cells group together to form the
Garcia effect
Garcia-preparedness humans can become sick from a food one time and never eat the food again (immediate classical conditioning/ one trial learning; taste aversion learning) (Garcia="gutsick" effect)
a group unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography
Gemeinschaft (community)
a group unified by mutual self interests in achieving a goal
Gesellschaft (society)
Existential Theory
Greatest struggles are of being vs non-being and meaningfulness vs. nonmeaningfulness -"Will to meaning" -response to perceived meaninglessness=neurosis/neurotic anxiety (not normal anxiety)
Hormones affecting gender biology
H-Y antigen (causes fetus to be male; lack of=female); androgens (e.g. testosterone) in males; estrogens in females
What are the seven universally recognized emotions?
Happiness, Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Contempt
social isolation (rhesus monkeys)
Harlow-isolated monkeys hampered social development; when finally brought with other monkeys, males lacked normal sexual functioning, females lacked maternal behaviors
contact comfort (rhesus monkeys)
Harlow-monkeys attached to comforting/cloth mother rather than feeding mother; stayed with cloth monkey, ran to it when feared; only went to wire one with food to feed, then left
learning to learn (rhesus monkeys)
Harlow-monkeys better at learning tasks as acquired different learning experiences; monkeys could eventually learn after one trial
D. Rosenhan
He did an experiment where he and 7 other "sane" people got admitted and labeled "mentally ill" Being labeled this makes people interpret any action of yours as ill
Balance theory
Heider- people change feelings/actions to be consistent to maintain homeostasis (HideR--hidden reason-why behavior?)
place-resonance theory
Helmholtz-different parts of basilar membrane responds to different frequencies/sounds (place-resonance=places on the basil membrane resonate diff frequencies)
prestige
High standing; respect earned by accomplishments
When emotion is experienced, how is the brain activated?
Hippocampus- explicit memory-context of emotion will be stored here. Remembering when and why you were happy Amygdala- implicit memory- automatic, remembering of physiological response will be done here. The actual feeling of an emotion.
basic anxiety
Honey; vulnerability and helplessness caused by inadequate parenting
incongruence
Client-Centered/Rogers -feelings/experiences are inconsistent w/ self-image
actualizing tendency
Client-Centered/Rogers -tendency towards self-fulfillment/towards becoming actualized in what one is, potentially (become congruent with ideal self)
Beck Depression Therapy
Cognitive measures number of depressive symptoms a person has to help expose/restructure maladaptive thoughts -short term therapy; focus on tangible evidence of client's logic (what client says/does) -PURE SIMPLE COGNITIVE FIX-figure out depressive thoughts, fix them
(DSM-V) Chapter- Neurocognitive disorders
Cognitive outcomes of these disorders blur boundaries among psychiatry, neurology, and neuropsychology, both in assessment and treatment DSM recognizes that other disorders (e.g. schiz) produce profound distortions of cognition, but disorders in this category (e.g. Alzheimer's) are primarily distinguished by cognitive correlates
dichotomous thinking
Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -black and white thinking (If I don't do well on GRE, I have no future) (no details, 2 colors/parts-black and white. one cause, one effect)
arbitrary inference
Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -drawing conclusions w/out solid evidence (he's stupid for liking golf) (arbitrary reason to draw conclusion)
Mnemonic: Rods and Cones
Cones are for Color vision. Rods function best in "roduced" light.
Weber's Law
Constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just-noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus
R. Rescorla and Wagner
Contiguity vs contingency and blocking effect
What characterizes the resistance phase of stress?
Continous rates of hormones which allows nervous system to attack the stressor
Kohlberg Phase 2
Conventional morality 3. Conformity 4. Law and Order
Transduction
Conversion of physical, electromagnetic,auditory, and other info from our internal and external environment to eletrical signals in the nervous system
genetic compatibility
Creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics
nAch
D. McClelland: need for achievement-goals to feel successful
social action
Defined by Max Weber as actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of a performing because others are around
Parvocellular cells
Detects shape with high spatial and low temporal resolution
L. Festinger
Developed cognitive dissonance theory; also developed social comparison theory (mentalities fester; socially compare those "fast in gym"--fest in ger)
sensory bias
Development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population preexisting bias in one of the senses (eg. females may be bias towards more complex songs)
DSM-V.....what does DSM stand for?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
depressive vs dysthymic disorders
Differences: levels of severity, duration, and persistence dysthymia: less severe symptoms -diagnosed after 2 years (symptoms on more days than not) depression: more severe symptoms -diagnosed after 2 weeks (5-9 symptoms throughout) (depressive=worse; dysthymic=lighter)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Sexual dysfunction
Disruptions in individual's ability to perform or enjoy sexual behaviors
(DSM-V) Dissociative identity disorder (formally multiple personality disorder)
Dissociative disorder psychologists believe this is impossible for multiple personalities to coexist within the same person without the person's conscious awareness
3 layers of Meninges
Dura Mater; Arachnoid mater; Pia mater
equipotentiality principle
Early theory (proven wrong through biological preparedness) -any CS can be paired with any CR; or any response with any reinforcer
Personality disorders
Ego-syntonic, long lasting, inflexible, maladaptive patterns of behavior that can cause (at least 2+ ) impaired functioning in cognition, emotions, interpersonal behavior and communication, and/or impulse control Organized into 3 Clusters A, B, and C
Laws of proximity
Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Rational-Emotive theory (RET)/REBT (rational emotive behavior theory)
Ellis-HUMANISTIC-includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, emotion theory; psychological tension is created when Active event occurs (A) and a client applies certain Beliefs about the event (B), and this leads to Consequence of emotional disruption (C) (fix poor cognition (I MUST do __; I didn't so I suck) (RET: ABC-->D-->E) Rational Ellis's humanistic theory; combines all
Rational-Emotive theory therapy
Ellis-highly directive-therapist leads client to Dispute (D) the previously applied irrational beliefs (dispute cognition-only part you could easily change)
Prenatal midbrain
Mesencephalon
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Metencephalon& Myelencephalon divide from prenatal _____
Catecholamines or monoamines or biogenic amines
Neurotransmitters that all play a role in the experience of emotions; the 3 are epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine
(DSM-V) Chapter- Dissociative disorders
New to DSM-V: dissociative fugue is now a specifier of dissociative amnesia rather than a separate diagnosis
passive downward comparison VS active downward comparison
Passive downward comparison -person compares self to worse off person (no interaction with person) -->e.g. cancer patients motivated by looking at those with worse cancer Active downward comparison -person harms or demeans other, creating a situation where he can make a downward comparison.
Reinforcements (positive and negative)
Positive=add good; negative=take away something bad reinforcement=want to make a behavior occur
Kohlberg Phase 3
Post Conventional Morality 5. Social contract 6. Universal human ethics
IQ correlates most positively with
IQ of biological parents and socio-eco status of parents
Patient protection under businesses (no gov't involvement)
If no government involvement/funding, there are no gov't regulations not necessarily any protection for patient data, ethical guidelines, etc.
top-down processing
Recognition of an object by memories and expectations. Faster but prone to more mistakes
Habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response (ex: 1st year medical students seeing a cadaver)
Merkel cells
Respond to deep pressure and texture
Pacinian corpuscles
Respond to deep pressure and vibration
Hair cells
Respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational acceleration)
olfactory receptors
Respond to volatile compounds (smell)
Client-Centered Theory
Rogers-people have actualizing tendency; people who lack congruence between real self and conscious self-concept develop psychological tension -humanistic theory -(C-C=CONGRUENCE)
(D) language related sounds; (N) Music
Role of Dominant/Nondominant Hemisphere in Auditory system
Bem Sex Role Inventory
S. Bem-analyzes how well you fit into your gender role by analyzing personality as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated -androgenous have higher self esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability than masculine and feminine (S.ex Bem) Bum sex.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (motivation)
SESSP bottom up-my needs, social needs, my feelings, self actualiz
Thorndike puzzle box vs. Skinner Box
Skinner box=improved; repeated lever pressing Thorndike puzzle box=could only escape once then experiment over
S. Asch
Studies conformity by asking subjects to compare the lengths of lines Ashland-->Asch's lines (conformity)
(DSM-V) gambling disorder
Substance-related and addictive disorder Added in recognition of similarities between people who have addictions to substances and people who are unable to stop gambling
A. Eagly
Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender, per se, but to differing social roles [not biological, but prejudice/social] (Eagle-american freedom for women)
Dopamine Hypothesis (DSM-V)
This hypothesis helps to explain the cause behind Schizophrenia and its accompanying symptoms of delusions, hallucinations, and agitations: - oversensitivity/too much dopamine
Diathesis-Stress Model (DSM-V)
This model states that Schizophrenia occurs due to a physiological predisposition paired with an external stressor
law of effect
Thorndike precursor of operant conditioning; people react through cause and effect people do what rewards them, stops what doesn't successful behaviors more likely to be repeated (cats puzzle box-had to figure out how to escape) (Explains BEHAVIOR-early behavioral approach, so Thorndike)
What is the ventromedial prefrontal cortex?
Thought to play a substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala. Links decision making and emotion.
structuralist theory
Titchner-perception is sum total of sensory input (the world is understood through the bottom-up theory-->specific sense of one item leads to generalizing idea of sense to that item) mind=most basic parts, like elements of periodic table; only observable pieces can be used to measure; unobservable conscious have no place in society [learned under Wundt, makes sense-first school would be like chemistry, observable, less theory, etc.] (we build our own structure through senses structure=concrete; no abstract)
latent learning
Tolman Challenged behaviorism- learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear (e.g. remembering a maze you're not paying attention to)
cognitive map
Tolman mental image of area through important/relevant cues latently learned related to latent learning
Gestalt Theory
Top-Down approach Encourages people to stand apart for beliefs from specific experiences of the past. Should fully experience the present abnormal behavior derived from disturbances of awareness (Stop thinking SPEFIC EXPERIENCES (down); start thinking GENERAL present (top)); disturbed awareness=disturbed awareness of overall general present situation (top)
noise trials
Trails in which signal is not presented
Threshold
The minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception
What side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with negative emotions?
The right
What is the primary role of the temporal lobe in emotion?
The temporal lob gives us the ability to distinguish and interpret other's facial expressions
differential association theory
Theory made by functionalist theorist who argue that deviance is necessary for social order, because it shows a clear social norm and acceptable boundary
social cognitive theory
Theory that posits that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial and error but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others.
learning theory
Theory that states that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning. Direct contacts with the object can influence attitude
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation
Theory that states the three factors of social cognitive theory have direct influence on one anther. The three factors are behavior, personal and environment factors
apparent size
know distance based on how big we know the object should be
implicit memory
knowing something without being aware you know it
Self-esteem
knowing you are worthwile; being in touch with actual strengths
Antisocial personality disorder
lack of regard for rights of others, pattern of violating those rights ~ Dx includes hx of violation of rights of others (fights, dishonesty, illegal activities and lack of remorse) from 15+ y.o. ~ Typified by aggression against both people and animals, destruction of property, serious violations of rules and laws (affects males more) cluster b
social interactionist theory of language development
language acquisition is driven by a child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner. allows for the role of brain development.
aphasia
language disorder
Edward Tolman
latent learning/cognitive map Expectancy-value theory (people motivated by goals they expect they can meet) (tolls in road=important parts of a map)
3 subdivisions of hypothalamus
lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus
Noam Chomsky
leader with language: transformational grammar, language acquisition device (Chomsky-champ of language; chomp=movement of mouth like speaking)
language development 12-18 mos
learn one word a month
secondary reinforcements
learned reinforcements
crystallized intelligence
learned skills and knowledge. peaks in middle adulthood
Latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once the reward is introduced (rats carried through a maze and then incentivized with food vs rats trained in maze with standard operant conditioning)
spacing effect
learning/memorization is better when items studied a few times spaced over a long time span rather than repeatedly studied in a short span of time
Broca's area
left frontal lobe (dominany lobe); functions-producing speech, writing, language processing and comprehension (frontal part of brain-B before W; Wernicke in temporal)
Wernicke's area
left temporal lobe (dominant lobe); functions-comprehend speed sounds; receptive language/language comprehension center (located further back in brain than Broca's area---ABC order)
algorithm
lengthiest way to solve problem-try every possible solution until right one made
LGBT
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered Q- queer/questioning I-intersex A-asexual
hypomanic episode
less extreme than manic episodes; not strong enough to cause serious delusions or psychosis
psychoanalysis therapy goal
lessen unconscious pressure on individual by making as much of unconscious material as possible conscious (psychoanalysis=ALL ABOUT UNCONSCIOUS)-make it all conscious
Pons
lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
Lens
lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light
eros
life instincts; promote quest for survival
Suspensory ligaments
ligaments contracted by the ciliary muscle to change the shape of the lens
multiple intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
cingulate gyrus
links behavioral outcomes to motivation (links emotions and decisions) (e.g. a certain action induced a positive emotional response, which results in learning)
Operant Conditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors ; reinforcement vs punishment
emotional support
listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings
Temporal lobe
lobe functions in sound processing, language comprehension, memory processing, emotion and language
Parietal Lobe
lobe located near the rear of the frontal lobe
Mirror Neurons
located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex; fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action; related to empathy because some fire when we experience an emotion and when we observe another experiencing the same emotion
broca's area
located in the left hemisphere, frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus. controls the motor function of speech via connections to the motor cortex
Adrenal Glands
located on top of the kidneys; divided into 2 parts
ethnic enclaves
locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnic or national group
Stereocilia
long tufts on the top surface of hair cells
Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) memory
long-term memory that consists of our skills and conditioned responses
Explicit (declarative) memory
long-term memory that consists of those memories that require conscious recall
anhedonia
loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable
amplitude of soundwave
loudness
What level of arousal are best for highly cognitive tasks
lower levels of arousal
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord; connects CNS to rest of body; can be divided in to somatic and autonomic
morphemes
made up of phonemes; smallest units of meaning in language; words/parts of words with meaning (boy, -ing)
hypothalamus
maintains homeostasis (via ANS-heart rate, temp, thirst, hunger, etc.) links endocrine and nervous system via pituitary gland produces releasing and inhibiting hormones to pituitary gland (start and stop production of other hormones in body)
law and order
maintains the social order in the highest regard
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
major depressive disorder with seasonal onset (usually cold, dark, winter months) correlated to abnormal metabolism of melatonin and diminished levels of serotonin, both caused by reduced sunlight exposure and treatment often includes bight light therapy
anima archetype
man's inner woman
Bipolar I disorder
manic episodes with or without any depressive episodes
Neuropsychology in Research setting:
map brain areas to specific behavior
Adjustment disorders
marked by emotional and behavioral symptoms that occur when person is unable to cope with identifiable specific stressor symptoms occur within 3 months of onset of stressor and cause distress that is excessive (from what would typically be expected from the stressor), and significant impairment to social, occupational, and personal functioning
the status by which an individual is primarily identified as
master status
artifact
material items that culture makes, possesses and values.
what statistical measurement is affected most by outliers?
mean
Psychoticism
measure of nonconformity or social deviance
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
measure sensory and motor development of infants -only used to identifies retards (children/pregnant mom drinking Bayley's) (poor predictors of later intelligence)
F-scale/F-ration
measurement of Fascism or authoritarian personality
latency/reaction time
measures cognitive processing speed; declines with age
Context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
working memory
memory needed to perform task at that moment
Short-term memory
memory that fades quickly; when we do pay attention to some of the information that we are exposed too; limited in capacity (7 plus or minus 2 rule)
long term semantic memory network
mind=giant web of related words; more specific as web goes out pictures connected slower because must be put into words before associations can be made
absolute threshold
minimal amount of a stimuli needed for detection 50% of the time
differential threshold/just noticeable difference
minimal difference that must occur between 2 stimuli in order to be perceived as having 2 diff intensities
mainstreaming
mixing mental disabled students with normal intelligence ones (can result in lower self-esteem)
method of loci
mnemonic device used in ancient Greek and Roman times -items mentally associated with specific physical locations
demographic transition
model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization.
intersectionality
more than one means of social stratification affects you, may lead to discrimination and oppression ex: African American lesbian female
bound morphemes
morphemes such as -ing; dependent on another word
glutamate
most abundant excitatory transmitter in nervous system (starts nerve impulses) important for learning/memory (gl--mate-->glad mate=>excited) opposite of GABA
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
most common intelligence test-adults -three deviation IQs: verbal, performance, & full-scale
hippocampus
most important function=memory-transferring STM into LTM located in temporal lobe (college CAMPUS is where you study for long term memory)
pluralistic ignorance
most people in a group disagree w/ something but think everyone else in group agrees with it (because don't know what others think)
echolocation
most sophisticated type of perception; bats and dolphins use
Auditory Pathways
most sound information passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem then to the MGN which goes to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for processing
Intrinsic motivation
motivation that comes from within oneself, driven by an interest in a task or pure enjoyment. A studnet who takes interest in the subject matter at hand is an example of an internal interest
exploratory drive/reinforcement
motivation to try something new/explore environment
Needs
motivators of human behavior, how we allocate our energy to best satisfy these needs. Motivation thus determines which behavior we are most likely to pursue to satisfy certain needs
frontal lobe
motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, IMPULSE CONTROL, social/sexual behavior Houses Broca's area and prefrontal cortex
Gross motor skills
motor skills that incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion (ex: sitting, crawling and walking)
Fine motor skills
motor skills that involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement (ex: tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving)
traveling wave
movement along basilar membrane
emigration
movement away from a geographic area
immigration
movement into a new geographic area
Constrictor papillae
muscle of the iris that constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation
Dilator papillae
muscle of the iris that opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation
nominal variables
names; just different groups (e.g. asking everyone in class to pick favorite movie from a list)
primary reinforcements
natural/instinct reinforcements (water, food)
field study
naturalistic setting; hard to control environment
dependent personality disorder
need to be taken care of and reassured by others (cling to one person and submit themselves to that person's will, even enduring abuse in order to gain support from that person; and are fearful of abandonment and rejection) cluster c
peripheral nervous system
nerves, etc. outside of brain and spinal cord
an observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups
network
Endorphines
neuromodulators acting as natural painkillers
white matter
neurons' bundles of axons (i.e. nerve fibers) make this up. colored from myelin (so purely one material-no organelles, so white)
gray matter
neurons' cell bodies/somas make this up (full of cellular organelles so not white)
Acetylcholine
neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in body
Retroactive Interference
new information causes forgetting old information (ex: teachers cannot remember old students names from the previous year after they get new students)
insight
new perspective of old problem; how all pieces of situation actually fit together instant learning instead of gradual
null hyptothesis
no real difference in values/no patterns
the conveyance of information by means other than the use of words, such as body language, prosody, facial expressions, and gestures
nonverbal communication
Gestalt criticisms
not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients
first phrases children speak are...
noun then verb, or noun then noun (me want; mommy shirt)
first words children speak are...
nouns, then verbs (words=common objects)
mesolimbic pathway
nucleus accumbens (NAc) to medial forebrain bundle (MFB), to ventral tegmental area (VTA). normally involved in motivation and emotional responses. activated by addictive substances
parameters
numbers (e.g. mean, median) describing populations (statistics=of a sample)
Gyri and Sulci
numerous bumps and folds on the surface f the cortex; increases brain surface area
primary socialization
occurs during childhood when the child learns acceptable actions and behaviors
avoidant attachment
occurs when a caregiver has little or no response to a distressed, crying child. child shows no preference to caregiver over strangers. doesn't care when caregiver leaves or returns
disorganized attachment
occurs when caregiver is erratic or abusive. child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence and may show repetitive behavior
Distress
occurs when experiencing unpleaseant stressors
attribute substitution
occurs when individuals must make a complex decision but substitute a simpler solution or heuristic (ex: logic questions, trick questions, math)
Neurulation
occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow; occurs at 3 to 4 weeks gestational age
lexical (general definition)
of or relating to words/vocab of a language
Somatosensation
often reduced to "touch" but actually has 4 modalities: pressure, vibration, pain and temperature.
polygamy
one member of a sex having multiple exclusive relationships with members of the opposite sex
language acquisition device (LAD)
one of first nativist theory- humans born with ability to adopt grammar rules of language they hear-I founded the toy
Applied Psychology
uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems (limited to questions about DSM-5 and APA publications)
base rate fallacy
using stereotypical factors and ignoring facts
Extirpation/Ablation
various parts of the brain are surgically removed and behavior consequences observed (Tested on rabbits and pigeons)
undifferentiated
ver low masculinity and femininity
social contract
views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good
occipital lobe
visual processing center (optics lobe)
Age 1
walks alone, climbs stairs alone, emergence of hand preference, kicks ball, throws ball, pats pictures in book, stacks 3 cubes, separation anxiety, dependency on parental figure, onlooker play, uses 10 words
gestalt closure
we complete incomplete figures (close the line)
social learning theory
we learn through culture (socially acceptable behaviors)
gestalt symmetry
we make figures out of symmetrical images (can be stronger than proximity)
texture gradient
we see finer details at closer distances
Self-reference effect
we tend to recall information best when we put it into the context of our own lives
social institutions
well-established social structures the dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. common social institutions include the family, education, religion, government and the economy, and heath and medicine.
errors of growth
when a child applies a grammatical rule where it doesn't apply. ex) funner instead of more fun
disconfirmation principle
when a solution is discarded after failing testing
law of closure
when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line
Ipsilaterally
when cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body
Spreading activation
when one node of our semantic network is activated, and other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
Contralaterally
when one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body; this is the case in most cases
discrimination
when prejudicial attititudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others
Mnemonic: Lateral Hypothalamus
when the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger
conduction aphasia
when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged a person is unable to repeat something because the connection bt comprehension and motor speech is lost
Canal of Schlemm
where the aqueous humor drains into
What does a problem focused strategy of dealing with emotion
working to overcome a stressor, such as reaching out to a family, friends for social support, or confronting the issue head on
type 2 errors (experiments)
wrongly accept null hypothesis (type B/2 personality=relaxed, nice, accepts the hypothesis) WRONG ACCEPT (less common, don't see correlation)
holophrastic speech
young child using one word to convey whole sentence (me=pick me up) holophrase=the one word holo="whole", so whole sentence is used in one word
kinsey scale
zero to six scale that measures range of heterosexuality (1) and homosexuality (6).
humanistic/phenomenological theory of personality
take a more person-centered approach, describe ways that healthy people strive toward self-realization
DNA best analogy
template
social loafing
tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
Zeigarnik effect
tendency to recall uncompleted task better than completed ones
social loafing
tendency to work less hard in group -caused by diffusion of responsibility -->removed by group monitoring
face validity
test items simply look like they measure the construct (the test at a glimpse looks like it measures what it's supposed to measure)
external validity
test measures what it intends to measure
Two-way ANOVA
test significance of means with 2 different independent variables at once (e.g. height of plants of diff seeds and with diff fertilizers)
Chi-square test
tests tell if 2 groups are significantly related (e.g. gender and political stance); checks difference between 2 or more PERCENTAGES or PROPORTIONS of categorical outcomes (not means) like ANOVA but only 2 groups and is categorical and percentage/proportion based measures categorical data (qualitative data; e.g. number of females)
posterior forebrain/interbrain important structures
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland (posterior=prior to the exterior; cerebrum=exterior)
Diencephalon (prenatal)
thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland and pineal gland divide from prenatal
GABA
the "anti-anxiety molecule" (stops nerve impulses) most abundant inhibitory transmitter in nervous system (opens ion channels in membrane, causes neg charge in cell) (GABA-->garbage=>negative) opposite of glutamate
Scalae
the 3 small parts of the cochlea
phonology
the actual sound of language
cerebrospinal fluid
the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest
illusion of morality
the belief that the group's decision is morally correct
situation
the circumstance at a given moment to determine what the perceiver thinks
Iris
the colored part of the eye
reciprocal interaction
the constant exchange of influences between people is a constant factor in our behavior
Misinformation effect
the creation of false memories due to the effect of outside sources such as falsified information after the event is perceived
Illusion of invulnerability
the creation of optimism and encouragement of risk taking
depth of processing
the deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall
Adaptive value
the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species leading to adaptation through natural selection
Organ of Corti
the hearing apparatus housed by the middle scalae; composed of thousands of hair cells
Dominant Hemisphere
the hemisphere that is primarily analytic in function making it well-suited for managing details; language, logic, and math skills (usually the left hemisphere)
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories
belief perseverence
the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
borderline personality disorder
ongoing deficiency in one's ability to control one's mood, fluctuation in one's image of one's self and other people can cause severe mood swings, reckless behavior, anger, making interpersonal relationships dramatic intense and dangerous overwhelming fear of abandonment and may develop propensity for splitting (seeing people as 100% good or 100% bad) (affects women more) cluster b
Rods
only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment call rhodopsin; permit night vision
acetylcholine
only neurotransmitter that contracts skeletal muscles (acetyl-muscle action) -deficiency of this associated with alzheimer's
visual neural pathway
optic nerve-->optic chiasm-->lateral geniculate nucleus-->striate cortex (primary visual cortex/part of cerebral cortex)
Freud's stages of development
oral stage, anal stage, phallic/Oedipal stage, latency stage, genital stage
ordinal variables
order (no zero) (order with no value in between; e.g. position in race)
ratio variables
order, equal intervals, real zero (weight, time)
bodies of people with the same structure and culture design to achieve specific goals, they exist outside of one another's membership
organization
menarche
organizational effect hormone-onset of menstrual cycle/starts during puberty
Whorfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis
our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
a group that one oppresses or competes with
out group
grammar
overall rules of language; behaviorism cannot explain these rules 3 major types of rules: -Syntax -Semantics-meaning -Phonology-sound structure
overregularization
overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. i founded that) found=past, -ed is also past (overregulating grammar rules)
phantom limb pain
pain in limbs now amputated
Nociceptors
pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain (somatosensation)
REM
paradoxical sleep, EEG appears to be alert, dreaming happens, procedural memory consolidation, paralyzed muscles
somatosensory cortex
parietal lobe; destination for all incoming sensory signal for touch (body touch cortex-part of parent of senses lobe)
receptive field
part of the body that triggers particular neuron (hair in cochlea, piece of skin, retina, etc.)
