Material Fallacies (Finals Studying)

4.2 Ignoratio elenchi

"Irrelevant conclusion": giving reasons that prove a conclusion other than the conclusion the argument purports to prove. Example(s):

4.1 Non sequitur

"It does not follow": The conclusion does not logically follow from the premises or reasons given. Example(s): Grass is green. I am depressed today. Therefore the grass is to blame for my depression.

2.6 Ad populum

"Snob appeal": appeal to the masses. Example(s): Forty million Frenchmen can't be wrong.

2. Fallacies of Diversion

1. Ad hominem 2. Ad verecundiam 3. Ad baculum 4. Ad misericordiam 5. Ad ignominiam 6. Ad populum 7. Ad ignorantiam

3. Fallacies of Oversimplification

1. Dicto simpliciter 2. "Special Case" 3. Composition 4. Division 5. "The Black-and-White Fallacy" 6. Quoting out of Context 7. Stereotyping

1. Fallacies of Language

1. Equivocation 2. Amphiboly 3. Accent 4. Slanting 5. Slogans 6. Hyperbole 7. "Straw Man"

5. Fallacies of Induction

1. Hasty Generalization 2. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc 3. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact 4. False Analogy 5. Argument from Silence 6. Selective Evidence 7. Slanting the Question

4. Fallacies of Argumentation

1. Non sequitur 2. Ignoratio elenchi 3. Petitio principii 4. "Complex Question" 5. Arguing in a Circle 6. Contradictory Premises 7. False Assumption

7. Metaphysical Fallacies

1. Reductionism ("Nothing Buttery") 2. The Fallacy of Accident 3. Confusing Quantity with Quality 4. The Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness 5. Confusing the Logical, Psychological, and Physical "Because" 6. The Existential Fallacy 7. Confusing the Natural with the Common

6. Procedural Fallacies

1. Refuting an argument by refuting its conclusion 2. Assuming that refuting an argument disproves its conclusion 3. Ignoring an argument 4. Substituting explanations for proof 5. Answering another argument than the one given 6. Shifting the burden of proof 7. Winning the argument but losing the arguer, or vice versa

2.1 Ad hominem

A personal attack. Includes: "Poisoning the Well", "Tu quoque", "the Genetic Fallacy", etc.) Example(s): Attacking trustworthiness, accusing your critic of hypocrisy, attacking opponent's "genetic" background.

1.3 Accent

Ambiguity through inflection, ironic or sarcastic tone, or even facial expression, or innuendo. Example: n/a

1.2 Amphiboly

Ambiguous syntax (word order or grammatical structure). Example: "Aristotle the peripatetic taught his students walking."

2.2 Ad verecundiam

An illegitimate appeal to authority. Example(s): Becomes fallacious when authority is: 1) irrelevant, 2) unreliable, 3) unnecessary, 4) the appeal is dogmatic, 5) the appeal is uncritical.

6.5 Answering another argument than the one given

Answering another argument than the one given

2.7 Ad ignorantium

Appeal to ignorance. Example(s): Aristotle? Never heard of him. So he can't be important.

2.4 Ad misericordiam

Appeal to pity. Example(s): Officer, I don't deserve a speeding ticket: my dog just died, my mother-in-law moved in, and my tax return is being audited!

2.5 Ad ignominiam

Appeal to shame. Example(s): What? You're going to be a lawyer? Is it because you want people to tell jokes on you?

3.3 Composition

Arguing from part to whole, ignoring the fact that what's true of the part is not necessarily true of the whole. Example(s): Every one of the actors of the movie is great, so the movie must be great.

3.4 Division

Arguing from whole to part, ignoring the fact that what's true of the whole is not necessarily true of the part. Example(s): The average American male now has a life span of 75 years. We're all average American males, therefore we will all live for 75 years.

3.5 The Black and While Fallacy

Arguing: It is not this extreme, therefore it must be the opposite extreme. Example(s): "Do you hate me?" "No." "Wonderful! You love me."

4.4 Complex Question

Asking a question which cannot be answered without begging another question. You're "damned if you do and damned if you don't." Example(s): Do you think we should keep having these useless meetings or not?

4.3 Begging the Question

Assuming what you set out to prove. Example(s): You can't help believing in free will; you're predestined to think that way.

7.6 The Existential Fallacy

Confusing essence with existence ("that is" vs. "this is that").

7.3 Confusing quantity with quality

Confusing quantity with quality--what the title says. Quality may be quantified. Or: the qualification of quantity occurs when it is claimed that numbers have personalities, colors, sounds, moral values, or inherent but inexpressible mystical significance.

7.4 The Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness

Confusing the abstract and the concrete.

7.2 The Fallacy of Accident

Confusing the accidental with the essential. Example(s): "A great nose indicates a great man." (Cyrano de Bergerac) "How can Van Gogh be a good painter? Look how immoral a life he led." "The medicine must be good for me; it tastes awful." N.B.: Many of these are non sequiturs.

1.6 Hyperbole

Exaggeration, as well as "absurd extension. Example(s): "media hype"

4.6 Contradictory Premises

Example(s): There are absolutely no absolutes.

Corollary: Appeal to Desire

Example: It is this way because I want it to be this way.

5.1 Hasty Generalization

Examples don't conclusively prove a general principle. Example(s): We went to three ball games this year and the home team lost each one. They're losers.

6.4 Substituting explanations for proofs

Explanations claim less than proofs, so it is tempting to use explanations instead of proofs.

1.4 Slanting

Fallacy of "question-begging epithet": a form of begging the question in a single word, by telling someone whether to like or dislike the thing the word describes. Example(s): propaganda, euphemism.

5.2 Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Fallacy of causal induction: inferring that one thing is the cause of another simply because the first thing is observed to occur before the second thing. Example(s): The rooster thinks his crowing brings up the sun each morning because each morning the sun rises shortly after he crows.

5.7 Slanting the Question

Getting a desired result by asking a question a certain way ("slanting" the question). Example(s): Does a good society give all children a free basic public education? vs. Should our children be propagandized in government schools?

6.7 Winning the argument but losing the arguer, or vice versa

Ignoring the personal, psychological factor and ending up being distrusted and treated as an enemy or a threat by the person you wanted to persuade.

6.3 Ignoring the argument

Ignoring your opponent's argument altogether.

6.1 Refuting an argument by refuting its conclusion

Leaving an argument "hanging" and creating another one instead of analyzing the first's weaknesses.

3.7 Stereotyping

Like Dicto simpliciter, Stereotyping makes no room for exception. Example(s): You're tall. You must play basketball.

1.5 Slogans

Only fallacious when a slogan is used as a substitute for an argument. Example(s): anything designed to produce a thoughtless knee-jerk reaction of agreement or disagreement simply on the basis of familiarity of the words rather than the basis of reason.

6.2 Assuming that refuting an argument refutes its conclusion

Opposite error from 6.1. Showing an error in the opponent's argument and thinking that settles the matter.

5.6 Selective Evidence

Referring only to evidence that tends to support your hypothesis.

1.7 "Straw Man"

Refuting an unfairly weak, stupid, or ridiculous version of your opponent's idea instead of the more reasonable idea he actually holds.

3.1 Dicto simpliciter

Saying something too simply, absolutely or unqualifiedly; i.e. applying a general principle to a special case without the needed qualification. Example(s): Man is a rational animal. Therefore even an idiot can pass a logic course.

3.6 Quoting out of Context

Self-evident. N.B.: The context that is ignored can either be literary or real. Example(s): The manager is a thief. He told his baserunner to steal whenever he could.

4.7 False Assumption

Similar to begging the question, but more covert. Example(s): Life is not a problem, so why are you asking for a solution? (Alan Watts)

5.3 Hypothesis Contrary to Fact

The "if only" fallacy: arguing that if only x were true, which it isn't, then y would be true. Example(s):

2.3 Ad baculum

The appeal to force (i.e. a threat). Corollary: Appeal to Desire (the other side of the coin). Example(s): Of course there's a real Santa Claus, but he doesn't bring presents to children who don't believe in him.

6.6 Shifting the burden of proof

The one who has the "burden of proof" is the one who must prove his case. Just who has the burden of proof varies depending on the situation. The meaning of the fallacy is self-evident.

3.2 "Special Case"

The reverse of Dicto simpliciter: arguing that if something is true in a "special case" it must be true simply. Example(s): There are a lot of idiots who cannot pass a logic course. Therefore man is not rational.

1.1 Equivocation

The same term is used in two or more different senses in the course of an argument. Example: "Your argument is sound. In fact, it's nothing but sound."

4.5 Arguing in a Circle

Using a conclusion to justify a premise after having used the premise to justify that conclusion. Example(s): "The world must be well-ordered." "Why?" "Because it is the work of divine wisdom." "How do you know it is the work of divine wisdom?" "How can you doubt divine wisdom? Look how well His world is ordered."

5.4 False Analogy

Using a false analogy or using an analogy falsely by assuming that when two things are similar in one way they will also be similar in another way. Example(s): The Stoical scheme of supplying our wants by lopping off our desires is like cutting off our feet when we want shoes. (Jonathan Swift)

7.1 Reductionism ("Nothing Buttery")

Usually takes the form of reducing form to matter (this is common in the materialistic age).

7.5 Confusing logical, physical, and psychological causes

What the title says.

7.7 Confusing the natural with the common

What the title says. The natural is inherent and unchangeable. The common is accidental and changeable. Example(s): It is human nature to want property; it is common in our age to want a lot more than we can use. It is natural to wear clothes; it is common in our day to wear jeans. Essence of being vs. popular trends.

5.5 Argument from Silence

When a speaker or writer is silent about x, we cannot conclude that he does not believe in x, or that there is no x.