Neural tube
part of the furrow that closes and will ultimately form the central nervous system
social reproduction
passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to the next.
ego-syntonic
patient perceives their behavior as correct and normal
sanction
penalties for social misconduct. Use to maintain social order
Premack Principle
people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves after with something they like to do (Pre-mack (pre-kissing), you have to do work)
Peter principle
people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence, the position which they remain (peter promoting principle)
arousal and learning
people must be aroused enough to learn/perform
response bias (stimuli)
people partly motivated by rewards and costs in detections of stimuli (biased to rewards, costs)
gestalt constancy
people perceive objects in the way they are familiar with (book is always a rectangle however you look at it; grass is always green even if seen through sunglasses); size and color constancy
semantic differential charts
people plot meanings of words on graph; similar backgrounds plotted similarly-->words have similar connotations (implied meaning) for cultures/subcultures same as osgood scale 2 bipolar words on a scale; mark which one you're closest too (bad----- ----- ------ ----- -----good)
mere exposure effect/familiarity effect
people prefer stimuli that they've been exposed to more frequently
Neuromodulators/neuropeptides
peptides that are involved in neurotransmission creating a slower yet longer effect on the postsynaptic cell
Purkinje shift
perceived color brightness changes w/ illumination in room (more light=bright blue, less light=dark blue) (purkinje shift= purple shine shift in light)
nativist theory
perception and cognition are innate/natural
bottom-up processing
perception based on the physical features of the stimulus. Slower but less prone to mistakes
Subjective contours
perception of contours where none actually exist
kinesthetic sense
perception of the positions in space and movements of our bodies and our limbs
Law of Pragnanz
perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
perfectionism and need for control in all or most aspects of their life (struggle to collaborate, trouble expressing affection, preoccupation with organization and list making that they struggle to complete tasks) cluster c
Undoing (defense mechanism)
performing often ritualistic activity in order to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives (e.g. washing hands after murder; noisy teen cleans room without being asked) (undo the murder by washing hands)
manic episode
period of 1+ weeks in which person displays 3+ of the following: irritable or abnormally euphoric mood, is highly distractible, makes poor judgement, is more talkative than usual, has high energy and does not sleep much, has an inflated delusional sense of self esteem
estrus
period when female is sexually receptive
Social anxiety disorder
persistent anxiety caused specifically by social situations (party, public space, classroom)
biological perspective
personality explained due to genetic expression in the brain; linked to trait perspectives
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory)
Karen Horney's view on personality
personality result from interpersonal relationships; postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs
David McClelland
personality trait that is referred to the need of achievement
humors
personality types based on these body fluids; imbalance could lead to personality disorders; blood, bile, black bile, phlegm
Unconditioned response
the innate reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus (ex: the process of salivating)
bystander effect
phenomenon that occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present
Middle Ages events
philosophy became question of church; by brink of modern world, philosophy reclaimed by scholars
eidetic imagery
photographic memory
material culture
physical items one associates with a given group such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings and tools ex: flag, apple pie, baseball
W. Cannon
physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including fight or flight reactions; investigated homeostasis; and with Bard, proposed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions (physiological arousal and brain circuits both affect subjective emotion experience)
outer ear parts
pinna (outer part), auditory canal
What is the primary role of the prefrontal cortex in emotion?
planning intricate cognitive functions, decision making, and expressing of personality.
Basal plate
plate in the neural tube that differentiates into motor neurons
Alar plate
plate in the neural tube that differentiates into sensory neurons
semantics (language)
the literal meaning of words in a language and the meaning within the sentence -->literally "he could eat a horse"=he can actually eat a horse
Jung's idea of self
point of intersection between collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and the conscious mind; symbolized by mandala
optic chiasm
point where half of each optic nerve joins other eye (pathways 50% crossed)left side of VISUAL FIELD completely processed on right side of brain
Metencephalon (prenatal)
pons and cerebellum develop from
Eustress
positive conditions
positive transfer, negative transfer (learning)
positive-previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later negative-previous learning that makes it harder to learn a new task
Punishments (positive and negative)
positive=add bad; negative=take away something good punishment=want to stop a behavior from occuring
Stress-diathesis theory
posits that although schizophrenia is rooted in biology and is passed genetically, environmental stressors are responsible for the eventual onset of the disorder
Dopamine hypothesis
posits that people with schizophrenia have overactive dopamine pathways in brains overabundance of dopamine + hypersensitivity of receptors = overactivity which is responsible for positive symptoms medications that limit dopamine production and reception shown to be somewhat effective as antipsychotic medications
collective unconscious
powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our ancestors
Ethnocentrism
practice of making judgement about other cultures bases on the values and beliefs of one's own culture (ex: can be pride or violent groups)
Gestalt therapy
practitioners take a holistic view of the self; associated with humanism
pre conventional morality
preadolescence; emphasis on the consequences of moral choice 1. Obedience 2. Self-interest
Prodromal Phase
precursor to fully symptomatic schizophrenia; a psychotic episode is preceded by gradual non-specific changes in the person's thoughts, perceptions, behaviours, and functioning characterized by social withdrawal, unusual behavior, inappropriate or unusual affect, evidence of psychological deterioration prognosis poor when sx are slow and drawn out prognosis good when sx fast and sudden
2 basic regions of Frontal lobe
prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex
ageism
prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age
amino acids
present in fast acting, direct synapses: glutamate, GABA
semantic processing and semantic priming
presentation prime word before word-decreases reaction time (test before GRE); incr. reaction time if unassociated priming word (lobster before GRE)
government
president, senator, voter, candidate maintain social order and law. systematic arrangement of political and capital relationships, activities and social structures that affect rule-making, representation of individual society, rights, division of labor, production of goods and services. value transparency and professionalism norm is acting in the best interest of people and debating political issues
primary prevention
prevent psychosocial problems through direct contact with an at-risk (but so far unaffected) group; through proactive intervention-intervention occurs before problem does
reproductive isolating mechanisms
prevents inbreeding btwn 2 different but similar species: -Behavioral isolation -Mechanical isolation -Geographic isolation -isolation by Seasons (BMGs)
Avoidance learning
prevents the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen (ex: studying for MCAT before exam to avoid poor score)
those that contain strong emotional bonds are groups called
primary groups
Hypothalamus
primary regulator of the autonomic nervous system and is important in drive behaviors: hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior; helps control some endocrine functions; serves many homeostatic functions: detects problems in metabolism, temperature, and water balance and signals the body to correct the imbalance
M. Deutsch
prisoner's dilemma; trucking company game-->result=people don't trust others -logical response=both do same thing [quiet/high price] -people didn't trust, so they [talk/lower prices] (Douches-prisoners that don't trust); De->dilemma of the douches
fluid intelligence
problem solving skills. peaks in early adulthood
assimilation
process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group
globalization
process of integrating a global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets. the process of countries becoming more open to foreign trade and investment
sensory transduction
process where physical sensation is turned into electrical messages that the brain can understand
Spacing Effect
the longer amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on
Retrograde amnesia
the loss of previously formed memories
Agnosia
the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people or sounds, though usually only one of the three; usually caused by physical damage to the brain such as that from a stroke or a neurological disorder (multiple sclerosis)
lateral hypothalamus
promotes hunger damage means a person loses interest in eating
ego-ideal
proper actions for which a child is rewarded
M. Lerner
proposed concept of belief in a just world (Lerner-learn life's tough-just world bias)
A. Paivio
proposed dual-code hypothesis -used the idea that the formation of mental images aids in learning
Melzack & Wall
proposed gate theory of pain (Wall blocking pain)
E. Thorndike
proposed the law of effect (basis for operant conditioning); used puzzle boxes (levers for escape and reward) to study problem solving in cats
R. Sternberg
proposed the triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual
O. H. Mowrer
proposed two-factor theory of avoidance to explain phobias ("oh" or Mow-->phobia)
Wever & Bray
proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to criticism of frequency theory of pitch perception (volley=different neurons send impulse just out of phase; when combined, overall greater frequency sent to brain) (Wever-->wavering sounds)
Gate Theory of Pain
proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain; claims the spinal cord is able to preferentially forward the signals from other touch modalities (pressure, temperature) to the brain, thus reducing the sensation of pain
verstibular sacs
provides sense of balance to brain
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
provides signals to stop eating; identified as the "satiety center"; brain lesions here lead to obesity
network support
providing a sense of belonging to the person though gestures, group activities, and shared experiences
material support
providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person
Individual theory therapy
psychodynamic approach-unconscious feelings play a role; examination of person's lifestyle and choices (goals, resources, perceptions, etc.) (GOALS-why inferior?) CHOICES
K. Horney
psychodynamic theorist who suggested that there were three ways to relate to others: moving toward, moving against, and moving away (horny, horns, hour. move toward, move against, move away (cuz of time))
Analytical therapy
psychodynamic; to become aware of unconscious-analyze unconscious materials (dreams, artwork, personal symbols)
Schizophrenia
psychotic disorder, sufferers experience at least one symptom of: delusions, disorganized thoughts, disorganized behavior, hallucinations, catatonia, and negative symptoms diagnosed after 6+ months of having at least 2 symptoms with 1 being delusions, disorganized speech, or hallucinations there are 5 different types categorized by the type of psychosis they cause
Motivation
purpose or driving force behind our actions
1st year of life
puts everything in mouth, sits with support, stands with help, crawls, fear of falling, pincer grasp, follows objects to midline, one-handed apporach/grasp of toy, feet in mouth, bang and rattle, changes hand with toy, parental figure central, issues of trust, stranger anxiety, play is solitary and expolratory, pat-a-cake, peek-a-boo, laughs aloud, reptitive responding, mama, "dada"
construct validity
questions really tests abstract concept being measured (tests whole construct of idea)
rationalizing (defense mechanism)
rationalize experience
inductive reasoning
reasoning that seeks to create a theory via generalizations
deductive reasoning
reasoning that starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
universal human ethics
reasons that decisions could be made in consideration of abstract principles
Amacrine & Horizontal cells
receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells; they can accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell; important for edge detection because they increase our perception of contrasts
Individual theory goal
reduce feelings of inferiority, foster social interest and social contributions in patients (individual-->inferiority)
depressants
reduce nervous system activity, sense of reduced anxiety and relaxation
out-group
refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify
Tonotopically
refers to how the hair cells are organized in the cochlea; the basilar membrane changes thickness depending on its location in the cochlea; the highest-frequency pitches cause vibrations of the basilar membrane close to the oval window, and the low-frequency pitches cause vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window
Libido
refers to mating behavior and sexual function
Retrograde amnesia
refers to memory losss of events that transpired before brain injury
Schizoaffective disorder
refers to mix/blend of mood symptoms (manic, depressive, or mixed episodes) with psychotic symptoms
Bottom-up (data-driven) processing
refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection
respect for autonomy
refers to respecting patients' rights to make decisions about their own healthcare (except psychiatric patients, children, public health threats)
function
refers to the beneficial consequences of people's actions
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
regulates development of ovum in females, development of sperm cells in males
birth rate
relative to a population size over time, usually measured as the number of births per 1000 people.
confirmation bias
remembering and using ONLY info that confirms what you think
Prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future; can be event based or time-based (ex: taking medicine every day at 7am; remember to buy milk when walking past A&P)
compulsions
repeated behaviors that result from obsessions and are undertaken in order to reduce anxiety and prevent something from happening
Panic disorder
repeated panic attacks; heavily correlates to agoraphobia
prototypes
representative event or object (e.g. one image you think of when you think of chair, even though many types of chairs) like an exemplar, but not an actual member of the schema from memory (it's a general example-animal with 4 legs, brown, hairy)
exemplar
representative event or object that IS an actual member of the schema from memory like a prototype, but is a specific example referred to from your memory (see new dog, compare it to Fluffy, your puppy from when you were a kid)
8 defense mechanisms
repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation
Myelencephalon(prenatal)
the medulla oblongata develops from
Meta-analysis
results from diff studies used to show result (research on previously done research)
dark adaptation
results of regeneration of retinal pigment
reticular formation (entire functions)
reticular activation system: general arousal (sleep, waking, attention) base of this is in hindbrain (rest in the midbrain); oldest part of brain (so most center/innermost layer) (earliest formation=most basic function; awakeness/arousal)
Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale
revised version of IQ test -->used w/ children-best to determine future academic achievement
Cognitive revolution
revolution against behaviorism by studying and developing successful functions in artificial intelligence and computer science, it becomes possible to make testable inferences about human mental processes (b comes before c in alphabet; behaviorism then cognitive)
within-subject
same person multiple times tested
subgroup
sample
Variable-Interval (VI) schedules
schedules reinforce a behavior for the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time (ex: the rat has to wait 30 seconds after the lever press for a food pellet, then 90, then 60, then 3 min...)
Fixed-interval (FI) schedules
schedules reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed (ex: the first lever press from the rat after 60 seconds is rewarded with a food pellet)
too much dopamine
schizophrenia; addiction (drugs)
concurrent validity
scores from a new test positively correlate with older tests known to test same thing -->this process is cross validation
foraging
searching for and exploiting food resources can be group or singular
mate choice (intersexual selection)
selection of a mate based on attraction and traits
Maslow's ideas
self-actualized people are more likely than people who are not self-actualized to have peak experiences
mere-exposure effect
the more we see/experience something, more positively we rate it
actual self
self-concept; the way we see ourselves as we currently are
Self-handicapping
self-defeating behavior allowing one to dismiss/excuse failure
overconfidence
self-efficacy is too high; leads to frustration or humiliation when we take on tasks for which we are not ready
terminal buttons
sends neurotransmitters through synaptic vessels
Taste Chemoreceptors
sensitive to dissolved compounds; specific molecules bind to specific receptors
Semicircular canals
sensitive to rotational acceleration; each ends in a swelling called ampulla where the hair cells are located; they resist motion when the head rotates
echoic memory
sensory memory for auditory sensations (echo-ic)
gender
set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex
defensive attribution hypothesis
set of beliefs of an individual which defend them from concern that they will cause or be victim to harm, more responsibility will be attributed to the harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe, and as personal or situational similarity decreases
aptitude
set of characteristics indicative of person's ability to learn (e.g. aptitude test)
personality
set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across the and different locations; how we act and react to the world
libido
sex drive; Freud claimed that it is present from birth
Behavioral therapy
short-term and direct; counterconditioning techniques
representativeness heuristic
shortcut on assumption to guess answer rather than logic (tall sexy=model instead of lawyer even though more lawyers in world than models)
Self-Improvement
the motivation of bettering one's self-concept for the future [Future improvements]
Retrieval/Recall
the name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained (ex: try to name people in your elementary school)
Acetylcholine
the neurotransmitter used by the efferent limb of the somatic nervous system(moving muscles) and the parasympathetic nervous system. It is used in some parts of the brain for arousal and attention
Physiological zero
the normal temperature of the skin (between 86 and 97 degrees F)
Isolation by seasons (no interspecies sex)
similar species mate in diff seasons
personal unconscious
similar to Freud's notion of unconscious
(DSM-V) Binge-eating disorder
similar to bulimia nervosa, but without compensating purging activities
C. Hull
simple: performance=drive x habit (first motivated by drive, act according to old successful habits) Complex: (BI)= RT [D x S x T x I] Behavior Intention = Number of reinforced traits X (amount of biological Drive x Size/magnitude of goal x Time until animal allowed to pursue goal x intensity of stimulus that set off the behavior) (Hulling something is a behavior-what caused it?)
heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions
fixed action patterns
simply put-->instincts instinctual complex chains of behavior triggered by releasing stimuli; 4 characteristics: -uniform patterns -performed by most members of the species -more complex than simple reflexes -cannot be interrupted
autokinetic effect
single point of light in darkness appears to move (movement in own eyes)
pituitary gland
size of pea; controlled by hypothalamus; "master gland" of endocrine/hormone system. helps control (via secreting hormones): simple: pretty much all hormones complex: growth, blood pressure, some aspects of pregnancy/childbirth, breast milk production, sex organ function, thyroid gland function, metabolism, water regulation in body, water balance in body, temperature regulation, pain relief, sleeping patterns, oxytocin
a model that states that emotions are solely based on situational context of social interactions
social construction model
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. Provide a sense of social control despite them not being actual law.
meritocracy
society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement
macrosociology
sociology focuses on large groups and social structure
microsociology
sociology focuses on small groups and the individual
Sensorimotor cortex
somatosensory cortex + motor cortex
parietal lobe
somatosensory system: integrates/processes sensation to form a single perception (cognition) through somatosensory cortex (parent of senses lobe)
groupthink
the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group-unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform -->reach decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints
Precentral gyrus
the primary motor cortex is located on the
Taste buds
the receptors for taste are groups of cells called
ethology
the science of animal behavior
cognitive process dream theory
the sleeping counterpart to stream-of-consciousness while awake
Postcentral gyrus
the somatosensory cortex is located on the (located just behind the central sulcus)
morphology
the structure of words
belief
something a person considers to be true
excitation-transfer theory
sometimes we attribute excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to something else (or someone)
sound localization
sound is localized by the degree that one ear hears a sound prior to and more intense than the other high frequency=intensity difference low frequency=phase (timing) difference
Behavioral isolation (no interspecies sex)
specific courting displays require specific response
telegraphic speech
speech w/out articles or extras (like telegraph) (mommy go, daddy walk, doggie sit)
gamete
sperm or egg; haploid; only 23 SINGLE chromosomes
reflexes from what part of CNS
spinal cord
(DSM-V) Chapter- Personality disorders
stable, maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving might have symptoms earlier, but typically not diagnosed prior to adulthood some disorders now show gender differences -->antisocial personality disorder=more males -->borderline personality disorder=more females (borderline=long‑term patterns of unstable or turbulent emotions, often result in impulsive actions and chaotic relationships with other people)
theta waves
stage 1 of sleep, irregular waveforms, slow frequency
inner ear parts/process
stapes taps oval window; causes vibrations in fluid filled cochlea, activating hair-cell receptors on basil membrane and organ of corti (both in cochlea)
androgyny
state of being both very masculine and very feminine
Anxiety disorder
state of excessive uneasiness or apprehension about an imminent event or thing, causes state of heightened physical arousal than can be unpleasant and inhibit regular functions includes generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, specific phobias, panic disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorders
learned helplessness
state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; used as a model of depression
anomie
state of normlessness. anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality and isolation. a social condition in which norms are weak, conflicting, or absent
functional attitudes theory
states that attitude serves four function or four 'masters': knowledge, ego-expressive, ego-defensive and adaptive
demographics
statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology. one can analyze hundreds of demographic variables; some of the most common are age, gender, race, and ethnicity, sexual orientation and immigration status.
implicit personality theory
stats that people make assumptions about how different types of people, their traits, and behaviors are related. leads to stereotyping (ex: nerd)
a position in society used to classify individuals is called a
status
separation anxiety
strange situation-infant cries when mom leaves room
stranger anxiety
strange situation-infant cries when stranger enters room
Cortisol
stress hormone produced by the adrenal cortex
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stress hormone that increases production of androgens (male hormones) and cortisol (Adreno-adrenaline; ACTH-act-adrenaline makes you act) (like cortico-steroids; makes everything more stressful)
Superior Olive
structure that localizes sound
Utricle and saccule
structures sensitive to linear acceleration; used as part of the balancing apparatus to determine one's orientation in 3-D space
scaffolding learning
students work by self, teacher only helps when topic is beyond student's capability
cooperative learning
students work together in small groups on projects
L. Vygotsky
studied cognitive development; stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development (zone that learner can do with guidance) (vyGOT. COGnitive)
Kluver & Bucy
studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes; also studied the amygdala's role in emotions
H. Ebbinghaus
studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings (incidental vs intentional learning; implicit memory/relearning past learned; implicit/explicit memory)
G. Sperling
studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method
R. Zajonc
studied the mere exposure effect (develop preference for things because near them more); also resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant responses and impairs the emission of nondominant responses
symbolic interactionism
study of the ways individuals interact though a shared understanding of words, guesters and other symbols
lowball technique
Type of compliance that ask for a request and the person accepts the responsibility to find out later on he has more than what he bargain for
that's not all technique
Type of compliance that gives the individual an offer, but before making a decision is told the deal is even better then they expect
foot in the door technique
Type of compliance that start with asking for a small request then next time asking for a even higher request and so forth
resocialization
Type of socialization where the individual discards old behaviors in favor of new ones. These changes can be either positive or bad.
(DSM-V) Chapter- Elimination disorders
Typically occur in children; involve inappropriate patterns of urination and defecation
What characterizes the cognitive component of emotion?
subjective interpretation of emotion due to our past experiences and memories
choice shift
Use to be known as risky shift. Describes that the behavior change of a group as a whole
Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)
subjects detect stimulus because can and because want to (motivation) explains inconsistent responses to signal detections (TSD-think for signal detection)
objective personality inventories
subjects do not make own answers (subject records own responses) (multiple choice, true/false) objective=unbiased test
subliminal perception
subliminal messages-perceiving a stimulus that one is not consciously aware of
Panic attacks
sudden onset feelings of disabling anxiety, can cause SOB, rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, sense of impending doom (which can convince a person they are about to have a nervous breakdown)
physiological zero
the temperature sensed as neither warm or cold
attribution theory
the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior a way of explaining others' behavior by either one's disposition or one's situation
Mnemonic Variable-Ratio
VR stands for Variable-Ratio, but it can also stand for Very Rapid and Very Resistant to extinction
What characterizes the exhaustion phase of stress?
WHen the body can no longer maintain an elevated level of sympathetic nervous system activity, this is when you become the most susceptible to illness and mental conditions
just-world hypothesis
the tendency of individuals to believe that good things happen to good people and bad things to bad people ie karma
C. Spearman
suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g (spear men=cavemen; low intelligence because of g)
self-effacing bias
the tendency of people in collectivist cultures to attribute their successes to situational factors rather than to personal attributes and to attribute their failures to lack of effort
mental set
the tendency to approach similar problems in similar ways
confirmation bias
the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs, while ignoring information that goes against them
centration
the tendency to focus solely on one aspect of a phenomenon
T. Szasz
suggested that most of the mental disorders treated by clinicians are not really mental disorders; wrote "The Myth of Mental Illness" -don't call people "mentally ill" -thought schizo's shouldn't be treated because they are "artistic" (Szasz--pizazz. shizo's aren't crazy, just got some artistic pizazz)
problem space
sum total of possible moves one can take to solve a problem
Superior and inferior colliculus
superior=tectum; inferior=auditory reflexes both appear as bump on brainstem
Peg-word
system associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
affective component of attitude
the way a person feels toward something and is the emotional component of attitude
cognitive component of attitude
the way an individual thinks about something which is usually the justification for the other two component
Social Perception (Cognition)
the way by which we generate impressions about people in our social environment
mating system
the way in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior monogamy, polygamy, promiscuity
catecholamine (monoamine) theory of depression
theory of causation of mood disorders posits that too much serotonin and norepinephrine in synapses leads to mania, while too little of both leads to depression (other factors that can lead to depression include: high levels of glucocorticoids, unusually high glucose metabolism in the amygdala, and atrophy of hippocampus)
signal detection theory
theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions
Behaviorism
theory that all behaviors are conditioned
Whorfian hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)
Whorf: hypothesis : -language influences culture perspective/how reality is perceived -[more words you know about topic; more ideas you can have about topic] -USA number of words for color vs natives who use 2 words to describe colors should have different perspectives of colors -->turns out they still have similar perspectives; thus Whorf hypothesis incorrect (Dr. Who-cross culture-language)
Guttman Scale
Yes/No scale (2-point) to questions (gut feeling of yes or no yesman scale)
tri-color/component theory
Young-Helmholtz-3 types of receptors in retinas-cones for red, cones for blue, cones for green occurs in the retina
Reflex
a behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus
Episodic memory
a branch of explicit memory; our experiences
Semantic memory
a branch of explicit memory; the facts we know
Generalization
a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
arcuate fasciculus
a bundle of axons that connects broca and wernicke's area. allows association between language comprehension and speech production
psychoanalysis aggression
a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet (unconscious must be conscious)
unconditioned positive regard
therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
Gestalt therapy
therapist dialogues with client (no goal). Client learns from shared dialogue; focuses on "here-and-now" experience rather than talking about past (SIMPLY talk about present; no goal)
Cornea
a clear domelike window in the front of the eye which gathers and focuses the incoming light
Ciliary muscle
a component of the ciliary body that when contracted changes the shape of the lens; under parasympathetic control
deindividuation
a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self-awareness in groups
Membranous labyrinth
a continuation of the structures in the bony labyrinth; filled with endolymph; suspended within the bony labyrinth by perilymph
Parkinson's disease
a disease associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia; characterized by resting tremors and jerky movements and postural instability.
Stranger anxiety
a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals; develops at around 7 months
Separation anxiety
a fear of being separated from the parental figure; develops at around 1 year
Continuous Reinforcement
a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Perilymph
a fluid that suspends the membranous labyrinth within the bony labyrinth; the fluid also transmits the vibrations from the outside world and cushions the inner ear structures; the lymph that fills the outer two scalae; sound entering the cochlea through the oval window causes vibrations through this fluid which are transmitted to the basilar membrane
Basal Ganglia
a group of structures in the middle of the brain that coordinate movement as the receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord; makes our movements smooth and our posture steady; may play a role in schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder
Feature Detection
a model neuroscience that also expresses parallel processing; identifies visual pathways containing cells specialized in detection of either color, shape, or motion
fisherian/runaway selection
a particular trait has no effect on survival and becomes more and more exaggerated over time ex: peacock feathers
Primary reinforcer
a positive or negative reinforce that stimulates a natural reflexive response already
Endolymph
a potassium-rich fluid that fills the membranous labyrinth; the lymph that fills the middle scalae
Conditioned Response
a reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus (ex: salivating to the bell)
in-group
a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging
groupthink
a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision
Eye
a specialized organ used to detect light in the form of photons
Cochlea
a spiral-shaped organ divided into 3 parts called scalae
(DSM-V) Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
a subtype of major depressive disorder, with seasonal pattern
language acquisition device (LAD)
a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language
Basilar membrane
a thin, flexible membrane upon which the organ of corti rests
Vitreous
a transparent gel that supports the retina
Classical Conditioning
a type of associative learning that take advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli
fitness
ability to reproduce and pass on genes; fittest=those best suited to environment to successfully reproduce
theory of mind
ability to sense how another's mind works; once developed, we can recognize and react to how others think about us
self interest
about gaining rewards aka instrumental relativist stage because based on concepts of reciprocity and sharing
Negative symptoms
absence or lack of symptoms; which take away examples include blunting of affect, poverty of speech and thought, apathy, anhedonia, reduced social drive, loss of motivation, lack of social interest, and inattention to social or cognitive input
projection (defense mechanism)
accuse others of own unacceptable feelings (my doll misses daddy)
a voluntary status that is earned by an individual
achieved status
Factors to make easier to learn/retrieve
acoustic dissimilarity meaning dissimilarity shortness of term and length of list familiarity concreteness meaning importance to the subject
achieved status
acquired through direct, individual efforts (hard work and merit)
Mnemonics
acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember
beneficence
acting in a patient's best interest
saltatory condution
action potential jumping down nodes of Ranvier because of insulation of myelin sheath (conduction of nerve)
What characterizes the alarm phase of a stressor?
activation of the sympathetic nervous system, ACTH is secreted which causes the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol. Adrenal medulla also releases epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate the nervous system to elicit even more stress
Controlled (effortful) processing
active memorization
post conventional morality
adulthood, if at all; level of reasoning that not everyone is capable of; based on social mores, which might conflict with laws 5. Social contract 6. Universal human ethics
compassionate love
affection we feel for those w/ whom lives deeply entwined (compassion=more with family; intertwined)
esteem support
affirms the qualities and skills of the person efforts to make another person feel valued and competent
relative refractory period
after absolute refractory period; cell can fire only if stronger stimulus
McCollough effect
afterimages perceived because of fatigued receptors (McColor-left)
beta waves
alert, high frequency, randomly firing neurons, occurs when focusing on a task
alpha waves
alert, somewhat slower, occurs when relaxing
the use of excuses to account for questionable behavior
aligning actions
promiscuity
allows a member of one sex to mate with any member of the opposite sex without exclusivity
social mobility
allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities by achieving required credentials and experience. social mobility can either occur in positive upward direction or negative downward direction or horizontal and vertical when switching jobs intrageneration- changes in social status in one's lifetime intergeneration- changes in social status occur from parents to child
statistical (linear) regression
allows you to use correlation coefficients to predict y from an x (least-squares line or regression line is fit to the data) -->find line of best fit
sleep stage 1
alpha and irregular theta waves-lower in ampl, slower in freq; can remember because tired; lose response to stimuli
imposing an identity onto another person
alter casting
What are the major parts of the limbic system?
amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, cerebral cortex
class consciousness
an awareness of one's social category within a social hierarchy
Illusory correlation
thinking 2 unrelated things are related (illusion of correlation)
metacognition
thinking about your own thinking (thinking how to use strategies you know to help solve issue)
Halo effect
thinks if one has 1 good quality, then he has only good qualities
Self-serving attributional bias
thinks successes are because of self, situation blamed for failure
False consensus bias
thinks that most other people think as you do
zone of proximal development
those skills and abilities that are not yet fully developed but are in the process of development; requires a more knowledgeable other (aka an adult)
rational choice theory
an individual considers the rewards and punishments of the social action and chooses the option with the highest benefit to harm ratio (ie pros/cons list)
Prejudice
an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience (ex: propoganda spreads prejudice)
Discrimination
an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Carl Jung
thought of libido as psychic energy in general (not just sexuality) divided the unconscious into the personal and collective unconscious
reaction formation
an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
item analysis
analyzing how large group responded to each item on a test -->weeds out dud/problematic questions
takes place not only between humans and animals but between animals and animals, use of body language, visual displays, scents, and vocalizations are used
animal communication
instinctual drift
animal replaces learned response with instinctual one
inclusive fitness
animals investing in survival of own genes (kin); favored by natural selection over individual fitness (of self)
unconscious access
thoughts that have been represeed
absolute refractory period
time after neuron fires-no response to stimulation
cultural lag
time between changes, when ideas and beliefs (symbolic culture) are adapting to new material conditions (material culture) ex: technology rapidly changes but the idea of losing privacy is slow to catch up
serial-anticipation learning
to memorize list, recall one item at a time (e.g. anticipate what comes after each item. what's first item? 1. What comes after 1? 2; know 1 was correct because asked during second question)
(DSM-V) Conduct Disorder (simple definition)
antisocial disorder, but ONLY IN CHILDREN/teens
Unconditioned stimulus
any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response (ex: we salivate naturally when we smell bread baking in the oven)
deviance
any violations of norms, rule or expectation within a society
generation-recognition model
anything one might recall should easily be recognized (e.g. multiple choice) (if you can generate something, you should be able to recognize it)
Stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond, including all of the sensory inputs
phi phenomenon (with vision)
apparent motion-perceive smooth motion where there is none (e.g. movies; flipbooks) (phi-flipbook or philm/film)
mindguards
appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views
preconscious access
are not currently aware of these thought
ghettoes
areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities.
sympathetic nervous system
arousal mechanisms (blood circulation, pupil dilation, threat/fear response) "fight or flight"
persona archetype
aspect of our personality that we present to the world
cutaneous sensitivity
touch sensitivity (cutaneous=touch) (cuticles on fingers)
Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)
transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
transmit sensory information from receptors
Placenta
transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
vocational test
asses to what extend a person's interests match those already found by professionals in a field (vo-cation. no vacation-->personality job matching)
what is the dorsal prefrontal cortex responsible for?
associated with attention and cognition
Nondominant Hemisphere
associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition and special processing; less prominent role in language; more sensitive to the emotional tone of spoken language and allows us to recognize others' moods based on visual and auditory cues (usually the right hemisphere)
owls ears
asymmetrically vertically-can tell height better
cross fostering experiments
attempt to separate heredity and environmental effects (twin studies)
game theory
attempts to explain decision-making between individuals as if they are participating in a game
projection
attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else
Auditory impulse path
auditory system-->auditory cortex (olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, and medial geniculate body)
fertility rate
average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population
Problem-solving
avoiding trial-and-error learning and instead taking a step back, observing the situation and taking decisive action to solve the challenges they face
conscious access
aware of these thoughts
language development 9-12 mos
babbling
blooming and pruning
baby's neural pathways "bloom" (abundance of new connections); unused connections "pruned"/die out
retina
back of eye; receive light images from lens, made of photoreceptor cells
where the individual is not in front of an audience and is free to act outside of his desired image
back stage
Labyrinth Sense
balance function of the inner ear
sleep stage 0
before sleep; alpha waves-low ampl, high freq; can remember because still awake
cued recall
begins the task, cues your LTM (e.g. fill in blank)
antinormative behavior
behavior against someone's normal behavior
functional autonomy
behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior
Type A
behavior is competitive and compulsive
semantic effect
believe in conclusion because of what you think instead of logic (your semantics error actual logic--global warming)
opiates and opioids
bind to opioid receptors in the CNS and PNS, decreased reaction to pain, euphoria
Albert Bandura
bobo doll-children copied what adults did to the doll; including mimicked aggression towards the doll (Bandura-bobo-beat bobo)
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
body feeling->emotion (J-L theory; jitters-love. body-emotion)
Malleus
bone of the ossicles; affixed to the tympanic membrane; hammer
Incus
bone of the ossicles; anvil
distribution curve Platykuric distribution
trapezoid looking curve
Motor impulses
travel along efferent fibers
justice
treating similar patients similarly and distributing healthcare resources fairly.
Hermaphrodite/intersex
both genitals (usually female fetus; too much testosterone)
What is on the physiological level of maslow's hierarchy
breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretement
icon (w/ memory)
brief visual memory, lasts ~1 second (eye-con; icon)
types of economy
capitalist- free market trade driven by consumerism socialist- larger industries are collective and compensation is provided based on work contribution (profit is distributed equally to workforce)
Auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve
carries the electrical signal from the organ of Corti to the CNS
Pinna or Auricle
cartilaginous part of the outer ear; channels sound waves into the external auditory canal
Dissociative Fugue
causes person to be unable to recall their own personal history and go on a journey for a few hours or days typically ends suddenly with full restoration of personal history and memories
Depersonalization (derealization) disorder
causes person to either feel detached from his own body and mind (depersonalization - out of body experiences) or from his surroundings (derealization - unreal dreamlike world) ***NO psychotic symptoms experienced!
Dissociative amnesia
causes person to forget important personal info or past experiences it is often caused by trauma and is not due to neurological disorder can be generalized (whole life forgotten), continuous (everything since is forgotten), or selective (only some events during period forgotten) usually ends suddenly and full memory is recovered
Behavioral criticisms
treats symptoms, not underlying problem
luteinizing hormone/lutropin (LH)
triggers ovulation; increases estrogen or (in males) testosterone
neurocognitive models of dreaming
try to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating subjective and cognitive experiences of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
middle ear parts
tympanic membrane (eardrum; stretched across auditory canal) ossicles (3 small bones that vibrate in response to tympanic membrane; malleus->incus->stapes) (Middle ear=membrane->MIS) (or hammer, anvil, stirrup->HAS)
Babinski reflex
causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
glial cells
cells that support neurons (structure, nutrients, etc) includes oligodendrites and Schwann cells
What does an emotional focused stress response entail
center on changing one's feelings about a stressor, taking responsibility for an issue, engaging in self control, distancing oneself from the issue, engaging in wishful thinkings
Foeva
centermost point of the retina; contains only cones
Telencephalon(prenatal)
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system divide from prenatal
Cerebral hemispheres
cerebrum is divided into two halves
imprinting
certain species; young attach/imprint on first moving object they see at birth; subject to sensitive learning period (won't occur after time)
Posterior chamber
chamber between the iris and the lens
Anterior chamber
chamber in front of the eye, in front of the iris
obedience
changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure
Accommodation
changing the shape of the lens
sublimation (defense mechanism)
channeling threatening devices into acceptable outlets (e.g. working out) sublet-->outlet
locus of control
characterization of the source of influences on the events in one's life; internal or external
secondary socialization
type of socialization that occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environment
latent content
unconscious forces dreams are trying to express
paranoid personality disorder
characterized by a constant mistrust and suspicion of other people and their motives causing a person to be guarded and self-sufficient (sometimes can be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia) cluster a
schizoid personality disorder
characterized by a pattern of detachment from people, including family members and loved ones, and limited range of emotional expressions (tend to be loners with no interest in social interaction) cluster a
Cluster A
characterized by behavior that is odd in comparison to common expectation paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders
Cluster C
characterized by behavior that is overly anxious or fearful Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders
Cluster B
characterized by behavior that is overly dramatic, emotional, and unpredictable Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders
pheremones
chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ; most primitive form of communication btwn animals; fear or sex receptiveness
Watson's developmental behavioristic approach
children passively molded by environment; behavior emerges through imitation of parent
Parkinson's disease
chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia; characterized by jerkey movements and uncontrolled resting tremors
race
classifies people based on physical traits social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people. they may be real or perceived differences.
Rational-Emotive theory criticisms
cognitive and behavior; RET called too sterile and mechanistic (treats symptoms, not underlying reason for them)
object relations theory
under psychodynamic theory; object = representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during infancy; persist into adulthood and impacts interactions with others
Generalized anxiety disorder
undue persistent worry about many different things for 6+ months; may result in trouble sleeping, fatigue, muscle tension...
self-concept
collection of beliefs about oneself; a cognitive or descriptive component of one's self "I am..." instead of "I feel.." -->belief of what you are, not emotion towards
conscience
collection of improper actions for which a child is punished
limbic system
collection of structures from cerebrum, interbrain, and midbrain located on both sides of thalamus, under cerebrum includes: olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus functions-4 F's: fleeing, feeding, fighting, f--king, also EMOTION (fight or flight, eat, sex--limbs needed). emotion
Ganglia
collections of cell bodies outside the CNS
cones
color; daylight vision; less cones than rods-->cones see better cones=complex=color cones=center (of retina)
multiculturalism
communities or societies containing multiple cultures
t-tests
compare MEANS of 2 diff groups; see if groups significantly different; measures continuous data (numerical data) (e.g. data of males vs data of females) (t-test-->two item tests)
quasi-experiment
compares 2 groups of people like experiment; but not feasible/ethical to use rando assignment (e.g. use eligibility cutoff mark instead of rando assignment--->randomly assign people to two different groups based off of a certain factor; not completely random, but necessary) (quasi-experiment=kind of an experiment...so close but not quite)
hallucinogens
complex brain interactions with neurotransmitters, distortions of reality, enhancement of sensory, increased heart rate, pupil dilation
timbre
complexity of sound wave
Central Nervous System (CNS)
composed of the brain and the spinal cord
Posterior pituitary
comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones
obedience
concerned with avoiding punishment
atmosphere effect (in regard to information)
conclusion influenced by the way the info is phrased (atmosphere of sentence causes error)
hyperthymesia
condition where you form highly detailed episodic memories (near perfect memories) (like episode in House MD-can recall details from any day)
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
conditions that lead to confirmation of stereotypes
Erik son's stages of personality development
conflict mastery of each stage is not required to move onto the next; trust vs. mistrust autonomy vs. shame and doubt initiative vs. guilt industry vs. inferiority identity vs. role confusion intimacy vs. isolation generatively vs. stagnation integrity vs. despair
Collins and Quillian/connectionism
connectionism=searching cognitive semantic hierarchies-further items are in hierarchy, longer to see connection -->also called parallel distributive processing (connections of everything through hierarchies Collins-->connect through lines)
Eustachian tube
connects middle ear to the nasal cavity which helps equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the environment
What is the ventral prefrontal cortex responsible for?
connects regions of the brain together which are all responsible for experiencing emotion.
Cognitive theory
conscious thought patterns=main role in life; how you view experience (not the experience) is important; maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behavior/disturbed affect
suppression
consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
Somatic Nervous System
consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles
histrionic personality disorder
constant attention seeking may dress in flashy clothes, behave seductively to be center of attention, employs dramatic means to express an emotion (but emotion itself is shallow and transitory) cluster b
looking-glass-self
construct which relies on others reflecting our selves back to ourselves
excessive stereotyping
construction of stereotypes against outside opinions
Septal Nuclei
contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain; there is an association between these structures and addictive behavior
Cerebrum
contains cerebral cortex (both hemispheres); limbic system
manifest content
content of dream, provides info about latent content
content validity
content of the test covers goods sample of construct being measured (not just part of it) (all of content valid?)
moon illusion
context affects perception-moon seems bigger in horizon because visual cues at horizon make it seem further; no cues in the sky if further, but seen as same size, it is bigger
motor task learning
continuous tasks easier to learn than discrete tasks continuous=bike riding (one motion) discrete=chess (diff infos)
cerebellum
controls functions of balance and coordination of motor movement; maybe also skill learning
basal ganglia
controls large voluntary muscle movements (movement, speech); degeneration related to Parkinson's and Huntington's disease (base going movements-big muscle movements)
Anterior Hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior; stimulation can cause lab animals to mount inanimate objects; damage here leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity in some species; regulates sleep and body temperature as well
tectum
controls vision and hearing (tec=tick-hear clocks stick, see a tic)
Cognitive theory goal
correct maladaptive cognitions
simuli hit
correctly sensing a stimulus
systematic desensitization
counterconditioning -classical condition to relieve anxiety (step by step, towards more anxious provoking)
medicare
covers patients over the age 65, those with end stage renal disease and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ALS
medicaid
covers patients who are in significant financial need.
neuron cell membrane
covers whole neuron; selective permeability to sometimes let positive ions through
Maccoby & Jacklin
criticized sex studies: -few existed that couldn't be explained by social learning -most consistent difference-->females have greater verbal ability, males have greater visual/spatial ability (Mac and Jack says gender studies lack; suggests social learning pack)
environmental injustice
uneven distribution of environmental hazards in communities. lower income neighborhoods may lack the social and political power to prevent the placement of environmental hazards in neighborhoods. leads to health hazards and increase health risks
latent functions
unexpected, unintended or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions (ex: forges stronger relationships through conventions)
P. Ekman
cross-culture research-humans have 6 basic emotions: -sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust -Code facial expressions for emotion with Facial Action Coding System (FACS coding) (Paul Ekman's facial expression) (Every MAN's expression) (planet's ekman's emotions)
Somatic disorders
unified by somatic symptoms (bodily symptoms) that can cause stress and impairment includes: somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder
cues of bx
cues are used to understand bx: consistency- consistent bx of a person over time consensus- how much does the person's bx differ from the norm distinctiveness-does the person use similar bx in different senerios
cultural barrier
cultural difference that impedes interaction ex: greet colleges, eye contact, handling disagreement, eating at business meals, small talk.
a shared set of beliefs, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme, as is found among people sharing the same language and geography
cultural syndrome
proposition
units of meaning in a sentence (has a subject and predicate)
selective breeding
unnaturally selected breeding to increase chances of producing offspring with wanted traits
thanatos
death instincts; unconscious wish for death and destruction
mortality
deaths caused by a given disease
goal of Analytical therapy
use unconscious messages in order to become more aware/closer to full potential
gambler's fallacy
decisions based on recent experiences (the most readily available information) overestimating/underestimating a recent event will occur again (e.g. rolling a 7 four times on dice, expect 7 again soon)
Nature
defined as hereditary, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior
culture
defined as the beliefs, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people
sexual orientation
defined by one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes.
Alzheimer's Disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus, although its exact causes are not well understood; loss of recent memories before distant memories
generalizability
degree to which result from experiment can be applied to population and real world
predictive value
degree which independent variable can predict dependent variable
manifest functions
deliberate actions that serve to help a given system (ex: medical conventions)
pragmatics
dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
operational definitions (for a paper)
describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within the context of your study
normative conformity
desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
J. Wolpe
developed method of systematic desensitization to eliminate phobias (Wolf-get rid of the scary wolf; wolPe-wolf phobias)
H. Rorschach
developed the Rorschach inkblot test, a projective test designed to measure personality
Gibson & Walk
developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception (Walk=walk off cliff)
psychoanalysis criticisms
developed theories from single case studies of women from 1800s and 1900s—not a scientific method
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
develops after exposure to an overwhelming traumatic event, causes recurring and troubling recollections of original event, as well as nightmares, flashbacks, propensity to avoid stimuli that are associated to the event To be diagnosed one must have experienced a traumatic event with at least 1 month of symptoms including: 1+ intrusion sx (disturbing memories/dreams/feelings) 1+ avoidance sx (avoiding thoughts, memories, activities, people, places associated with or trigger memories of event) 2+ negative effects on cognition and mood (memory loss, persistent negative emotional state, detachment, inability for positive emotions) 2+ altered arousal and reactivity sx (difficulty sleeping, lack of concentration, irritability, heightened startle response)
ectoderm
develops into nervous system (along with skin)
Collins & Loftus
devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory (closeness of association between words --> speed of response about relationships between them)
Geographic isolation (no interspecies sex)
diff species breed in diff areas
transformational grammar
differences between surface and deep structure: surface structure-the way words are organized (i studied for hours, for hours i studied) deep structure-underlying meaning of sentence (whatever order, meaning is ___)
cohort-sequential design
different ages genders, income, etc. AND longitudinal approach (both between and within subject) (cohort=group of similar people, sequent=long time)
Instinctive drift
difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors
rods
dim light; night vision; black and white; concentrated on sides or retina (peripheral vision); more rods than cones (peripheral vision larger) rods=roads; black; dark vision vision=darker on sides/peripheral; thus concentrated on sides of retina OR rods=right (and left) side of retina
neurotic needs
directed toward making life and interactions bearable; become problematic when fit one of four criteria 1. disproportionate in intensity 2. indiscriminate in application 3. partially disregard reality 4. tendency to provoke intense anxiety
E. Titchner
discovered structuralism (which was short lived) (opposite of Gestalt. talt at end vs tit in beginning of names)
fogetting curve discredited
discredited for memory of everything because experiments based on memorizing lists of nonsense syllables
phonemes
discrete sounds that make up words (ee, p, sh) (1 or 2 letters each) hard to distinguish one language's phonemes from other languages (cat has 3: c-a-t/ck-ah-t)
Disorganized-type schizophrenia
disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, and flat affect/expression (negative symptom) disorganized speech includes rhymes, free association, pairing of similar sounds and disorganized behavior is illogical without any goal (laughing for no reason)
unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion
display rules
Somatic symptom disorder
displays at least one symptom of a physical illness or injury that cannot be explained entirely by a general medical condition, is not the direct effect of a substance, and is not the effect of another mental disorder patient devotes a disproportionate amount of time and concern towards worrying about it causing elevated levels of anxiety diagnosed after 6+ months of recurrent somatic complaint(s)
retroactive/retrograde interference
disrupting info that is new that makes you forget past STM (e.g. trying to learn words, hear about party, forget the new words) causes retroactive inhibition (interference to old info-the retro/old memory is active)
Central sulcus
divides the frontal and parietal lobes
says that individuals create images of themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience
dramaturgical approach
impossible objects
drawn object, can be perceived, can't be made (triangle thingy)
problem-solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you're sleeping and a way to interpret obstacles
activation-synthesis theory
dreams are caused by random neuronal activity which mimics sensory information
type A personality
drive, competitive, aggressive, tension, hostility; middle to upper class men -->can lead to heart disease, other health issues (heart disease problems more likely with social isolation, potentially caused by type A personality)
Antabuse
drug that changes metabolism of alcohol; results in severe nausea and vomiting when combined with alc (ant-a-abuse-->anti alc abuse)
Psychopharmacology criticisms
drugs that take away symptoms don't provide interpersonal support
self-discrepancy theory
each of us have three selves; actual self, ideal self, and ought self; the closer the 3 selves are, the higher our self-esteem and self-worth
conventional morality
early adolescence to adulthood; individuals begin to see themselves in terms of relationships to others; understanding and accepting social rules 3. Conformity 4. Law and Order
6 social institutions
education family religion government economy medicine
defense mechanisms
ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of id and super ego; deny, falsify, or distort reality; act unconsciously; 8 main defense mechanisms
electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
electric current induces convulsions; effective intervention for severely depressed patients
EEG
electroencephalogram measures electrical activity of brain (diff when sleep, relaxed, or when abnormal)
law of good continuation
elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together
reaction formation (defense mechanism)
embracing feelings/behaviors opposite to true threatening feelings that one has (e.g gay guy hating gays)
attachment
emotional bond to another person
four Jungian archetypes
emotional elements: persona, anima, animus, shadow
conformity
emphasis on seeking approval of others
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CTB)
employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory
Working Memory
enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information (ex: this is the form of memory that allows us to do simple math in our heads)
Semantic encoding
encode the meaning of information by putting it into a meaningful context
Vygotsky: cultural and biosocial development
engine driving cognitive development was the child's internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language, etc. zone of proximal development
ethnic identity
ethnic group; common ancestry, cultural heritage, langugae
K. von Frisch
ethologist who studed communication in honey bees
diploid
every cell in body except sperm/egg, 23 PAIRS of chromosomes
diffusion of responsibility
everyone waits for someone else to act in large group
optic array
everything in a person's vision; trains people to perceive
mimicry
evolved form of deception (e.g. harmless snake colors of dangerous snake)
role-taking
ex: kids play house or school practice for later in life, child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others
second sickness
exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice ex: wealthy professionals have longer life expectancy than working class
Introspection
examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings (such as own mental state) Wundt adopted introspection to experimental psych
compensation(defense mechanism)
excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another
monogamy
exclusive mating relationships
Jean Piaget
experience interaction between internal maturation and external experience that creates qualitative change (through assimilation and accommodation)
Gestalt goal
exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present -->successful therapy connects client and present existence
language development 18-20 mos
explosion of language and combining words, gesturing
internal validity
extent which questions measure/test the same thing
genetic drift
extinction of genotypes in population due to natural selection (genetics drift away because of selection)
Down's syndrome cause
extra chromosome (trisomy 21)
Jung's 3 dichotomies of personality
extraversion vs. introversion sensing vs. intuiting thinking vs. feeling
stigma
extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of the society
slum
extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation.
Sensory memory
eyes and ears take in an incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings that we can recall with amazing precision for a very short time (generally under 1 second)
malingering (DSM-V)
fabricating or exaggerating the symptoms of mental or physical disorders for a variety of "secondary gain" motives (skipping jail, getting drugs, etc.) -staying sicker longer so more rewards (mal lingers)
What characterizes the behavioral component of emotion?
facial expression and body language. How we learn to project our emotions
bogus pipeline
fake lie detector used to try to get more truthful answers in self-report
the group into which an individual is born, adopted, or married
family group
wider nerve fiber correlates with
faster conduction of inpulses
H. Spencer
father of psych of adaptation -used Lamarckian evolution (characteristics in lifetime can be passed on) -physiology associationism to understand people
ambiguos figures
figure can be seen 2 ways (rabbit/duck)
Aqueous humor
fluid that bathes the front part of the eye before draining
functionalism or functional analysis
focuses on the function of each component of society and how these components fit together
overjustification effect
follows self-perception theory -->we must not want to do things we're paid to do (will lose interest in singing after starting to get paid to do it) (overjustifying reason to do something)
Skinner box
food for pressing lever, pain for something else (e.g. waiting)
secondary/elaborative rehearsal
for STM; organizing and understanding material to move to LTM (TRICK: secondary-uses multiple ways to remember (first read word, second understand; elaborative=elaborate to understand)
power
form of influence over people
Korsakoff's Syndrome
form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain; marked by retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia and confabulation
sexual selection
form of natural selection; some out-reproduce others because they're better at securing mates
spacial inequality
form of social stratification across territories and their populations and can occur along residential, environmental, and global lines. comparing environments and how the population changes in that space
ritual
formalized ceremonial behavior in which members of a group or community regularly engage. it is governed by specific rules including appropriate behavior and a predetermined order of events. ex: weddings and holidays
Forebrain
forms the largest portion of the brain by weight and volume
Dizygotic (DZ)twins
fraternal twins
What is on the love/belonging level of maslow's hierarchy
friendship, family, sexual intimacy
prefrontal cortex
front part of frontal lobe; integral link to person's personality
where the individual is seen by the audience and strives to preserve his desired image
front stage
4 lobes of the surface of the cortex
frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world
patient HM
given lesions of hippocampus to treat epilepsy; could no longer store new LTM (HM-hippocampus)
approach-avoidance conflict
goals have both pros and cons; if further from goal, you focus more on pros. if closet to goal, focus more on cons
morphology/morphological rules
grammar rules for morphemes
frequency polygon
graph w/ plotted points, connected by lines (measuring frequency)
phrase
group of words that form single syntactical part of sentence (walking the dog)
occurs when members begin to conform to one another's views and ignore outside perspective
group think
somatotropin
growth hormone from pituitary
secondary process
guides ego; aim of reality principle is to postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained
Paranoid-type schizophrenia
hallucinations and delusions
Psychedelics
hallucinogens, psychotomimetics (mimic psychosis) -->alters perception, emotion, and mood increases serotonin activity e.g. LSD (acid) and weed (makes people very happy-->serotonin)
Auditory Cortex
handles sound information sent from the MGN in the temporal lobe for sound processing
Pheromones
have a debatable effect on humans but play a big role in many animals' social, foraging and sexual behavior
proletariat
have-nots
bourgeoisie
haves
Adoption studies
help us understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior by comparing similarities between an adoptive child and their relatives
M. Sherif
used autokinetic effect to study conformity-->people would be grouped in room; shown light (effect), conform to exact distance light moved; would differ when experiment repeated and asked alone also performed Robber's Cave experiment and found that having superordinate goals increased intergroup cooperation (sheriff - comform or else)
dichotic presentation
used for auditory perception and selective attention-2 diff messages in each ear; must shadow/repeat one message so the other one is not attended to (di-cho-->2 echoes)
Undifferentiated-type schizophrenia
used for cases that meet all the general requirements of disorder but is not categorized as paranoid, catatonic, or disorganized-type "catch all"
Cones
used for color vision and to sense fine details; come in 3 forms, and are most effective in bright light
George Kelly
used himself as a model about human nature; personal construct psychology
token economies
used in therapeutic settings; positive behavior rewarded with tokens
number of sound waves per second
hertz; we best hear around 1000 Hz
reinforcement hierarchy
hierarchy where higher up the reinforcer is, the better the reinforcement is (Premack Principle-higher up activities/reinforcers reinforce activities below them)
play therapy
used w/ children; during play, child expresses what they might not out of play
Age 2
high activity level, walks backwards, can turn doorknob, unscrew jar lid, scribbles with crayon, stacks six cubes, stands on tiptoes, able to aim thrown ball, selfish and self-centered, imitates mannerisms and activities, may be aggressive, recognizes self in mirror, "No" is favorite word, parallel play, use of pronouns, parents understand most, 2 word sentences, uses 250 words, identifies body parts by pointing
Brainstem
hindbrain + midbrain; Evolutionarily developed earlier; more primitive functions
Fornix
hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through these long projections
Melatonin
hormone secreted by the pineal gland regulating circadian rhythms
hierarchy of salience
how our identities are organized; let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance at any given moment
Semantic Network
how the brain organizes ideas; concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
achievement test
how well you know subject (measurement of actual performance/info form the past)
syntax
how words are put together to form sentences
Pleasure principle/primary process (psychoanalysis)
human motivation to seek and avoid pain (most noticeable in early life): ID
nativist (biological) theory of language development
humans have an innate capacity for language. Chomsky.
social exchange theory
humans interact in ways that maximize reward, minimize cost
Bipolar II disorder
hypomania and major depressive episodes which cycle back and forth
Cyclothymic disorder
hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes that are more mild but persistent for 2 years with symptoms never absence for period longer than 2 months (less severe version of bipolar II disorder)
Hypophyseal portal system
hypothalamus and pituitary gland are spatially close to each other and control is maintained through paracrine release of hormones into this system which directly connects the two organs
primary process
id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later
Freud's ideas on personality
id, superego, ego
Long-term potentiation
if a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density
Spontaneous Recovery
if an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again after a period of time, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
Collective rationalization
ignoring warning against the idea of the group
displacement activities/irrelevant behaviors
illogical behavior with no survival function (e.g. scratching head when thinking)
identification (defense mechanism)
imitating central figure in one's life (act like boss, dress like parents, etc.) (identify as someone better to be better)
refers to the maintenance of a public image, which is accomplished through various strategies
impression management
fundamental attribution error
in a negative context, we are more likely to form a bias towards someone's actions as dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions (ex: group project, they were lazy)
the group where one identifies with
in group
Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN)
in the thalamus; sound information ascends from the brainstem to this before being projected to the Auditory Cortex
functional fixedness
inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
anhedonia
inability to feel pleasure (hedonism=pleasure; this is opposite)
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces-can know that looking at face, can't tell who's face it is (pro...so..nosia=problem someone's nose. who's nose?)
resting potential
inactivated state of neuron; negative charge; cell membrane lets no ions in
Extrinsic motivation
include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved. An external, tangible reward.
Mechanical isolation (for no interspecies sex)
incompatible genitals
Positive Reinforcers
increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior (ex: money)
Stimulants
increase activity of CNS; heighten energy level and arousal increases norepinephrine and dopamine effects by being reuptake inhibitors e.g. amphetamines, meth, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, convulsants (makes heart fast-norepinephrine, enjoy feeling-dopamine)
sham rage
incredible rage easily provoked when cerebral cortex removed (in animals. not humans. that would be silly....we need that cortex)
Individual Theory 4 personality types based on...
individual activity and benefit to society
identity
individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong; we can have multiple identities that define who we are and how to behave
personal construct psychology
individual thought of as a scientist, devising and testing predictions about behavior of significant people in their life. construct a scheme of anticipation of what others will do
peripheral route processing
individual who focus on superficial detail such as the person appearance or how well they voice their opinion
central route processing
individual who scrutinize the detail of an argument and seek to understand the purpose and significance of the information and drawing a conclusion from it
Punishment
uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
perceiver
influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state
kinesthetic sense/proprioception
info from receptors in joints and muscles that tell us about position of our own body
Automatic Processing
information that is gained without effort is said to be the result of this
instinct
innate physiological representation of a biological need
Instincts
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli
spine makeup
inner core of gray matter; outer core of white matter; all go to and from brain
aggression (Lorenz's)
instinct, not learned-necessary for natural selection
Primary view of motivation
instincts that elicit natural behavior to maintain optimal levels of arousal, the drive to reduce uncomfortable states, and the goal of satisfying physiological and psychological needs
tachtiscope
instrument used in cognitive/memory experiments; presents image to subject for fraction of a second (tap-image-scope=few seconds of image instrument)
using flattery or conformity to win over someone else
integration
WAIS-R
intelligence test for children 6-16 (-R=revised for younger)
passionate love
intense longing for union with another; profound psych arousal (passion=lust; high arousal; want to be with someone)
biological clocks
internal rhythms that keep animals in sync w/ environment
Drives
internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals
social capital
investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards. social networks, either situational or positional are one of the most powerful forms of social capital and can be achieved through establishing strong and weak social ties.
ascribed status
involuntary and derives from clearly identifiable characteristics such as age, gender, skin color.
Dissociative disorders
involve disruption or breakdown of perception, identity, memory, or awareness, as tool for avoiding significant stress
Method of loci
involves associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Specific phobias
irrational fear and avoidance of one specific thing (most common type) examples include: acrophobia (fear of heights), agoraphobia (fear of situation in which escape is difficult), claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces), arachnophobia (fear of spiders)
Top-down (conceptually driven) processing
is driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations.
brightness
is physical intensity
hue
is specific color; dominant wavelength of light
Preparedness
it is easier to learn behaviors that coincide with natural behaviors; it is difficult to teach behaviors that work against natural instincts
corpus callosum
joins brain hemispheres
halo effect
judgement of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual forming an impression of an individual based on a single trait (ex: judy is pretty, therefore she's nice)
family
father, mother, kids, siblings, uncles, aunts, grandparents regulate reproduction, socialize and protect children value providing for kids, sexual fidelity, clean home, respect based on culture, value systems beliefs, practices gender, age, race, ethnicity. norms are being faithful and reproduction
globalization
further inequalities in space, food and water, energy, housing and education as the production of goods shifts to cheaper and cheaper labor markets. this has led to significant economic hardship in industrializing nations.
made up of two or more individuals with similar characteristics that share a sense of unity
groups
dysfunctions
harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium.
affordable care act
increased coverage rate and affordability of insurance for all Americans by reducing the overall costs of healthcare.
exchange theory
like rational theory and operant conditioning but focuses on groups bx met by approval will be reinforced bx met by disapproval will be punished
false consciousness
misconception of one's actual position in society
prevalence
number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time; cases per 1000 people per year. the percentage of a population displaying a disorder during any specified period. =total cases/total population
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
-most recent approach to profoundly depressed patients -fewer side effects than ECT -magnetic fields stimulate frontal lobe
Freud Personality Developmental Stages
-oral-birth-18 months; oral pleasure -anal-18mo-3yrs; pleasure of control and release of feces -phallic-3-6yrs; pleasure from self stimulation of genitals-->boys=Oedipus complex; girls= electra complex; both resolve conflict by identifying w/ same-sex parent -latency-6-puberty; repressed sexuality; identification with same-sex friends; focus on school and growing up -genital-puberty-adult life-hormone reawaken sexual instincts; love object now nonfamilial (Freud: Our AmPLe Genitals) (18mo-3yrs-6yrs==>18= 3 x 6; followed by puberty, then adult)
Gender differences-nature v nurture debate
-prevailing point of view=interactionist (both)
assertive training (behavioral counterconditioning)
-provides tools/experience where client can become more assertive (believed assertiveness incompatible with anxiety)
test of significance
-reject null hypothesis -Significance (p-value) level less than decided alpha value (typically of <.05 or <.01) -Alpha=threshold value determined by experimenter to determine significance (usually .05, .01)
discriminative stimulus
-relates to reinforcement (operant conditioning) -The specific stimulus doing the teaching/relating to a reaction, providing context for response (discriminative stimulus elicits a response/behavior, response is either reinforced or punished)
illusory correlation research problem
-relationship is inferred where there is none (illusioned correlation)
Tinbergen experiments
-stickleback fish-get red bellies in spring; releasing stimuli=red belly (caused aggression) -herring gull chicks-peck at parent's bill at red dot when hungry (releasing stimuli=dot)-->supernormal sign stimulus (dot hit even harder even when unnatural contrasting of red dot) (Tinbergen and Lorenz; Timber innate actions; bergendy spots on fish)
Cannon-Washburn theory and experiment
-stomach contraction theory-we are hungry when stomach contracts -put balloon in stomach, inflated, no longer felt hungry -later disproven when hunger felt by those with stomach removed (heartBurn? Wash down with a balloon)
social desirability-research problem
-subjects do and say what they think puts them in favorable light
psychoanalysis therapy
-unique-see patient 4-5 times a week for many years -hypnosis; free association-->allows uncovering/discharge of repressed emotion (catharsis)
Changing behavior consequences (behavioral/operant technique)
-usually referred to with term "behavior modification" remove positive reinforcement with negative behavior and add it with appropriate, adaptive behavior e.g. kid yelling-don't pay attention to him. move to empty bedroom if too much. kid doing right behavior=praise
Examples of Primary Drives
-what motivates us to sustain biological processes -food, water, shelter, sex, motivate us to maintain homeostasis
Erik Erikson Stages
0-18mo-3-6-teen-young adult-middle age-old (18=3x6), teen adult old adult, old babies trust, preschoolers try independence (autonomy), elemenatry schoolers initiate education (no more play), preteens feel inferior/incompetent, teen find self (identity crisis), graduates find love and get babies, adults are productivity, old have wisdom or despair
trust vs. mistrust
0-1; if resolved, child will trust environment and himself
R. Descartes
"I think, therefore I am" -dualism/mind-body problem -->mind is nonphysical substance separate from the body
Hypothalamus
(Forebrain) Hunger and thirst; emotion
Thalamus
(Forebrain) Sensory relay station;
Limbic system
(Forebrain) emotion and memory
Calculating IQ (Binet scale)
(mental age/chronological age x 100) -chronological age stops at 16 because intelligence stops developing
Somatosensory cortex
(parietal lobe) a projection area that is the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; involved in somatosensory information processing
William James (1842-1910)
(person) Father of American Psychology; one of the first theories of Functionalism : system of thought in psych that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
Paul Broca (1824-1880)
(person) functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions; studied behavioral deficits in people with brain damage
John Dewey (1859-1952)
(person) psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to environment; Criticized the reflex arc (breaks down process of reacting to stimulus into discrete parts)
Myer-Brigg Type Indicatory (MBTI)
-93 questions, 2 answers each -gives 4 letter "personality type" -introverted v extroverted -sensing v intuition -feeling v thinking -judgment v perception (my personality type)
Jerry Fodor
-Language is independent from other cognitive systems (e.g. perception) -Influenced study of language acquisition -Unknown if language learning principles same as other cognitive learning principles
Projective personality tests (examples)
-Rorschach inkblot -thematic apperception test (TAT) -Rosenweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) study (cartoons where one person frustrating another; describe how frustrated person responds) -Word association -Rotter incomplete sentence -Draw-a-person test (draw person of each sex; tell story about them)
Greek Psych History
-Socrates-original philosopher -Plato-Socrates' pupil; physical world was not all that could be known; abstract philosophy -Aristotle-Plato's pupil; first professor (Greek Spa-socrates plato aristotle)
On-line measurement of sentence processing
-Studying readers' eye movements and neural responses (reading is on-line/continually reading lines
Histrionic Personality Disorder (DSM V)
-characterized by a pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking. -Their lives are full of drama (so-called "drama queens"). -They are uncomfortable in situations where they are not the center of attention -uncomfortable being alone (most pride; center of attention)
W. Kohler
-chimps experiments w/ insight -not gradual learning, instant learning -developed theory of isomorphism (one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain) (anti-nazi; pro ape) (Kohler-->k-OH! ler)
extinction
-classical conditioning ended -caused by CS unpairing with UCS or lack of reward
aversion therapy (behavioral counterconditioning)
-classical conditioning to INCR anxiety (add anxiety where there was none; e.g. fetishes) (antabuse=for alcohol)
spontaneous recovery
-classical conditioning-CS and UCS spontaneously repaired -typically followed by another extinction
split-half reliability
-compare individual's performance on 2 halves of same test -reveals internal consistency of a test
Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test
-cross culture intelligent test for children -based on detail and accuracy of drawing of man, not talent
Freud Personality Development
-driving force for development=sexual (BIOLOGICAL) needs -5 stages -over/underindulging stage results in fixation -stress later in life may cause regression
cohort effects (research problem)
-effects resulting from a group born and raised or experiencing a certain experience in the same particular time period
Client-Centered therapist's job/role
-empathy-stand in client's shoes -unconditioned positive regard-facilitates trusting/safe environment -genuineness/congruence-act genuine with clients instead of professional reserve (Rogers-patient is awesome, if you're positive)
medulla oblongata and pons
-entry and exit points for 12 cranial nerves; deals with autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate, blood pressure -contain reticular formation/reticular activation system (general arousal)
sunk cost
-expense incurred that can't be recovered -best strategy-ignore them when making decisions -->money already spent is irrelevant to the future
K. Lewin
-founded social psych -applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior -conceived field theory -Divided leadership styles into three categories: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire -autocratic leaders created more hostility than democratic ones
self (Analytical/Jung)
-full individual potential; symbolized by figures-Buddha, Jesus, the mandala (Hindu)
Freud major changes
-greatest conflict-libido (sex) and ego--->eros (life instinct-sex/love) and thanatos (death instinct; including self-destruction)-"aim of all life is death" (death=most discredited theory of Freud)-->both part of id -life is topographic where conscious elements openly acknowledged and unconscious many layers below conscious--->life is structural, mental life has particular organization instead of layers (id, ego, superego)
T. Hobbes
-human and animals were machines -sense/perception was all that could be known (conservative-people savage)
id, ego, superego
-id=unconscious bio drives and wishes -ego=mediator -superego=socially learned morals/social drives all 3 fight for acknowledgement and expression; how ego handles this is mental health
What are the stages of cognitive appraisal of stress?
1) Primary appraisal- initial evaluation of environment and the associated threat. If phase one reveals stress, then phase 2 begins 2) secondary appraisal- directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. Harm, Threat, and Challenge then evaluated, then decide how to deal with the stress
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
1-3; if resolved, will feel able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice and self-restraint
Horney: 3 strategies child uses in relationships
1. moving toward people 2. moving against people 3. moving away, withdrawing
four theories of personality
1. psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) 2. humanistic (phenomenological) 3. type and trait 4. behaviorist
Eight factor that are indicative of groupthink by Irving Janis
1.Illusion of invulnerability 2. Collective rationalization 3. Illusion of morality 4. Excessive stereotyping 5. Pressure for conformity 6. self-censorship 7. illusion of unanimity 8. Mindguards
language acquisition timeline
1yr=first words 2yr=>50 spoken words in 2 then 3 word phrases 3yrs=1000 word vocab, many grammar errors 4yrs=grammar problems are random exceptions (1, 2, 3, 4 years. 1=first words; 2=2 word phrases, some words (>50); 3=1000 words (lots; second to last in timeline so words but errors; 4=language acquired)
Forebrain areas
2 areas: posterior forebrain/interbrain (highest/last layer before cerebrum) and the cerebrum (outer layer of brain) (fore-before last layer/cerebrum)
Ponzo illusion
2 equal horizontal lines appear unequal because 2 more vertical lines slant inwards-like train tracks (ponzo-Z has 2 horiz lines, one of the slanted lines)
between-subject
2 groups of people at same time
distribution curve-bimodal curve
2 humps-->median mean same, mode both higher and lower
major depressive episode
2+ weeks of depressed feelings for most of the day everyday; must include at least 5 of the symptoms below with at least 1 being depressed mood or anhedonia - decreased energy - sleep disruption - change in appetite - substantial change in weight - feels of guilt or worthlessness - difficulty thinking - anhedonia - thoughts of suicide
Freud's access to id, ego, and superego
3 categories: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious
initiative vs. guilt
3-6; if resolved, will feel sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities, ability to enjoy accomplishment
cerebral cortex
4 lobes-frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal F-POT (in order) (Cortex=>core components)
Piaget's moral development
4-7 yrs: imitates rule-does not question acceptance of rules 7-11yrs: understands rules-follows them 12+yrs: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change if all parties agree (Rules follow development/ages: preop-talk barely; concr oper-talk; formal oper-abstract thinking)
Basic tastes (gustation=taste)
5: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (meaty/savory) most taste receptors on tongue (taste buds/papillae): sweet-front tip salty-sides of front sour-sides of mid bitter-back of tonuge umami-middle of tongue (sweat sour bitter umami-->swee-alt, sour bitter, umami)
Kohlberg: moral reasoning
6 stages with 3 phases; personality develops based on the development of moral thinking
industry vs. inferiority
6-12; if resolved, will feel competent, able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence, be able to affect the world the way you want
integrity vs. despair
65+; favorably resolved with wisdom, detached concern with life itself, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and acceptance of a worthwhile life, readiness to face death
Opponent Process Theory
A common explanation for drug use. To counteract the changing physiology due to a drug, your body causes you to respond in the opposite way. For example, alcohol decreases arousal, so your body will try to increase its overall arousal to respond. After the effect of the drug is over, we will still feel the effects of our body's attempt to counter the drug. That is what withdrawal symptoms feel like. The prevention of withdrawal symptoms keeps people coming back for more (negative reinforcement)
perceptual organization
Ability to use top-down and bottom-up in tandem
Individual Theory
Adler people are creative, social, and whole (humanistic-people are good) people are in the process of realizing themselves/"beginning"; INFERIORITY felt when current self doesn't match self-ideal motivation=social needs healthy individual has "will to power" (power of not being inferior) (indiviDLE-->aDLEr) -4 personality types
"will to power"
Adler/Individual-a quest for feelings of superiority; on this quest-pursue goals outside of himself and beneficial to society-->power to help society (humanistic, people good) (power=opposite of inferiority)
Socially useful type (sanguine)
Adler/Individual-high in personal activity; high in social contribution; healthy (sanguine-sanWIN-everything good)
Ruling-dominant type (choleric)
Adler/Individual-high in personal activity; low in social contribution; dominant (choleric=coal-dominant, does nothing)
Getting-leaning type (phlegmatic)
Adler/Individual-low in personal activity; high in social contribution; dependent (phlegm-sucks for you, helps immune system/everyone)
Avoiding type (melancholic)
Adler/Individual-low in personal activity; low in social contribution; withdrawn (melancholic-everything sucks)
Mnemonic:Afferent and Efferent
Afferent neurons ascend in the cord toward the brain; efferent neurons exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body.
strange situation attachments
Ainsworth- -secure: ran and clung to mom, explored environment -avoidant: ignored/avoided mom -ambivalent: squirmed/kicked if mom tries to comfort
creative self
Alder; force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and shapes his personality
fictional finalism
Alder; individual is motivated more by his expectations than by past experiences
style of life
Alder; represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority
Individual theory criticisms
Alderian therapy is best used with "normal" people in search of growth
Projective personality tests
Allows subject to create own answer; facilitating expression of conflicts, needs, impulses
Trait Theory general idea
Allport--People act differently in diff situations because trait hierarchy -top=cardinal trait -then central traits -then secondary traits -->circumstances may show conflicting secondary traits; (AllporTRAIT) *cardinal trait is always consistent
Trait Theory basis
Allport-ideographic approach- -observe conscious motives of proprium (like Freud's ego) -proprium acts consistency based on traits developed by experience attempted to go through all traits; find best ones (lexical approach) (Allport-all traits)
What is the Schacter Singer theory of emotion?
Also termed the cognitive arousal theory. Both arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. "I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy". A person much analyze the environment in relation to the nervous system arousal. An unknown arousal and an environment which encourages some arousal over the other creates emotion
collective unconscious
Analytical/Jung-dynamics of psyche inherited from ancestors; contains archetypes
personal unconscious
Analytical/Jung-material from individual's own experience (can become conscious)
Motherese
Anne Fernald universal way parents speak to children-potentially helps children mark word and sentence boundaries
supernormal sign stimulus
Artificial stimuli exaggerating naturally occurring sign stimulus-more effective than natural releaser
Hippocampus
Associated with creating memories which is most likely be associated with particular emotional responses. The ability to create and retrieve emotional memories is key to producing emotional responses. Creates context for memories and will lead to emotional experiences
shaping
B.F. Skinner rewards for acts that lead to desired act (get close to lever, paw touch lever, etc.) also called differential reinforcement of successive approximations is also behavioral counterconditioning technique
behaviorist personality perspective
B.F.Skinner; concepts of operant conditioning; personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time
observational learning (to fear)
Bandura -relieving intense fear and anxiety by having someone you identify closely with get closer and closer to fear and interacting with it. ends with you joining person to approach and interact with fear (e.g. step near dog, then pet dog if afraid of dog)
lexical decision task
Basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords
Incentive Theory
Behavior is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments.
cultural relativism
Belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards ie another culture is different from one's own. not better or worse. just different
Ganglion cells
Bipolar cells synapse with these cells
(DSM-V) Chapter- Bipolar and related disorders
Bipolar disorder mania symptom required patient no longer needs to show depression to be diagnosed occupies a "bridge" position between schizophrenia and depressive disorders because of similarities between the two -depression diagnosis exactly same as depressive disorders
EXAMPLE: someone steps on a nail. Receptors in foot detect pain and pain signal is transmitted by sensory neurons up to the spinal cord connects to interneurons which can relay pain impulses to the brain.
But internuerons in spinal cord don't wait for brain to send out a signal; they send signals to both legs directly; the individual withdraws the foot and puts more weight on the other foot before the the original sensory info makes it up to the brain.
higher order/second-order conditioning
CS now acts as new UCS
Backward conditioning
CS presented after UCS presented Proven to be ineffective; even inhibits future conditioning
Forward conditioning
CS presented before UCS (normal) -delayed conditioning=CS presented until UCS occurs -trace conditioning=CS starts and ends before UCS presented (time gap between CS and UCS) (trace=time gap)
trace conditioning
CS starts and ends before UCS presented (time gap between CS and UCS) (trace=time gap)
W. Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery (penfield-used pen to map out field of brain during surgery; used electrodes)
Cattell's 16
Cattell took Allport's 5,000 traitsl identified 16 bipolar source traits (e.g. relaxed-tense)
What characterizes physiological responses of emotion?
Changes in sympathetic responses, such as breathing rate, heart rate, blood pressure, temperature. Things that we cannot control that we are experiencing
personalizing
Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -inappropriately taking responsibility (team lost because of me)
magnifying/minimizing
Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -making too much/too little of something (luck is why i did well)
overgeneralization
Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -mistaking isolated incidents for the norm (no one will ever want to date me)
Beck-Cognitive Triad
Cognitive-negative views about: self, world, future (cognition=you, everything else, future) causes depression (Beck-Bad CKognition-->depression)
Hypochondriasis
DSM-IV-R (old) disorder that accounted for both somatic symptom disorder and illness anxiety disorder (dropped due to pejorative connotation it acquired)
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Depolarization, ions pushed inside cell; incr chance cell will fire
(DSM-V) Chapter- Sleep-wake disorders
Disruption in quality, amount, or timing of sleep
Anterograde Amnesia
Drastic and irreversible loss of memory for any new information; not being able to establish new long-term memories
Drive Reduction Theory
Drives help human to survive by eliminating uncomfortable states, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by unmet needs
opponent-color/opponent-process
E. Hering-2 types of color-sensitive cells exist: cones for blue/yellow; cones for red/green (when one color active, other inhibited. explains afterimage) occurs in lateral geniculate nucleus (in brain) (opponent-color; Hering-->opponents Hiring)
Expectancy-value theory
Edward Tolman Expectations and personal values affect behavior BI = (AB)V1 + (SN)V2 behavioral intention= a value of attitude toward performing the behavior + a subjective norm to perform a behavior/a value of an expectation to perform the behavior (expectancy to do a behavior=how you feel about attitude + if you usually do the behavior) (later developed into Theory of Reasoned Action; same equation)
Rational-Emotive theory goal
Effective rational beliefs (E) to replace previous self-defeating ones; client's thoughts, feelings, behaviors can coexist
What is the adaptive role of emotion or the evolutionary perspective?
Everything we do, think, and feel is based on specialized functional programs designed for any problem we encounter which create a cohesive response
(DSM-V) Chapter- Anxiety disorders
Exaggerated responses to objects or situations that can be disabling
"Will to meaning"
Existential theory-individual is constantly striving to rise above simple behavioral existence (toward meaningful existence) (it's exactly what it sounds like)
Mnemonic: Lobes of the Brain
F-POT; Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
phrenology
F. Gall-skull/head discerned personality types (gall...skull)
J. Rousseau
French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society (liberal; people good/noble savages) (opposite of Locke)
phallic/Oedipal stage
Freud's third stage (3-5); resolution of Oedipal conflict for males and Electra conflict for female children; males envy father's relationship with his mother and wants to kill dad; feels guilty about these feelings and deals with guilt by identifying with father; de-eroticizes or sublimates libidinal energy. Females thought to have penis envy
Secondary Gains (DSM-V)
Gains relating to mental illness obtained through external motivators These are gains that are given to a patient in addition to the illness - Missing work that you don't like due to illness - Getting medications that feel fun - Avoid jail sentence
Primary Gains (DSM-V)
Gains relating to mental illness obtained through internal motivators produces positive internal motivations A person will feel less guilty knowing they have a mental disorder causing them to not work efficiently (Primary gains-->motivation improved because not your fault that bad)
pragnanz
Gestalt idea experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and SIMPLEST when possible (pragnanz=prego nuns-what's the SIMPLEST reason for this experience?)
disturbances of awareness
Gestalt-client may not have insight or client may not fully experience his present situation (not acknowledge certain good parts of experience)
Attribution theory
Heider- how people infer the cause of other's behavior (dispositional vs situational) (HideR--hidden reason-why behavior?)
High self-monitors vs Low self-monitors
High self-monitors-easier to modify their behavior based on the situation; more likely to change their beliefs and opinions depending on who they're talking to Low self-monitors consistent throughout all situations. High self-monitors will have more dating and sexual partners; more likely to choose a romantic partner who is attractive but unsociable Low self-monitors are more likely to choose a partner who is unattractive but sociable High self-monitors more likely to take on leadership positions than low self-monitors
drive-reduction theory
Hull A Reinforcer is anything that reduces a drive for a biological need (thirst, hunger)
DSM-V 3 Major Sections
I. Introduction and clear information on how to use the DSM II. Provides information and categorical diagnoses III. Section III provides self-assessment tools, as well as categories that require more research
(DSM-V) Chapter- Feeding and eating disorders
Includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and now binge-eating disorder
confabulation
Incorrect memories (completely made up or small details changed) Caused by psychological or neurological disorders No conscious intention to deceive
Hawthorne effect
Industrial/Organizational Psychology -subjects alter behavior because being observed -->anything they did at company increased productivity (HA! effect-get paid for doing nothing, see difference in company)
Off-line measurement of sentence processing
Interrupt people as reading, ask to write down what they remember (reading becomes off-line/interrupted)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders
Involve externalizing, acting-out behaviors that are often harmful to other people DSM recognizes a conduct disorder in children often transitions to a diagnosis of antisocial personality (anti-society; manipulating/disregard for others for own games) disorder in adulthood
Analytical Theory
Jung-similar to psychonalytic (stems from Freud) -human psyche directed to life/awareness (not sex) -psyche (ego) has personal quest for wholeness -ANALYZE personal unconscious and Collective unconscious-ARCHETYPES -psychopathology is signal that something's wrong in makeup of psyche; provides clues about how one can become more aware (psychoanalytic-psycho. Freud's student=just analytic) -ANALYZE cross cultural stories/consistencies; Jung-->Jesus ideal
Weber's Law
K=∆I JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE for all senses (constant fraction=increase in intensity needed for just noticeable difference/original intensity) a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be noticeable different -3 bowl experiment (cold, room temp, hot) (derived from Fechner's law)
Heinz dilemma
Kohlberg's most famous moral problem; answers used to create his stages ((expensive drug for wife-steal or let her die?) Kholberg moral problem (not stealing ketchup, stealing medicine for wife)
force field theory
Kurt Lewin; little stock in constraints on personalities, such as fixed traits, habits, structures (id, ego, superego). Doesn't focus on past or future, focuses on present
Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation
Law that states that being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinder the performance of less familiar task
Blocking effect
Learning one association between a CS and UCS will block the subject from learning any other CS to predict UCS (hard to create multiple associations for UCS after one already made) (the irony in confusing this with backward masking-associating definition to masking instead of blocking effect is kind of a blocking effect)
just world bias
Lerner-believe in karma; if good person has bad happen, he must've done bad **often used as "blaming the victim" in court-->blame the victim because he deserved it so defendant is innocent Lerner-learn life's tough-just world bias
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
Located where the brain meets the spinal cord. Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. (vital functioning)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Substance-related and addictive disorders
Long list of substances that can lead to substance-use problems or problems that are induced by substances, such as withdrawal syndromes
drive-reduction theory proved false by who? and how?
M.E. Olds-electrical stimulation of pleasure center in brain as positive reinforcement (M.y E.lectrical O.verride for pleasure)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Depressive disorders
Major depressive disorder, Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Gate Control Theory of Pain
Melzack and Wall (walls have a gate) pain perception related to interaction of nerve fibers running to and from spine (a "gate" in the spinal cord); pain might not be perceived based on diff factors (including COGNITION)
Explicit Memory
Memory of facts and events (semantic and episodic memory). Context of an emotion.
2-point threshold
Minimum distance between 2 stimulations on the skin to be perceived as 2 diff stimuli determined by density/layout of nerves
Two-point threshold
Minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin so they will be felt as two distinct stimuli
personality tests
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)-most used; adult personality; self-report (focus on clinical diagnosis) California Personality Inventory (CPI); self-report inventory; (focus on how person describes behavior around him) Henry Murray-Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT); story cards; people will project own needs onto the cards (MMPI-->my mental points; CPI-->crowd personality; TAT-->tattoos/images-story cards)
cognitive prototype approach
Mischel- -Examines behavior in social situations -->consistency of behavior is result of cognitive processes NOT personality traits
consistency paradox
Mischel-trait theory criticism- difference in personality by situations (minister is adulterer) (Mischel-Mind chisel-cognitive processes chisels behavior, not traits. anti-air Mischel-->anti-trait missile)
Self-Enhancement
Motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem Involves a preference for positive over negative self-views (Biased-improving self-view by pursuing favorable self-knowledge) [Enhance self view-biased towards positive]
evolutionary stable strategy
Natural selection will prevent alternative strategies form arising. ex: Hawk-Dove game, rock paper scissors, chicken
(DSM-V) Autism spectrum disorder
Neurodevelopmental disorder communication problems, social relatedness problems, unusual rituals/interests
(DSM-V) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Neurodevelopmental disorder inattentiveness OR hyperactivity OR both that is inconsistent with developmental age treated by stimulants-amphetamine salts (dopamine reuptake inhibitors)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Gender dysphoria
New chapter in DSM-V Occurs when individual's experienced or expressed gender is not congruent with his or her assigned gender Controversies over this topic; emphasizes the remediation of the individual's distress
T. Newcomb
Newcomb model-->A-B-X A=message sender (e.g teacher) B=message receiver (e.g. student) X=issue of concern (e.g. more homework) A and B work in same relationship; relationship with x might affect their relationship/flow (ruins equilibrium) (Newcomb-->new concern ruins relationship)
Poverty of the Stimulus
Noam Chomsky -language is unlearnable without supplemental innate grammar knowledge because limited data is available to children learning a language
physiological zero
Normal temperature of skin (86-97F)
Language in nonhuman species
Not seen [speaking yes (parrots), language and rules, no] Most advanced language=chimp sign language, but no syntax, novel constructs, and language is less advanced than 3 year old child
two-factor theory of avoidance
O. H. Mowrer Explains aversive conditioning/phobias better combined classical conditioning (pair of phobia stimulus and fear) and operant conditioning (avoiding phobia stimulus leads to negative reinforcement-removing fear/anxiety) (avoidance=phobia)
syntax
ORDER of words into sentences as prescribed by language (subject verb object)
Big 5 Traits
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism/nervousness stems from Eysenck's work and Cattell's 16 personality factors
DSM-V Organizational Changes
Organization of chapters designed to demonstrate how disorders are related to one another Disorders are framed in age, gender, developmental characteristics
Stress
Our response to challenging events,
efferent fibers
PNS-runs away from CNS (efferent=>elsewhere, far out, everywhere, eff-further out)
afferent fibers
PNS-runs towards CNS (afferent=>approaching CNS; affter affected, go to CNS)
too little dopamine
Parkinson's disease (movement is difficult)
Gain-loss theory
People act to gain and avoid loss
Instinct Theory
People are driven to do certain behaviors based on the evolutionary programmed instincts. Main contributors include William James and William McDougall
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to keep optimal levels of arousal, decreasing it when it is too low and increasing it when it is too high
reciprocal liking
People like others better when they believe the other person likes them
stereotype content model
People stereotype across two dimensions: competence and warmth warmth - those who aren't in direct competition with the ingroup competence- those who have high status in society
subliminal perception
Perception of a stimulus below the threshold for conscious recognition
K. Clark & M. Clark
Performed study on doll preferences in African American children (used in Brown v. Board of Education); black and white children preferred white dolls Clark and Clark dolls (white and dark dolls)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Somatic symptom and related disorders
Person is distressed by somatic symptoms, usually pain, either resulting form normal body functions or not associated with a medical condition Psychologists treat this distress, which is real for the patients, regardless of the nature of the underlying causes
What is the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion?
Physiological arousal and feeling of an emotion occur at the same exact time, not in sequence. A person should be able to mount an emotional response even if there is no physiological stimulus. Claims that sensory information is received and sent to both the cortex and the sympathetic nervous system simulatneously by the thalamus. The behavioral response is last "I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing...Let me out of here!"
Embryonic stage
Physiological development -lasts until end of second month; organ formation
Fetal stage
Physiological development -third month to birth; quantitative growth movement; slowest pace of growth of baby
Germinal stage
Physiological development ~2 weeks, zygote down fallopian tube; grows into 64 cells (cleavage); blastocyst implants self into wall of uterus
What are the three elements of emotion?
Physiological response, behavioral response, and cognitive response
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
Physiological, safety, love/belong, esteem, self-actualization. Says that you will not be motivated to achieve a higher level until you completely fulfill lower levels of the pyramid most essential needs are at the base
assimilation
Piaget-fitting new info into existing ideas (assimilate into a group-fit into existing group; like adding air into a balloon) ass-inflation
accommodation
Piaget-modifying cognitive schema to incorporate new info (accommodate someone-change for someone; like turning your round balloon into the shape of a poodle) accommodate-you change for a date
Malthusian theory
Population growth is exponential, and the growth of Food Supply is arithmetical Basically- Population tends to increase faster than food production thus lead to shortages and starvation
Kohlberg Phase 1
Pre conventional morality 1. Obedience 2. Self-interest
Thalamus
Preliminary sensory relay station of the brain, where all the sensory information is originally sent and is relayed to different parts
Somatosensation
Pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
What are two categories of strategies for coping with stress
Problem focused strategies and emotionally focused strategies
Implicit Memory
Procedures, things you don't have to think about to just do. How your body will feel during the experience of a particular emotion and will express it in the future
Aronson & Linder
Proposed gain-loss theory of attraction-->(gain or loss of positive feedback from the other person has more effect on liking than the absolute level of feedback) (e.g. compliment from person who hates every one better than compliment from common supporter; like hateful person more) (A&L-add and loss; Linder-tinder. Add and loss of liking)
Darley & Latane
Proposed-two factors could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility (Darley->diffusion of responsibility; Latane->lack of helping)
color spectrum and order
Rainbow colors low freq to high-->start with red to purple (red=relaxing, blue=destroys melatonin and hurt sleep)
(DSM-V) Bulimia nervosa
Regular consumption of large amounts of calories at a sitting, leading to feelings of guilt and loss of control and followed by efforts to purge the calories by use of vomiting, laxatives, etc.
Hypothalamus
Releases hormones and neurotransmitters, drives hunger, thirst, sex drive, and modulates emotions by releasing hormones and neurotransmitters that effect those emotions
releasing stimuli/releasers/sign stimuli (Lorenz's)
Releasing stimuli-one individual of species eliciting an automatic, instinctual behavior triggers another individual to a behavior in same species (Lorenz worked with Tinbergen) (Lorenz-imprinting of ducks) (Ralph Lauren duck boots)
(DSM-V) Chapter- Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
Repetitive disturbing thoughts (obsessions) with ritualistic, repetitive behaviors (compulsions) 1 hour or more per day in compulsive behavior indicates problematic behavior
Age 3
Rides tricycle, stacks 9 cubes, alternates feet going up stairs, bowel and bladder control, draws recognizable figures, catches ball with arms, cuts paper w/ scissors, unbuttons buttons, fixed gender identity, gender-specific play, understands "taking turns", knows full name, complete sentences, uses 900 words, understands 3600 words, strangers can understand, recognizes common objects in pictures
(D)Speech, reading, writing, arithmetic; (N) emotions
Role of Dominant/Nondominant Hemisphere in Language
(D) letters, words; (N) Faces
Role of Dominant/Nondominant Hemisphere in Visual system
(D) complex voluntary movement; (N) none
Role of Dominant/Nondominant Hemisphere in movement
(D) none; (N) Geometry, sense of direction
Role of Dominant/Nondominant Hemisphere in spatial processing
Fechner's Law
S=k log(R) (sensation strength=a logarithm of original intensity) sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. Fechner= S=k logR Feck-her=seKs heR=S equals K log R
Stephen's power law
S=kI^B sensation is proportional to stimulus intensity raised to a power; k is a contant
poverty
SES. poverty line is determined by the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire minimum necessities of life. lack possessions and financial resources
G Miller
STM has capacity ~7 items
(DSM-V) Chapter- Schizophrenia-spectrum and other psychotic disorders
Schizophrenia -Positive symptoms: Hallucinations, experience delusions, demonstrate disorganized thinking or speech, experience movement disturbances -Negative symptoms: social withdrawal, lack of motivation, emotional disturbance -Typically lower levels of activity in frontal lobes
Learned helplessness
Seligman after enough events when one out of control of events (presence of reinforcements unrelated to responses); external locus of control -->combat with cognitive training fostering learned optimism
somatotypes (literal means=body type)
Sheldon -Endomorph-short fat-pleasure-seeking, social (endo-all about self and insides) -->endo-inside, all me -Mesomorph-muscular athletic-energetic, aggressive -->meos-muscle -Ectomorph-skinny fragile-inhibited, intellectual -->ecto-beyond the body, intellect
Radical Behaviorism
Skinner's operant ideas that behavior is related ONLY to consequences (no need to focus on mental states); everything we do is behavior
Depressants
Slow CNS; puts person to sleep; facilitates GABA production, can stop glutamate activity -alcohol -barbiturates (usually end in -al, e.g. pentothal)-very deadly when mixed with alcohol because exponentially multiplies effects -anxiolytics (anti-anxiety drugs); e.g. valium, xanax
constituents
Smaller units of sentences (the man traveled slowly=the man and traveled slowly; each of the two phrases are made of two smaller constituents, one word each) People process meaning of sentences one constituent at a time (constituents broken up to smaller parts=cons, tit, ents) (cons-sentence-broken sentence)
social cognition
Social process that focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
threshold of conscious perception
Stimulus below threshold will arrive at CNS
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Telencephalon & Diencephalon divide from prenatal____
response bias
Tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors
What is Darwin's Theory of emotion??
That each human evolved with the same set of muscles in the face, therefore muscles are predispositioned to express some universal emotions despite different experiences and different cultures.
What are the three commonly discussed theories of emotion?
The James-Lang Theory The Cannon-Bard Theory Schacter-Singer Theory
Parallel processing
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape and motion
Self-Verification
The drive for a self-concept congruent with one's identity (they want others to think what they think about themselves) People's self-views will cause them to see the world as more supportive of these self-views than it really is [Verify self-biased towards positive]
Self-Assessment
The drive for an ACCURATE self-concept -->seek information to confirm their uncertain self-concept rather than certain self-concept -->enhance their certainty of their own self-knowledge Only self evaluation interested in the ACCURACY of their current self view, rather than improving their self-view [Assess Accurate view-no bias]
Mnemonic LGN and MGN
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is for light; the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) is for music.
What side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions?
The left
difference threshold
The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference
absolute threshold
The minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.
What is the James Lange Theory of emotion?
The original stimulus leads to physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which emotion is labeled. When your sensory system encounters physiological changes, then your body labels it as an emotion, then a behavioral response "I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high"
Perception
The process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations.
Arousal
The psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli
Psychophysics
The relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensation and perceptions they evoke
recursion
The repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistic element or grammatical structure examples: -Great-great-great grandchild -He was a tall, handsome, witty doctor often used to create expressions that modify or change the meaning of one of the elements of the sentence (more specific) (can have as many as you want)
Bogardus Scale
The scale asks people the extent to which they would be accepting of each group social distance scale-would you accept ___ into your group? (family, country, etc.) (usually measured 1-7-->1=will do, 7=won't do) (boo-guard us or add us?)
labeling theory
Theory that states labeling of a person causes that person behavior to change to conform to that labeling or conformity to the society
indicator traits
Trait that signifies overall good health and well-being of an organism
Sensory Neurons
Transmit information through afferent fibers
catch trials
Trials in which the signal is presented
social interaction
Type of group processing that explores the way in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behaviors
simultaneous conditioning
UCS and SC presented at same time
cognitive neoassociation model
We are likely to respond more aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions (hungry, tired, sick, frustrated, in pain)
Pituitary gland
a gland located at the base of the brain that is divided into two parts: anterior and posterior
Anterior pituitary gland
a gland that releases hormones that regulate activities of the endocrine glands elsewhere in the body which will produce their own hormones released into the bloodstream; controlled by hypothalamus
limbic system -
a group of neural structures in forebrain primarily associated with emotion and memory.
subculture
a group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture
free-recall learning
a list of items learned; must be recalled in any order with no cue
Dementia
a loss of cognitive function
Broca's area
a man can't talk because of a lesion in the left side of the brain
inclusive fitness
a measure of an organism's success in the population bases on the number of offspring able to go on to support their own offspring
Chunking/clustering
a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning
Serotonin
a monoamine/biogenic amine that plays roles in regulating mood, eating sleeping and dreaming; is thought to play a role in depression and mania
GABA (gama-aminobutyric acid)
a neurotransmitter that produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain; causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
neonate
a newborn child or mammal born with well-developed immunity to various infections (this wears off after ~6 months)
Conditioned Stimulus
a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response (ex: ringing the bell to signify meat for the dogs)
Source Amnesia
a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained
State-dependent memory
a person's mental state affects recall (ex: being in a foul mood primes negative memories)
target
a person, object, or place which the perception is made
Nervous system
a relatively fast communication network that uses chemical messages called neuro transmitters
Endocrine System
a relatively slower communication network in the body that uses chemical messengers called hormones that travel through the bloodstream
Serial Position Effect
a retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list (primacy and recency effect)
Interference
a retrieval error caused by the existence of other (usually similar) information
Cerebellum
a structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements; Located at the top of hindbrain, mushrooming out of the back of the pons; Damage here causes clumsiness, slurred speech and loss of balance; Alcohol impairs the functioning of the it and affects speech and balance
Amygdala
a structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors including fear and rage; when damaged, aggression and fear is reduced; lesions here result in docility and hypersexual states
Thalamus
a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory impulses; sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex; it is a sensory "way station"
formal operational stage
abstract relationships; logic
identification
acceptance of other's ideas without questioning them
marijuana (THC)
acts as a cannabinoid receptor, glycine receptor, and opioid receptor, increases GABA activity, increases dopamine activity
Positive symptoms
additive symptoms examples include delusions, hallucination, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior and catatonia
Positive Punishment
adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior (ex: thief arrested for stealing)
Residual-type schizophrenia
after worst symptoms have resolved and requirements are no longer met can still have mild symptoms of disorder
Dissociative identity disorder
aka multiple personality disorder 2+ personalities (can be quite varied) (often result of severe physical or sexual abuse during childhood)
Behavior Theory
all behavior based on learning; changes maladaptive behavior through new learning
Cerebral cortex
also called neocortex; outer surface of the brain
self-perception theory
alternative explanation to dissonance theory-->when unsure of beliefs, people develop attitudes and opinions by observing their own behavior and drawing conclusions from it. (e.g. You realized that you like classical music because you listen to it a lot)
4 alternatives for game strategy
alturism-donor benefits to recipient at cost to himself cooperation- both benefit from cooperating spite- both are negatively impacted selfishness- donor benefits while recipient loses
retrograde amnesia
amnesia that makes you forget past (like interference to old info-the retro/old memory is active)
anterograde amnesia
amnesia that makes you unable to gain new memories (like interference of new info-the pro/new memory is active)
Expectancy value theory
amount of motivation need to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success and the degree at which she values succeeding at the goal
Association area
an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions
Elaborative Rehearsal
an association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory
Hypervigilance (relating to PTSD)
an enhanced state of sensory sensitivity accompanied by an exaggerated intensity of behaviors whose purpose is to detect threats; also accompanied by a state of increased anxiety which can cause exhaustion caused by norepinephrine
Sundowning
an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening; a phenomenon that occurs in individuals with middle to late-stage Alzheimer's
Tricyclics (TCAs)
antidepressant-potent, used for sever depression fewer side effects and medical complications than MAOIs
Hypothalamic Hormones (specific)
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) aka vasopressin and oxytocin
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
any ions in cell released to outside, causes hyperpolarization (more negative than outside); decr chance cell will fire
Olfactory Chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves)
are located in olfactory epithelium and in the upper part of the nasal cavity; chemical stimuli must bind to their respective chemoreceptors to cause a signal; different chemoreceptors recognize subtle differences in similar scents
fovea
area of retina with greatest visual acuity; filled with mostly packed cones (best at seeing fine details); responsible for sharp central vision (f+POV=fov (fine point of view)
projection areas
areas in which the brain tissue seems to form a "map" of sensory information
Projection areas
areas which perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks
Synaptic Pruning
as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brain's ability to process information
involuntarily assigned to an individual based on race, ethnicity, gender, family background and so on
ascribed status
Empirical-keying assessments
assessments involving selection of items that can discriminate between various groups -->responses to the items determine if he is like a particular group or not (assessing to see if any questions can key specific experiences/types of people)
knowledge function (master)
attitude help provide organization to thoughts and experiences and knowing the attitude of others help to predict their behavior
Stereotypes
attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals
reactance
attitudes change in response to feelings that your options are limited (with conformity): refusal to conform to either a blatant attempt to control, or a forewarned attempt to control (changed options because realized they were limited) (take a sTANCE when you REAlize)
mortality rate
average number of deaths per population size over time, usually measured as the number of deaths per 1000 people per year
Stereotype threat
aware about negative stereotype so they preform worse based on anxiety and confirm stereotype
empirical
based on observation/experience rather logic/theory (empirical-->experiences)
nationality
based on political borders; shared history, media, cuisine, national symbols
a model that states that there are universal emotions, along with corresponding expressions that can be understood across cultures
basic model
id
basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce; functions according to pleasure principle (aims to achieve immediate gratification)
Type B
behavior is generally laid back and relaxed
dispositional approach
behavior is primarily determined by an individuals personality
situational appraoch
behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context
Neobehaviorism
behavior should be the focus of stud, but also accept speculation of human mind (e.g. if baby albert repeated w/ neobehav.-research why babies innately scared of loud noises) newest behaviorism=most open/mixed with cognition
flooding/implosive therapy
behavioral counterconditioning -classical conditioning to relieve anxiety (overexpose to anxiety causer until used to it)
Dollard and Miller
behaviorist theorists-combined psychoanalytic concepts with behavioral framework (Freud's anxiety=signal for danger) -frustration-aggression hypothesis-->dollar and mad (work is frustrating, causes anger)
paired-associate learning
behaviorist; one item is learned with another; the "another" item cues recall of first item (the associations are paired)
token economy
behaviors give you tokens/secondary reinforcers that can use to get primary reinforcers (jail, mental institutes, etc.)
courting
behaviors preceding sex acts to reproduce; isolates and attracts mate of same species
taboo
behaviors that are socially unacceptable
lens
behind cornea; focuses image of outside world onto retina (like lens of camera) (only part of eye to accommodate)
proximity
being physically close to someone convenient, mere exposure effect/ familiarity effect
optimism bias
belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us
ciliary muscles
bends (accommodates) lens to cause lens to focus (only muscles in eyes-lens needs to move)
dual code hypothesis
best remembered if learned visually and with understanding (dual=visual and understand; code=coding of info to memory)
REM
beta waves/neural desynchrony (just like awake); everything but muscle paralysis and twitches same as waking state (beta waves, breath rate, heart rate, etc.) 15min begin of sleep cycle; 1hr at end of it; interspersed every 30-40min; 20% of sleep time
Magnocellular Cells
blurry image of a moving object is provided by these cells that have high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
body feeling->interpret/attached cognition with the situation-->emotion can be drinking caffeine makes viewed show funnier (caffeine is not directly to giggly, caffeine->show->funnier) (Schachter-THINKer theory (think about feeling)) (also called cognitive-physiological theory)
Stapes
bone of the ossicles; base plate for this rests in the oval window of the cochlea (entrance to inner ear); stirrup
inductive reasoning
bottom-up approach; start with specific info, leads to general conclusion -->generalizing from a specific instance (e.g. today I did A, B happened; if I do A every day, B will happen every day)
clustering
brain's tendency to group together similar terms in memory whether learned together or not (conceptual/semantic hierarchies)
Electronencephalogram (EEG)
broad patterns of electrical activity from groups of neurons are detected and recorded; A noninvasive (causes no damage) procedure used with human subjects for research on sleep, seizures, and brain lesions
gyri and sulci
bumps and fissures on cerebral cortex surface (gyri up, sulci down-->letter i up, letter u dips)
morbidity
burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
PEN Model
by Eysencks; Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism
inbreeding prevented?
by evolution (swans have familial marks on face)
Kitty Genovese case
bystander effect (woman murdered; no one helped-less likely to help when others present) -caused by diffusion of responsibility
variance/standard deviation
calculate how much each score differs from mean, square each of these values, add all together, divide sum by number of scores you have (i.e. average it)--this is variance, square root of all of this for SD SD is the square root of the variance
incidence
calculated as number of new cases of disease per population at risk in a given period of time: for example, new cases per 1000 at risk people per year. The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time. =new cases/population at risk
apraxia
can't organize movement (prance=movement)
alexia
can't read (l-ex-->literature expression) a literary axia
agraphia
can't write (graph=graphite)
power
capacity to influence people through real or perceived rewards and punishments. often depends on the unequal distribution of valued resources. power differentials create social inequality.
ideographic approach
case studies instead of large populations (opposite=nomothetic approach-experimental/general) (individual-graphic/case study)
Catatonic-type schizophrenia
catatonic behavior that causes either heightened or diminished motor activity ~ diminished motor activity includes catalepsy (loss of sensation and consciousness as well as rigidity of body), or stupor (complete stop in voluntary speech or motion) ~ heightened motor activity includes echolalia (word repetition), echopraxia (action repetition), hyperactivity without purpose, negativism (resistance to instruction for no reason), posturing (assuming bizarre postures), mannerisms (unnecessary movements made during goal-oriented behaviors)
representativeness heuristic
categorizing items on the basis of whether or not they fit a prototypical or stereotypical image
social class
category of people who share similar SES in society. three main social classes upper middle and lower. similar lifestyles, job opportunities, attitudes, and behaviors.
Conversion disorder
causes sufferers to develop neurological symptoms such as numbness, blindness, tremors, and/or paralysis without any organic cause (symptoms observed are not consistent with neurological disease; ex: tremor disappears when patient is distracted) that begin soon after experiencing traumatic event or high level of stress diagnosed after medical examination rule out of neurological disorders
Action potential/nerve impulse
cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions, fires
Neural crest
cells at the leading edge of the neural fold that will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid
biological preparedness
certain associations evolutionarily made easier than others -food taste and illness; light and shock easy -food taste and shock; light and illness hard/impossible (body is made "prepared" to make associations)
honeyguides
certain markers on flowers honeybees can see
Behavioral goal
change behavior to desired/adaptive direction; successful w/ phobias, fetishes, OCD, sex problems, childhood disorders (bed wetting)
compliance
change in behavior due to a direct request
Postsynaptic potentials
changes in nerve cell's charge as result of stimulation
demographic shift
changes in the makeup of a population over time.
internalization
changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
displacement
changing the target of an emotion, while feelings remain the same
sublimation
channeling an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
Acute stress disorder (ASD)
characterised by brief period of intrusive recollections that develop within 4 weeks of exposure to traumatic event (less intense version of PTSD) diagnosed if 9+ symptoms for duration of 3 days to 1 month
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
characterised by obsessions and compulsions
schizotypal personality disorder
characterized by unusual or eccentric patterns of thinking that can inhibit interpersonal functioning and communicating (might have symptoms of magical and paranoid thinking, odd beliefs and behaviors, odd speech patterns, and unusual affects) cluster a
fixation
child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
Symbolic play
children 1-2yrs; pretend roles; objects represent other things
Parallel play
children 2-3yrs; 2 children next to each other playing in similar styles, but not disrupting/influencing either's playing
Parallel play
children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior; develops around 2 years
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
classic personality, uses Jung's 3 personality dichotomies + one more extraversion vs. introversion sensing vs. intuiting thinking vs. feeling judging vs. perceiving
cornea
clear protective coating on outside of eye (corn yellow outer layer=protective of goopy insides)
Carl Rogers
client-centered, person-centered, nondirective therapy; people can control their own behavior - not slaves to unconscious nor subjects of faulty learning; unconditioned positive regard
motion parallax
closer objects seem to move more distances than further objects, even if same speed (parallel motions, but look different)
Forebrain
complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes; Emotion and memory; Has the greatest influence on human behavior; Functions are not absolutely essential for survival; more emotional and intellectual aspect of humans
behavioral component of attitude
component of attitude. the way a person acts with respect to something
Limbic system
comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory
Reactive attachment disorders
condition in which an infant or child does not establish healthy attachments with its parents or caregivers symptoms include withdrawal, sadness, listlessness, no interest in playing games, watching others but not engaging in social interaction with them, and not seeking comfort diagnosed if patient possess these symptoms and is not diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders
Nature vs. Nurture
controversial topic that questions how much an individuals behavior is based on genetic makeup and how much is based on environment and experiences
stimuli receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves
curves that graphically represent subject's sensitivity to a stimulus true positive sensation vs false positive sensation
Broca's aphasia
damage to Broca's area; can understand speech but trouble speaking-slow; laborious, missing words aware of problems (Broke-a-->broken speech (can't talk)
Wernicke's aphasia
damage to Wernicke's area (though moreso damage to temporal lobe and underlying white matter), can speak but can't understand how to choose words—fluent but nonsensical; cannot understand written or spoken language unaware of problems
bee communication
dance-round dance=food nearby, wiggle dance=food far; longer dance=further food
Inferior colliculus
deals with the startle reflex and helps to keep eyes on a fixed point while the head is turned
antagonists (concerning neurotransmitters)
decrease neurotransmitter release (antagonists are no fun-no excitement)
sleep stage 4
delta waves more than 50% of time; deepest level of sleep; heart rate, resp, temp, blood flow to brain reduced; growth hormone secreted sleep walking and sleep talking can occur
Olds & Milner
demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using self-stimulation studies in rats (Mice learner)
neuron structure
dendrites at top; cell body/soma; axon hillock connects soma and axon; nodes of ranvier=dips between "beads" of myelin sheath (axon hillcock-hill is soma, c--k is axon)
(DSM-V) Major depressive disorder
depressed mood or lack of pleasure (anhedonia), along with sleep disturbances, appetite disturbances, lethargy or restlessness, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness more REM than normal (because serotonin and nonrepinephrine suppress REM)
Dysthymic disorder
depressed mood that has been mostly persistent for 2 years with symptoms never absence for period longer than 2 months (less severe than major depressive disorder)
too little serotonin
depression
REM rebound effect
deprived of sleep=more time in REM when can sleep
polarization
describe the behavior change at the individual level in a group
magnocellular cells
detect motion with low spatial resolution and high temporal resolution
free nerve endings
detect pain, temperature changes
stimuli false alarm
detecting stimulus that's not there
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
D. Bem
developed self-perception theory as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory (evaluate attitudes based on behavior)
E. O. Wilson
developed sociobiology
Strong & Campbell
developed the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory; used to assess interest in different lines of work
Morgan & Murray
developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective test designed to measure personality
Craik & Lockhart
developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory
agnosia
difficult processing one sensory info (so can't recognize person, sound, etc.) (AG-nosia-->can be Any General senses)
Z-scores
distribution curve -how many standard dev. score is from mean (-3 to 3) Z= (raw score-mean of population)/standard deviation of the population Z=(x-u)/o Z-score is DIFFERENCE between score and mean divided by standard deviation number (makes sense; gives non-whole number SD score)
T-score
distribution curve -transformation of z-score; mean is 50, standard dev. Is 10. T-score=10(Z)+50 (range=20-80) (used to eliminate decimal places and negative scores) -t-score=10z (eliminate decimal) plus 50 (make positive)
Tympanic membrane
ear drum; vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves at a rate determined by the sound wave's frequency
preoperational stage
egocentric understanding; rapidly acquires words/symbols for things; CANNOT perform mental operations (conservation; etc.) (PREoperational=PREschool kid-egocentric; learn to talk; can't do much else)
G. Bekesy
empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported Helmholtz's place-resonance theory (helmholtz-hertz-->place resonance)
Acoustic encoding
encode the meaning of information by the way it sounds
Visual encoding
encode the meaning of information by visualizing it
culture
encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people and includes both material and symbolic elements
pattern recognition
explained by template matching, feature detection (if want to see o; focus on round letters, then look for those that match o)
feminist theory
explains social inequalities that exist based on gender gender roles- expected bx from a gender (women are objectified, men can be womenizers, women hit glass ceilings)
attitude
expression of positive or negative feeling towards a person, place, thing or scenario
oxytocin
facilitates breast feeding, relationships; facilitates birth (positive feedback loop-w/ contractions)
stimuli miss
failing to detect a present stimulus
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
fear causer->body feeling AND emotion at same time (C-B thory; cause-both)
narcissistic personality disorder
feelings of self-importance, self-uniqueness, and entitlement, fantasies of power, beauty, and intelligence, and need for constant admiration and attention lacks empathy and has propensity for exploiting others have underdeveloped sense of self-esteem and based self-worth on how others see them cluster b
polyandry
female with multiple male partners
zygote
fertilized egg cel
Umbilical cord
fetus is attached to the uterine wall and placenta by this
sleep stage 3
fewer sleep spindles, delta waves begin-high ampl, low freq
Antipsychotics
first drugs used; treat positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, etc.) -->blocks dopamine receptors; inhibits dopamine production (e.g. phenothiazines, butyrophenones) (anti-psychotics/anti schiz; schiz is too much dopamine)
B. F. Skinner
first experiments to prove law of effect; operant conditioning; Skinner box (rats-lever)
Alfred Alder's personality theory
focused on immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors; concept of inferiority complex -- personality determined by drive for superiority
conflict theory
focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources
primary/maintenance rehearsal
for STM; repeating material to move to LTM (TRICK: maintenance=repetitive task-need to keep hammering; primary=quickest-repeat)
Situational Causes
for attribution theory: those that relate to features of the surrounding or social context Behavior is caused by environmental or external factors
Dispositional Causes
for attribution theory: those that relate to the features of the person Behavior is caused by internal factors of a persons personality traits
direct benefits
for mate choice based on material advantages, protection, emotional support
indirect benefits
for mate choice based on promoting better survival in offspring
repression/denial (defense mechanism)
forget/deny it (motivated forgetting)
delayed conditioning
form of forward conditioning -CS presented until UCS occurs (they overlap)
altruism
form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him or herself
M. Seligman
formulated learned helplessness theory of depression (slenderman-you've learned helplessness)
Interneurons
found between other neurons. Most numerous of the 3 types. Located in brain and spinal cord; linked to reflexive behavior.
John B Watson
founded the school of behaviorism; baby Albert experiment (conditioned-noise/fear with fur) -mental life is false; could only observe mental activity "Give me children, and tell me environment, will say which will become doctor, which will become librarian, etc" (B. Watson-Behavioral Watson; old like watson and crick->first and most extreme behaviorist)
W. Wundt
founder of psychology; founded first official lab; attempted to study and analyze consciousness
Stanley Hall
founder/father of developmental psychology
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration towards a goal causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target -->causes scapegoating Dollard and Miller: (dollar and mad (work is frustrating, causes anger))
ego-expressive function (master)
function of attitude that allows us to communicate and solidify our self identity
adaptive function (master)
function of attitude that is the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
ego defensive
function of attitude that serves to protect one self esteem or justify action that we know are wrong
neurosis
functional mental disorder that exists in adulthood; response to anxiety caused by fixation as a child
Narcotics/Opioids
functions as painkillers floods system with dopamine (via Ventral tegmental area activation) GABA activation reduced (GABA has opiate receptors), allowing more dopamine release e.g. opium, heroin, morphine (painkillers/reward-->more dopamine; to add even more dopamine, less GABA)
Actor-observer attributional divergence
fundamental attribution error-->actor/one behaving because of environment; observer blames behavior on personality
Extrapyramidal motor system
gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system
heritability populations vs individuals
general populations. NOT INDIVIDUALS (if an answer involves individuals, it is not correct; heritability only relates to general populations)
psychodynamic theory
general term referring to theories that emphasize role of unconscious (individual, analytical, etc.)
overextension (language)
generalizing names for things (all furry animals=doggy) (like Piaget's assimilation) (overextending names overexten-hens. all birds are hens)
Innate behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
who's faster at learning language? boys or girls?
girls
conformity
going along with group pressure -compliance=go along publicly -acceptance=change actions and beliefs to conform -dissenter=speak out against majority (CAD0-comply-go along when not want; accept-go along and want; diss-->to insult/speak out against)
American Psychology Association (APA)
governing body of field of psychology in America Discovered by S. Hall (hall=building of books)
group polarization
group discussion strengthens dominant point of view (more risky decisions because of deindividuation) -->explains risky shift; groups take greater risk than individual
gestalt proximity
group items near each other together (easier to understand; happens when counting cells-counting clusters close together instead of counting all of them without stopping)
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
happens in alcoholics, deficiency of thiamine, severe memory impairment, loss of motor skills
stroop effect
hard to say color in diff colored ink
Subjective Contours
have to do with perceiving contours and therefore shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus
temporal lobe
hearing; formation of LTM (modulated by amygdala) Houses Wernicke's area, hippocampus, amygdala ((temperament lobe (amygdala), which helps connect temporary memory to LTM)
client-centered, person-centered, nondirective therapy
help client reflect on problems, make choices, and generate solutions, take positive actions, and determine his own destiny
Hippocampus
helps consolidate information to form long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex
vasopressin
hormone-regulates water levels in body (so blood pressure) (vaso-vases are filled with water) (o-pressin; blood pressure)
Corticosteroids
hormones produced by the Adrenal Cortex
tegmentum
houses rest of reticular formation (not the base), so same functions of that; sensorimotor system, analgesic effect of opiates contains Ventral tegmental area (VTA)-origin of dopamine cell bodies; implicated in drug/natural reward (motivation, drugs, psych disorders) (ment-m=>meant to be in middle [midbrain])
dual-process theory
how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes often consists of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process Implicit/Automatic/Unconscious vs Explicit/Controlled/Conscious Automatic=takes a long time to change (to form new habit) Controlled/Explicit=may change fairly easily with persuasion or education (dual process-2 types of processes, so youre DOING SOMETHING (dual code=learning))
mate bias
how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate
concepts
how one represents a relationship between 2 things
thalamus
hub of information: channels sensory info (all but smell) to cerebral cortex plays major role in regulating arousal/states of consciousness (gives info to hypothalamus to help maintain homeostasis via senses; if problems, controls consciousness so can recover quicker)
distribution curve positive skew
hump on left-->median mode lower than mean (mean always middle of graph, mode=highest point) (mean is positive to median and mode) (mean affected by larger/positive number; mode=mid of hump, median between)
distribution curve negative skew
hump on right-->median mode higher than mean (mean always middle of graph, mode=highest point) (mean is negative to median and mode) (mean affected by smaller/negative number; mode=mid of hump, median between)
Biomedical approach
idea that every psychological disorders has its basis in a biomedical phenomenon, and thus can be treated with a biomedical solution (narrower)
reciprocal detemrinism
idea that our thoughts, feelings, behavior, and environment, all interact with each other to determine actions of a situation
social facilitation
idea that people naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched
Biopsychosocial approach
idea that psychological disorders have sociocultural, psychological, and biomedical influences (broader more accepted approach)
functional fixedness
idea-people have closed minds about functions of certain objects (fixed idea of function of something)
Yerkes-Dodson effect
ideal levels for arousal: simple tasks=higher complex tasks=bell curve never extreme high or extreme low (yerkes (arousal)-do yer-work effect)
scripts
ideas about the way events typically unfold (cognitive theory for behavior)
symbolic culture or nonmaterial culture
ideas associated with cultural group ex: motto, songs, catchphrases
Freud's greatest contribution
ideas of unconscious mind
hypothesis (in terms of thinking)
ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts
Monozygotic (MZ) twins
identical twins
backward masking
if bright light or other pattern before iconic image fades, first image erased (works for auditory system too) works better if new pattern similar to original
base-rate fallacy
if given general info (base-rate info) and specific info (pertaining to one case); mind ignores former, focuses on latter (stemming from representativeness heuristic) (e.g. John is a man who dresses gothic. How likely is he Christian vs Satanist? Most say satanist, even though more Christians in world and random probability of person being Christian is much higher) [fallacy of forgetting base information]
Extinction
if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus
Hebb's rule
if two neurons are active at the same time, the synapses between them are strengthened (if you continually repeat thought patterns, neurons in our brain tend to strengthen that learning to become 'habit') "neurons that fire together, wire together" (bb in Hebb looks like 2 neurons together, firing)
type 1 errors
incorrectly reject null hypothesis (type A/1 personality=agressive, aggressively reject) WRONG REJECT (common, seeing correlation where is none)
stimulants
increase arousal in nervous system, increases frequency of action potentials, decrease reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
Existential Theory goal
increase client's sense of being and meaningfulness; alleviate neurotic anxiety
agonists
increase effects of neurotransmitters (e.g. SSRI increase serotonin release) (opposite of antagonist)
Negative Reinforcers
increase frequency of behavior but by removing something unpleasant (ex: take Asprin because it removes a headache)
alcohol
increase in GABA activity, opening chloride channels and hyperpolarizing the membrane, increases dopamine levels
norepinephrine
increases heart rate, released by sympathetic nervous system (stress hormone; fight or flight reaction) (no-reps-in-effin-->sex (body response-fight or flight; high heart rate)
eye movements and gaze duration
indicators of info processing while reading; eye movements from one fixation to another=saccades
inferiority complex
individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority, both physically and socially
identity shift effect
individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, so the individual will conform to the norms of the group at the risk of internal strife in the individual. To cope with this the individual will adopts the standard of the group as their own
(DSM-V) PTSD
individuals troubled by recurrent flashbacks and nightmares accompanied by a state of hypervigilance can result from variety of traumatic experiences-natural disasters, automobile accidents that produce injury, war
peers
individuals who are considered equal in a social group
Barnum effect
individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people (e.g. You have a great need for other people to like and admire you) (Bar-numb-->bar raised high for accuracy of description, but actually numb/nothing)
how much each age sleeps/REM?
infant-16hrs, 50% REM; older person-6hrs, 25%REM
Neuroplasticity
infants are born with more neurons than they need so as the brains develop, neural connections form, rapidly in response to stimuli in this phenomenon
Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying; usually disappears after 4 months, and continuation at 1 year suggests developmental difficulties
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
information from the optic chiasm leads to this in the thalamus, before information is sent elsewhere in the brain
Bony labyrinth
inner ear sits within this and contains the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals
Retina
inner most layer of the eye, containing the actual photoreceptors that transducer light into electrical information the brain can process; back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels
W. McGuire
inoculation theory-beliefs are vulnerable if person never faced challenge; once experience challenge, less vulnerable -keeping original views by prepping before argument against them (prep arguments may not be as strong as real argument) (McGuire-acquire inoculations)
Emotion
instinctive state of mind derived from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others
Factors that influence motivation
instincts arousal drives Needs
amygdala
integrative center for emotion; responsible for autonomic responses associated w/ fear and fear conditioning
Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
intelligence test for children 4-6 -three deviation IQs: verbal, performance, & full-scale (preschool/elementary school age)
gender inequality
intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.
somatic nervous system
interacts with external environment by controlling voluntary movements of muscles (somatic=not automatic)
autonomic nervous system
interacts with internal environment; responsible for fight or flight; made of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system -also called visceral nervous system
Brain ventricles
internal cavities of the brain
mediation (stimulus-response)
intervening mental process occurring between stimulus and response -->reminds us how to act based on ideas/past learning (mediate what to do/how to respond)
Midbrain structures
just above hindbrain, contains cranial nerves, parts of reticular formation, and important relay stations for sensory information contains substantia nigra tectum-top of midbrain, tegmentum-bottom of midbrain
rationalization
justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
declarative memory
knowing a fact (declare facts)
learning (behaviorist) theory of language development
language acquisition happens via operant conditioning when parents repeat sounds babies make
Choroid
layer of the eye that continues from the iris
serial learning; primary/recency effects
learning list in order; primary=remember first items because repeated most; recency=remember last items because most recent serial position curve shows this effect
balance theory
liking product and disliking person will person to change view on one so both same (homeostasis)
N. Chomsky
linguist who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition; distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another
Occipital lobes
lobe at the very rear of the brain
wernicke's area
located in the left hemisphere, temporal lobe, superior temporal gyrus. responsible for language comprehension
Somatosensory cortex
located in the parietal lobe; transduction occurs in somatosensation receptors which signal the central nervous system, where it eventually travels here
Taste center
located in the thalamus; taste information travels from taste buds to the brainstem, and then ascend to this before traveling to higher-order brain regions
Cortical association areas
locations in cerebral cortex corresponding intervening between sensory input and motor output (cortical==>cortexical; association-between sense input and motor output)
Medulla oblongata
lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
blood-brain barrier
makes it hard for toxins in blood to get to brain
neocortex
makes up 90% of cerebral cortex; is evolutionarily newest in brain; made of 6 layers (every other part of brain <6 layers
recognition-primed decision model
making a decision based on extensive experience that is accessed without awareness
implicit theories about personality
making assumptions about dispositions of an individual based on actions of that person (personality implied by actions)
oversimplification
making simple explanations for complex events (keep original idea about a cause even w/ new factors) (e.g. Education today isn't as good as it used to be - obviously, our teachers are not doing their jobs)
polygyny
male with multiple female partners
Antimanics
manages bipolar disorder -->inhibits monoamines (norepinephrine) -relieves the manic phase, so opposite of depression (e.g. Lithium Carbonate) (anti-manic-->inhibit monoamines)
refers to using props, appearance, emotional expression or associations to create a positive image
managing appearances
Illness anxiety disorder
marked by preoccupation with and fear of developing a serious medical condition, so thorough that anxiety about developing an illness can impair social, occupational, and personal function diagnosed after 6+ months of recurrent anxiety for developing illness or medical condition, despite reassurance from medical professionals (new to the DSM-5)
conformity (majority influence)
matching one's attitude, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms
encoding specificity principle
material more likely remembered if retrieve in same context which it was stored (trick: specifically encoded for one environment)
domain-referenced tests
measure less-defined properties (e.g. intelligence); need reliability and validity (how do you fit/test in a domain?)
criterion referenced tests
measure mastery of a particular area (e.g. final exam) (do you know all criteria of a subject?)
fMRI
measures blood/oxygen flow in diff parts of brain; cog psych uses it to measure activity in diff parts of brain
aptitude test
measures innate ability to learn (the potential for successful performance)
Cronbach's Alpha (statistics)
measures internal consistency (reliability) higher value=higher internal consistency/reliability .5 and lower=no .8 = average .9 and higher=good different than p-value alpha
d' (measurement)
measures sensitivity d' = Z(hit rate) − Z(false alarm rate) (delicate/sensitive measurement)
Psychopharmacology
medicine to treat psych illness; doesn't cure but treats symptoms (useful if paired with therapy) -some emotional disturbances are at least partly caused by biological factors-can be treated with meds
Psychopharmacology therapies
meds that aim for neurotransmitters; most common=dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)
meninges
membranes that envelope and protect brain and spinal cord (meninges-membranes)
trace theory/decay theory
memories fade with time (trace fades)
flashbulb memories
memories forever remembered; usually life changing events; not typically accurate/can be easily changed
wish fulfillment
mental imagery like daydreaming fulfills need for satisfaction
sleeper effect
message from a low-credibility source can actually increase in persuasiveness (if forget about low credibility, remember message) (e.g. obvious insulting political ads-forget about ad, remain with bad feeling about insulted politician because of rumor you heard somewhere, might now take as fact)
Brainstem parts
midbrain, pons, and medulla
substantia nigra
midbrain; group of neurons that produce dopamine and which degenerate in Parkinson's disease
elaboration likelihood model
model that separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information. The two extremes of the continuum is central route processing and peripheral route processing
Otoliths
modified hair cells in the utricle and saccule are covered with these; as the body accelerates, they will resist motion
What is on the self-actualiation level of maslow's hierarchy
morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptence of facts
Muller-Lyer illusion
most famous illusion; 2 lines seem unequal because arrows at end of each line point inwards or out (lyer-lines. M=shaped kinda like arrows)
binocular disparity
most important depth perception cue; eyes view objects from 2 slightly diff angles; allows us to create 3d image
smell to brain
most primitive sense (so deepest part of brain) hair receptors in nostrils messages olfactory bulb (base of brain
recency effect
most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressiosn
miration
movement of people from one geographic location to anotehr
basic hostility
neglect and rejection as a child cause this anger
Reflex arcs
neural circuits that control reflexive behavior
sensory receptors
neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
neurotransmitters involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness; primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system
endorphins
neurotransmitters that kick in to reduce/eliminate perception of pain; include analgesia
Client-Centered criticisms
no diagnostic tools because Rogers believed this therapy applied to any psych problem; many disagree
folkways
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular context such as shaking hands after a sport match
Learned behaviors
not based on hereditary but instead on experience and environment
Dopamine
nueurotransmitter that plays an important role in movement and posture; high concentrations found at the basal ganglia
law of similarity
objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
phenotypic benefits
observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex
cross-sectional design
observational design one diff variable in similar group: different ages, genders, income, etc. compared (between subjects, one point in time)
Modeling
observational learning by watching others perform behaviors
ambivalent attachment
occurs when a caregiver has inconsistent response to a child's distress. child depressed when caregiver leaves and ambivalent when caregiver returns
Grasping reflex
occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.
Olfactory Pathway
odor molecules are inhaled into the nasal passages and then contact the olfactory nerves in the olfactory epithelium; these receptor cells are activated sending signals to the olfactory bulb; these signals are then relayed via the olfactory tract to higher regions of the brain
proactive/anterograde interference
old disrupting info that makes new info hard to learn (e.g. past events make harder to learn new things) causes proactive inhibition (interference of new info-the pro/new memory is active)
Proactive Interference
old information is interfering with new learning (ex: I can't remember my new number because I memorized my old number too well)
all or none law
once minimum threshold for neuron firing met; impulse will be sent (no intensity change regardless of amount of stimulation)
lateral inhibition
once one receptor stimulated, nearby ones inhibited allows eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive info from being sent to the brain lateral=nearby/on sides of. nearby/side receptors inhibited
distribution curve-unimodal curve
one hump curve
individual discrimination
one person discriminating against a particular person or group
bee hierarchy
one queen; gives off chemical-suppress other female bees ovaries
Contingency
one stimulus depends on the other, causing association (dependency for CS)
ego
operates according to reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle organizer of the mind; receives power from id, but never fully independent of id moderates desires of superego promotes growth of perception, problem solving, thinking
Yerkes Dodson Theory
optimal performance will occur at intermediate anxiety levels
interval variables
order with interval values (.25, .26); no actual zero (thermometer)
schema
organized patterns of thoughts and behavior
social movements
organized to promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change.
self-efficacy
our ability to succeed
Hyperphagia
overeating with no satiation of hunger; leads to obesity; damage to ventromedial region of hypothalamus has produced this in animals (hyper-food-ia; hypothalamus phagia)
interposition
overlap of objects show which are closer
Avoidant personality disorder
overwhelming shyness and fear of rejection (strong desire for acceptance, but are socially inept and avoid social situations unless certain of being liked) cluster c
language development 5 yrs
p much good on language
nucleus accumbens
part of basal ganglia abolishes addiction from drugs in animals (not used in humans because has other functions)
stereotype content model groups
paternalistic- stereotypes of people who are looked down as inferior, dismissed, ignored contemptuous- viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger envious- viewed with jealousy, bitterness, disgust admiration- viewed with pride and positive feelings
ego-dystonic
patient recognizes that the illness is troubling and intrusive
Neuropsychology Clinical setting:
patients treated for brain lesions
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
people involved in issue listen to strength of arguments rather than superficial characteristics (look of speaker) (likelihood persuaded when already elaborated by subject)
Equity theory
people most comfortable in situation w/ rewards and punishments equal, fitting, highly logical
social support
perceptions of reality that one is cared for by a social network
Law of Pragnanz
perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple and symmetric as possible
P. Zimbardo
performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results
mixed episode
period where both manic episodes and major depressive episodes occur everyday for 1 week
sensitive/critical periods in learning
periods-developing animal vulnerable to effects of learning (e.g. songbirds learning songs; imprinting)
ideal self
person we would like to be
gender identity
person's appraisal of oneself on scales of masculinity and femininity
Self-efficacy
person's belief that he or she can effectively perform a certain task (self effectivicy)
Client-Centered therapy
person-centered therapy directed by the client-client decides where/when to meet; therapist is nondirective-only providing atmosphere for client's self exploration
secondary traits
personality characteristics that are limited in occurrence; only appear in close groups or specific social situations
aggression
physical, verbal, or nonverbal behavior with the intention to cause harm, protect, or increase social dominance
mental set
preconceived notion to how to look at a problem; with vision, factors into why we see what we expect to see
age affects learning
prime=3-20 constant level learning=20=50 learning ability drops 50+
self-evaluation
process by which the self-concept is socially negotiated and modified people tend to choose a comparison target that is similar to themselves 4 self-motives influencing evaluation [EVA-I]: -Self-Enhancement -Self-Verification -Self-Assessment -Self-Improvement
Amygdala
processes the environment, detect external cues, and learns from the person's surroundings to produce an emotion
socialization
processing of developing, inheriting and spreading norms, customs and beliefs
Ciliary body
produces aqueous humor; continuous with the iris
Adrenal Cortex
produces many hormones called corticosteriods
reading/writing same part of brain as
producing and understanding speech, though slight difference (alexia and agraphia exist)
peak experiences
profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's like that have important and lasting effects
Sheldon
proposed personality types based on somatotypes (body types) - ex: all short, stocky people are jolly
oligodendrites
provide myelin in CNS (all is good brain)
Schwann cells
provide myelin in PNS (schwann-schweverywhere)
Psychopharmacology goal
provide relief from symptoms of psych
Client-Centered goal
provide trusting atmosphere where client can engage in self-directed growth; evidence=congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, internal locus-of-evaluation, willingness to experience
informational support
providing useful information to a person
psychoanalytic theory
psychic determinism-mental processes (bad behavior, dreams, slips of tongue/unconscious behavior) not spontaneous; they're symptoms of underlying/unresolved conflict manifested when ego can't find acceptable way to express conflict
Freud
psychoanalysis theory-most extensive and complex theories of human behavior; conflict central to human behavior
countertransference
psychoanalysis-how therapist feels about patient; therapist can realize this behavior, use to tell patient how their behavior causes people to react
Screen memory
psychoanalysis-memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences (screen=movie of past memories)
reality principle/secondary process
psychoanalysis-responds to demands of environment by delaying gratification: EGO
transference
psychoanalysis-therapist seen as parent, examine relationship between client and parent (remember-transference v countertransference)
object relations therapy
psychoanalysis-transference used to solve problems of past relationships by correcting emotional experience in therapist-patient relationship (fix emotional problems (objects) relating in transference)
Community psychology model
psychology taken to community (e.g. schools); emphasizes respect and recognizes logistics that keep neediest people from seeking help
push and pull factors
pull factors- positive attributes of the land that attract immigrants push factors- attributes of the land that are negative and encourage immigrants to leave
Priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Pineal Gland
receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight; secretes a hormone to regulate circadian rhythms; key player in several biological rhythms
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body; Associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
Inferior colliculus(midbrain)
receives sensory information from the auditory system; Reflexive reactions to loud noises
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)
receptors detecting when the body needs more food or fluids; triggers eating and drinking; referred to as the hunger center
reception (senses)
receptors from particular sense detect a stimulus
meissner's corpuscles
receptors in skin that detect touch/contact (meissner corpuscles=my nerves your muscles-->nerves to touch)
pacinian corpuscles
receptors in skin that respond quickly to displacement of skin (corp=relating to body)
Superior colliculus(midbrain)
recieves visual sensory input
chunking
recoding info into fewer but more meaningful units to remember (e.g.) big phone number into sets of 3 numbers; words being broken down-hyper active=hyper and active; extreme activity) (chicken soup chunks into more meatingful units. get it? instead of meaningful? hahaha)
symbolic ethnicity
recognition of an ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances and does not specifically impact everyday life.
LTM retention measured by:
recognition, recall, savings savings=how much of actual info is learned/in LTM
parasympathetic nervous system
recovery after arousal mechanism (lowering heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, etc.)
Antidepressants
reduces depressive symptoms (does opposite of antimanics) -->increase production and transmission of monoamines, prevents reuptake of neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) (low levels of monoamines cause depression) (e.g. tricyclics, MAOIs, SSRI's) (anti-depress-->increase activity)
Visual Pathways
refer to both the physical and anatomical connections between the eyes and the brain and the flow of visual information along these connections
Concordance rates
refer to the likelihood that bot twins exhibit the same trait
a group to which an individual compares himself to
reference group
Learning
refers specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors
Adaptation
refers to a decrease in response to a stimulus over time
Kinesthetic Sense or Proprioception
refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space; the receptors here are found mostly in muscle joints and play critical roles in hand-eye coordination, balance, and mobility; even with your eyes closed you could describe the position of your hand
Perceptual Organization
refers to the ability to use Bottom-up and Top-down processing, in tandem with all of the other sensory clues about an object, to create a complete picture or idea
Intensity
refers to the amplitude of a sound wave; louder sounds have an increased ____
institutional discrimination
refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution maintained by society's status quo
Self-serving bias
refers to the fact that individuals will view successes as being based on internal factors and failures on external factors the tendency to perceive oneself favorably
Nurture
refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on somewhere in the middle
Two-point thresholds
refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli; the size of this depends on the density of nerves in the particular area of skin being tested
Vestibule
refers to the portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule
urbanization
refers to the process of dense areas of population creating a pull for migration; in other words, creating cities.
Encoding
refers to the process of putting new information into memory
Neuropsychology
refers to the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
primacy effect
refers to when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
Brief psychotic disorder
refers to when patient has at least one psychotic symptom for at least 1 month
Schizophreniform disorder
refers to when patient has suffered symptoms of schizophrenia for 1-6 months
J. A. Swets
refined Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves in signal detection theory (is wet? signals detect)
superego
refined and focused on the ideal self; personality's perfectionist; pride at accomplishment, guilt at failures divided into conscience and ego-ideal
Primitive reflexes
reflexes of infants that disappear with age
sensorimotor stage
reflexive behavior caused by sensations; circular reactions; develops object permanence; acquire use of representation (visualizing/putting words to objects) (baby stuff; can't find things; based on senses)
Autonomic Nervous system (ANS)
regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion and glandular secreations; Regulates involuntary muscles of internal organs or glands; Regulates body temperature through sweating or piloerection; Processes that are automatic or independent of conscious control
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement after every correct response; quickest learned, most easily broken
differential reinforcement
reinforcement of one activity to achieve the target of lessening another activity (e.g. rewarding doing everything with hand besides picking nose; or reinforcing a response with your hand like clapping that makes it so you can't pick your nose because it's preoccupied) (reinforcement by doing something different)
Mania (DSM-V)
related to Bipolar disorder periods of unrealistically elevated mood (little need for sleep; talk incessantly, make impulsive, unwise decisions)
Adrenal Medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine a s part of the sympathetic nervous system
obsessions
repeated uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause anxiety
central traits
represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer
ought self
representation of the way others think we should be
secure attachment
requires a consistent caregiver so a child can go out and explore knowing there's a stable base to return to, child will show strong preference for care giver cries when caregiver leaves, calms down when they return
Twin studies
research including studies that compare concordance rates for a trait between MZ and DZ twins; better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics
nonequivalent control group
research problem -a problematic control group when an equivalent one can't be isolated (so exactly what it sounds like)
acquiescence
research problem -people tend to agree with statements when in doubt of answer (answer question when I have no sense)
Experimenter bias/Rosenthal effect
research problem -researchers see what they want to see
selection attrition
research problem -subject that drops out of experiment is diff than rest of sample (sample no longer random)
Family studies
research that relys on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar geotypically than unrelated individuals; does not distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors
Temporal Resolution
resolution used to see moving objects
Spatial Resolution
resolution used to see objects that are stationary or slow-moving
Thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)
taste receptors
respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
Photoreceptors
respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)
Meissner corpuscles
respond to light touch
Osmoreceptors
respond to osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
regression
returning to an earlier stage in development
how remove excess neurotransmitters?
reuptake; deactivated by enzymes
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Gestalt Psychology
revolves around perception-people tend to see the world as compromised of organized wholes (world is understood through top-down theory-->we do not see specifics in the world as it is, we see it as what we are expecting to see based on the wholes/our knowledge of the wholes) (G-estalt. G-EXPECT)
stimuli correct rejection
rightly stating no stimulus exists (rejecting a stimulus correctly)
Bipolar cells
rods and cones connect with these cells which highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
receptor cells in eye
rods; cones responsible for sensory transduction-->occurs through chemical alteration of photopigments
Gesalt Principles
rules of the organization of perceptual scenes; ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete
PNS (peripheral nervous system)
runs to and from CNS; made of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
theory of planned behavior
same as expectancy-value theory/theory of reasoned action, but more developed-->includes perceived control over the behavior as a factor to determine intention people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation, social norms, and perceived control over the behavior (reason-cognitively why they act)
Osgood Scale
same as semantic differential charts 2 bipolar words on a scale; mark which one you're closest too (bad----- ----- ------ ----- -----good) (is good or bad?)
Law of proximity
says that elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Law of good continuation
says that elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together; there is a tendency to percieve continuous patterns in stimuli rather than abrupt changes
Law of similarity
says that objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
racial formation theory
says that racial identity is fluid and dependent on current political, economic, and social factors ex: whites 1950 (not irish) vs now (includes irish)
Law of closure
says that when a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a complete figure
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules
schedules reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior (ex: researchers rewarding a rat with a food pellet every 3rd time it presses a bar in the cage)
Variable-ratio (VR) schedules
schedules reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant; works the fastest and is the most resistant to extinction out of all the schedules
What is on the safety level of maslow's hierarchy?
security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, property
dreams (defense mechanism)
seen as safe outlets for unconscious material and fulfillment; includes manifest content and latent content
What is on the esteem level of maslow's hierarchy
self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
Social comparison moderators (upwards vs downwards comparisons)
self-esteem; mood; threat
self-schema
self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities; ex: athlete self-schema
Homeostatic functions
self-regulatory processes that maintain a stable balance witin the body
social exclusion
sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society.
circular reactions
sensorimotor stage: -Primary-redo event occurring by chance with own body (suck thumb) -Secondary-redo event occurring by chance to other object (flip lights) -Tertiary-redo event different ways to get diff reaction (diff noises for attention)
iconic memory-how proven?
sensory memory for vision, people see more than they remember-PARTIAL REPORTS: -shown 3 lines of letters, asked to write letters of one line down, forgot rest by time they're written (eye-conic)
language development 2-3 years
sentences of 3 or more words, less gesturing, errors of growth
garden-path sentences
sentences that suggest one interpretation that turns out to be wrong used to study parsing E.G. "the child painted............by the artist was sleeping"
3 primary components of limbic system
septal nuclei, amygdale, and hippocampus
Gonands
sex glands of the body; ovaries in females, testes in males; produce sex hormones in higher concentration
Testosterone and estrogen
sex hormones produced by Adrenal cortex
Parvocellular cells
shape is detected by these cells which have very high color spatial resolution but low temporal resolution; they permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object
reciprocity of disclosure (attraction)
sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness
displacement (defense mechanism)
shifting unacceptable feelings to less threatening recipient
heuristic
shorter but not always correct--use shortcuts based on what's worked in past
(DSM-V) Major depressive disorder and gender
show same rates for men and women through adolescents; more women then men into adulthood and onwards
cognitive dissonance
simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. May lead to anxiety, fear, anger or confusion
upwards comparison (social)
social comparisons with others who are better off or superior (looking up to someone better, you're worse) high self-esteem=more likely upward comparisons, (provides motivation and hope) positive or negative mood=more likely upward comparison (unless recent threat to self-esteem or setback in life) if recent threat to their self-esteem or a setback in their life, upward comparisons resulted in a more negative affect
downwards comparison (social)
social comparisons with others who are worse off or inferior low self-esteem=more likely downward comparison; improves mood, feel hope and motivation for future recent threat to life (illness, poor grades in school) or self esteem=more likely downward comparison
ethnicity
social construct that sorts people out by cultural factors including language, nationality, religion and other factors different from race because one can choose not to display it
3 social factors for prejudice
social inequalities lead to prejudices power- ability to control resources and achieve goals prestige- level of respect shown by others class - SES
language
spoken or written symbols, gestures- combined into a system and governed by rules.
sleep spindles and k complexes
stage 2 of sleep
delta waves
stage 3 and 4 of sleep, low frequency, high voltage, SWS, hard to awaken, declarative memory recovery
slow-wave sleep (SWS)
stage 3 of sleep, delta waves, hard to awaken, declarative memory recovery, dreaming occurs
Gate theory of pain
states that pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present
Duplexity or Duplicity theory of vision
states that retina contains 2 kinds of photoreceptors; those specialized for light-and-dark detection, and those specialized for color detection
Examples of Secondary Drives
stemmed from learning emotional desires Love, achievement, aggression, things we do not need to maintain physiological homeostasis, but things we do need for psychological homeostasis
stereotypes vs prejudice vs discrimination
stereotypes-cognitive (expectations, impressions, opinions about the characteristics of a member of a group) prejudice- affective (the attitude and emotional response to the group) discrimination- behavioral (action taken towards the group)
Thyroid stimulating hormone
stimulates thyroid
Contiguity
stimuli are close to one another in time or space, causing association (continuous ambiguity in space/time)
Neutral stimuli
stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response
smell connection to
strongly connected to memory, perception of taste
sexual dimorphism
structural differences between genders (di=2; morphism=changes in body)
J. Gibson
studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth (gibson-giving son's depth cues)
E. Loftus
studied eyewitness memory and concluded the misinformation effect: -our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions
Wiesel & Hubel
studied feature detection in VISUAL cortex--> discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells (Wie..se--H...el--->We SEE hypercomplex cells)
J. Rotter
studied locus of control (internal vs. external); developed a sentence completion test; a projective test designed to measure personality (why do people rot? external locus of control)
S. Milgram
studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers
epigenetics
studies of organisms by changing gene expression (turning them on or off)
Neuromodulators
substance that influences (or "modulates") the activity of several neurons neurotransmitters that are not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down by enzymes can float in cerebrospinal fluid, becoming neuromodulators (e.g. serotonin, acetylcholine)
self-concept
sum of the thoughts and feelings about oneself; includes self-schemata and appraisal of one's past and future self
5 basic tastes
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami(savory)
Golden Ratio
symmetry and proportion corresponding to attractiveness
social cognitive perspective
takes behaviorism one step further; not just on how environment influences behavior, but how we interact with environment
Existential Theory therapy
talking therapy; deep questions relating to client's perception/meaning of existence discussed
Papillae
taste buds are found in little bumps on the tongue called
ventromedial hypothalamus
tells us we're full damage means the person will never be satisfied, thus lead to obesity
Dispositional attribution/Fundamental attribution error
tendency for others to think action caused more by personality than situation (ATTRIBUTE action to personality, not situation)
reliance on central traits
tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and persona l characteristics that matter to the perceiver
orienting reflex
tendency to turn toward object that's touched you
peer pressure
term that refers to the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual
One-way ANOVA
test whether means on 1 outcome are significantly different across groups (e.g. height of plants of just diff seeds)
Serotonin
the "confidence molecule"-happiness affects mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory and sexual desire and function
Dopamine
the "reward molecule"-reward motivated behavior affects movement, pleasure reward, behavior/cognition, sleep, attention, learning
Ossicles
the 3 smallest bones in the body; help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear
symbolic thinking
the ability to play pretend
Parallel Processing
the ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion; then these features can be compared to our memories to determine what is being viewed
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
semantics
the association of meaning with a word
Associative Learning
the creation of pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
Avolition
the decrease in the motivation to initiate and perform self-directed purposeful activities schizophrenia negative symptom (aVolition-motiVation)
External auditory canal
the external canal that directs sound waves to the ear drum
Basic subdivision of brain
the hindbrain, the midbrain, the forebrain
Nociceptors
the most common sensory receptors for pain perception
Neural groove
the notochord furrows in neurulation surrounded by neural folds forming a
reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us
Cerebral cortex
the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres; associated with language processing to problem-solving to impulse control to long-term planning
accommodation
the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information
assimilation
the process of classifying new information into existing schemata
Confabulation
the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories typically thought to be an attempt made by brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories
Reinforcement
the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
Observational Learning
the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
Recognition
the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned (ex: open a yearbook and you will recognize people in your elementary school)
Shaping
the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors (ex: eventually allows for training of extremely complicated behaviors)
Acquisition or Classical Conditioning
the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
cultural sensitivity
the recognition and respect of differences between cultures and research ethics.
Dishabituation
the recovery of a response to a stimulus usually after a different stimulus has been presented; temporary and always refers to changes in response to the original stimulus not the new one (ex: getting used to highway surroundings and then taking an exit to similar but now stimulating highway surroundings)
Negative Punishment
the reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed (ex: no television because of bad behavior)
Optic tracts
the reorganized pathways sending the right visual field of each eye to the left side of the brain and the left visual field of each eye to the right side of the brain; the pathways after they leave optic chiasm
Maintenance Rehearsal
the repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory
Escape learning
the role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists (like a headache)
relational self
the self we behave as depending on the people with whom we're interacting
group polarization
the tendency for groups to make more extreme decision than the individual ideas and inclination
self censorship
the withholding of opposing views
Humanistic theory
theories that emphasize positive, evolving free will in people. Optimistic about human nature; known as "Third Force" in psychotherapy in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism
sleep stage 2
theta waves, sleep spindles-fast freq; muscle tension and gradual decline in heart rate, respiration, temp
bilingual children language learning
they're slower
Meninges
thick sheath of connective tissue covers the brain; Protects brain; Keeps it anchored within the skull
symbols
things to which we attach meaning
Slippery slope
think 1 small step one way will lead to larger ones in same way
ingroup/outgroup bias
think quality of members of group better than those out of group; even though qualities same in each -->basis for prejudice
illusion of control
think you have control over things you don't (lottery, gambling, superstition)
convergent thinking
thinking used to find the ONE solution to a problem (e.g. math) converge to one thing
divergent thinking
thinking used when more than one possibility (many answers) (e.g. chess) (Divergence movie, person could do everything))
osmoreceptors
thirst receptors; maintains fluid balance in body
prosody
tone inflections, accents, etc. that carry meaning (like melody, but part of sentence)
Existential Theory criticisms
too abstract for severely disturbed individuals
Individual theory- unhealthy
too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue "will to power"; make excuses/have "yes, but" mentality; if goals, they are self-serving/egotistical
analytical theory criticisms
too mystical/spiritual
deductive reasoning
top-down approach; start with general info, leads to specific conclusion -->applying a logic-based rule to a new, specific situation for single-solution (e.g. every day i do A, leading to B; so if i do A today, B will happen) (used in experiments-hypothesis of general idea, check with observed specifics)
Skin senses
touch, cold, warmth, pain, proprioception -touch=pressure=tissue distortion; more sensitive closer to body extremities -temperature->cold receptors are small and more numerous -proprioception-relative position of body parts (this sense does not receive direct stimulation from outside the body) (proprioception=appropriate position)
Gordon Allport
trait theorist; 3 basic types of traits: cardinal, central, secondary; functional autonomy
cardinal traits
traits around which a person organizes their life
Culturally competent interventions
treatment/prevention programs that recognize/tailored to cultural differences
evidence-based treatment
treatments that produced results experimentally; argued as only ethical treatment; also argued as nothing like real life situations
selective attention
tuning into something specific while ignoring everything else (cocktail party effect)
heritability of personality
twin studies show 40-50%
door in the face technique
type of compliance that starts with a high request than gets rejected to then ask for a smaller demand wish is usually the actual aim of the requestor in the first place
anticipatory socialization
type of socialization where the individual prepares for future changes in occupation, life situations or relationships. Like preparing to get married
type and trait personality perspective
type theorists - attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types trait theorists - describe individual personality as sum of a person's characteristic behaviors; use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals
repression
unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
concrete operational stage
understands concrete relationships (simple math); develops conservation (concrete on playground-->elementary school-math, conservation)
shadow archetype
unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness
Narcissism
unrealistic self-esteem-thinking you're better than you are
terminal threshold
upper limit above which stimuli can no longer be perceived (e.g. pitch)
stratified sampling
used if convenience sampling; aims to match demographic characteristics of sample to demographics of population (stratified--stat-->match the stats of sample)
correspondent inference theory
used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviors performed by another person explaining unexpected behavior by dispositional (internal) attribution of a person
Symbolic codes
used to form mental representations of words-they represent concept instead of physical observation (e.g. letter "x" is not just 24th letter of alphabet, but can represent multiplication) when representation=not literal/exact image of the thing, it's symbolic
Analogue codes
used to mentally represent images-images we form in our minds are highly similar to the physical stimuli (e.g. near-exact representation of trees and rivers)
Anxiolytics
used to reduce anxiety/induce sleep; usually incr effectiveness of GABA (an inhibitory neurotransmitter); high potential for causing habituation and addiction (Valium, Xanax) (anxi-olytics-->anxiety related-drugs)
availability heuristic
used when trying to decide how likely something is
Conditioned Reinforcer or Secondary Reinforcer
using classical conditioning on a reinforcer
simulations
using perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real (so yes, the simple "simulation" definition as you know it)
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory of personality
various perspectives but all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality Freud, Carl Jung, Alder, Horney
the conveyance of information through spoken, written, or signed words
verbal communication
tip of the tongue phenomena
verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so
empirical verification
verifying something empirically (verified by experiments/experience)
Motor homunculus
visualization of how neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to parts of the body to which they are connected; certain sets of muscles need finer motor control than others, so they take up more space in the cortex relative to their size in the body
Gestalt principles
ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete
gestalt continuation
we create whole/detailed figures based on expectations
gestalt minimum principle
we see what is easiest/logical to see
value
what a person deems important in life
Interpersonal attraction
what makes people like each other and is influenced by multiple factors factors that contribute to a relationship being formed
cultural competence
what therapists trained in to learn customs, languages, etc. of cultures; reduces bias assumptions
reciprocal socialization
when 2 parties adapt to or are socialized by each other (e.g. parents using "swag", kids respecting traditions)
learning curve
when learning something new, rate of learning changes over time (curve shaped like an S, slow fast slow)
Mnemonic: Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
when the VentroMedial Hypothalamus (VMH) is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry
Mnemonic: Anterior Hypothalamus:
when the anterior hypothalamus is destroyed, one is Asexual
Optic Chiasm
where the nasal fibers of each half of the retina (carrying the temporal visual field) cross paths; temporal fibers (carrying the nasal visual field) don't cross
Sclera
white of the eye; does not cover the front most portion of the eye
family therapy
whole family is client
mores
widely observed social norms
animus archetype
woman's inner man
parsing
words in spoken/written message transformed into a mental representation of meaning of the message helps language studies between cultures
economy
workers, boss, buyer, debtor, advertiser organize money, goods, and services value profit, paying bills timely norms are maximizing profits, hard work, valuing customer
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
workplace psychology, efficiency, functionality
(DSM-V) Chapter- Trauma- and Stressor-related disorders
Only disorders featuring a firm causality (the experience of a traumatic event)
field theory
K. Lewin-people are functions of their entire environment/life space (SOCIAL) -->life space=collection of entire environmental forces upon the individual (Field=top/general-->Gestalt)
Social economic status (SES)
Position in society, based on a combination of education, occupational status, and income. depends of ascribed status or achieved status
social constructionism
explores the ways in which individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality. Subjective definition or perception of conditions (ex: money has value, definition of justice, acceptable dress, gender roles)
types of government
democracy- everyone is given political voice through elected representatives monarchy- royals rule dictatorship- one person holds power usually by threat theocracy- religious leaders hold power
religious definitions
denomination vs sect- denomination is small divisions of the church while sects break away from the church secularize-move away from religion fundamentalist- maintain strict religious codes
nonmaleficence
do no harm avoiding treatments for which risk is larger than benefit
healthcare and medicine
doctor, nurse, pharmacy, insurer, patient aimed at maintaining or improving health status of individual, family, community and society as a whole. values the Hippocratic oath, maintaining good health norms are beneficence, non maleficence, respect for autonomy, justice
relative poverty
one is poor in comparison to larger population
a self selected group formed around similar interests ages and statuses
peer group
religion
priest, pastor, rabi, worshipers concerns about life, death, suffering, desire to connect with creator. considered to be a pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence. values sacred books and leaders norms include going to service, following teachings
a set of beliefs, values and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation
role
occurs when one has a difficulty in satisfying the requirements of multiple roles simultaneously
role conflict
another individual who helps to define a specific role within the relationship
role partner
refers to carrying out the behaviors of a certain role
role performance
contains all of the different roles associated with a status
role set
occurs when one has a difficulty satisfying multiple requirements in the same role simultaneously
role strain
plutocracy
ruled by the upper class
groups that are often temporary and contain fewer emotional bonds and weaker bonds overall
secondary groups
sharing of factual information
self disclosure
social structure
system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
education
teacher, student, principle, dean transmits knowledge and skills across generation values academic honest and good grades norms are doing homework, preparing
residential segregation
urban vs rural areas have different opportunities suburbanization-movement from urban areas to cleaner suburb areas. poor aren't able to do this readily urban decay and urban renewal- because of suburbanization, the urban areas decline. there can be spontaneous repurchase of urban areas to clean it up and made attractive again gentrification- upper and middle class repurchase urban areas which displaces lower SES class
absolute poverty
when people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities, such as shelter, food, clothing, and water.