MCAT 7C

Conditioned stimuli

--> acquired response. ex. kitchen bell sound triggers Pavlov's dog to salivate.

Fixed interval

--behavior is rewarded again only after a fixed time interval, like 60 seconds

Empathy

--feeling an emotion that you share.

Variable interval

--instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, the time interval may be 90 seconds, then 20 seconds, etc

Observational Learning

--learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.

Acquisition

--learning the association. ex. dog learns to salivate because Pavlov always gives them food after ringing the bell

Extinction

--losing the association. ex. if Pavlov stops giving dog food after ringing the bell.

Applications of Observational Learning to explain individual behavior

--loving family makes someone a loving person. --abusive family makes someone an abusive person.

Punishment

--opposite of reinforcement, a deterrent to behavior.

Latent Learning

--passively soaking up knowledge

Elaboration Likelihood Model

--two extremes on how individuals respond to persuasion, most are somewhere in the middle. Central route processing Peripheral route processing

Modeling

--type of observational learning. --copying others

Social Cognitive Theory

--we learn how to behave by observing others in society instead of trial and error

Avoidance learning

--you learn to not touch a caterpillar

Escape learning

--you touch a caterpillar, it stings you, you jerk away.

Processes of Classical Conditioning (5)

Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination

In an experimental study, a group of people were given information on an individual's performance on Task A (success or failure). The group was also given information regarding the individual's past performances on the same task and other similar tasks. Success rates of other individuals performing the same task were also provided. The group was then asked to judge the impact of internal and external factors in influencing the individual's Task A performance outcomes. Which of the following statement is false? A. The results showed that if Task A performance outcomes were similar to results of others, the group attributed it to the external locus of personal control. This indicates that the group believed that factors such as task difficulty impacted the individual's Task A performance outcome. B. The results showed that if past performance records were inconsistent, then the group attributed the Task A performance outcomes to the individual's external locus of control. This indicates that the group believed that the individual's ability and effort influenced the performance outcome of Task A. C. The results showed that if past performance records were consistent, then the group attributed the Task A performance outcomes to the individual's internal locus of control. This indicates that the group believed that the individual's ability and effort influenced the performance outcome of Task A. D. The results showed that success, compared to failures, was more likely to be attributed to internal factors. This means that the group believed that the general effort and ability of the individual heavily influenced the performance outcome of Task A.

B. The results showed that if past performance records were inconsistent, then the group attributed the Task A performance outcomes to the individual's external locus of control. This indicates that the group believed that the individual's ability and effort influenced the performance outcome of Task A.

Tim is a snowboard salesman. For every 15 snowboards he sells, his company gives him a monetary bonus. What schedule of reinforcement describes Tim's bonus arrangement? A. Fixed interval B. Variable ratio C. Variable interval D. Fixed ratio

D. Fixed ratio

Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change (2)

Elaboration likelihood model Social Cognitive Theory

Reinforcement Schedules (4)

Fixed-ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval

Operant Conditioning

behavior --> consequences

Unconditioned stimuli

--> natural response, no need for conditioning. ex. smell of steak triggers salivation.

Neutral stimuli

--> no response. ex. bell sound prior to Pavlov's dog's training

Biological Processes that affect observational learning

--Mirror Neurons --Increased Vicarious Emotions by the brain

Dishabituation

--a form of recovered or restored behavioral response wherein the reaction towards a known stimulus is enhanced, as opposed to habituation. ex. you play peek-a-boo with a baby by covering your face with a blanket.

Mirror Neurons

--a neuron that fires both when you perform an action and when you see another perform the same action. --Thus, it's also responsible for empathy: if you see someone else hurting, you hurt also

Instincts

--an innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli. ex. mother goose will protect her eggs. If you try to teach a goose to abandon eggs, it won't work b/c it goes against their instinct. This is called INSTINCTIVE DRIFT.

Spontaneous Recovery

--association returns after extinction, but never as strong as before.

Fixed-ratio

--behavior is rewarded every time or every nth time

Factors that affect attitude change

--changes in your behavior --> observed by others --> changes attitude. --message --> influences target --> affects attitude. --social = environment --> influences individual attitudes.

Vicarious

--feeling an emotion even if you don't share it. ex. seeing someone skateboard, you're like wow that must be so fun, even though you never skateboarded before.

Vicarious emotion

--feeling what others feel.

Associative Learning

--in animal behaviour, any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus.

Variable ratio

--instead of rewarding exactly every nth time, it's rewarded maybe the 1st time, then 4th time, then 2nd time, etc

Problem Solving

--step back, think, and come up w/ a soln.

Peripheral Route Processing

--superficial details like how likable the speaker is, catchphrases, slogans

Habituation

--the diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus.

Conditioned response

--the response to conditioned stimuli.

Unconditioned response

--the response to unconditioned stimuli.

Central Route Processing

--think, analyze, then draw conclusions

Primary reinforcer

= natural rewards = food, drink, pleasure.

Secondary reinforcer

= unnatural rewards = money, grades.

Mary is often tired when she wakes up, so she starts drinking coffee every day at 8:00 am, which makes her feel energized. One morning she is coming home from the grocery store she notices the time - it is 8:00 am. She had not wanted coffee before she checked the time, but she suddenly feels tired and craves the drink. Mary's sudden craving for coffee after noticing the time is an example of which of the following? A. Conditioned response B. Unconditioned response C. Conditioned stimulus D. Unconditioned stimulus

A. Conditioned response

Lauren is studying for her final exam in her psychology class. For every 45 minutes that she studies, she gives herself a mini doughnut, then goes back to studying. What schedule of reinforcement is Lauren using? A. Fixed interval B. Variable ratio C. Variable interval D. Fixed ratio

A. Fixed interval

Kelly and Jeff live together, and Kelly constantly yells at Jeff to clean his dishes in the kitchen. She tells him that she will stop nagging if he does the chore. He finally cleans the dishes and Kelly, in turn, stops nagging him. As a result, Jeff is more likely to clean his dishes in the future. What is this scenario an example of? A. Negative reinforcement B. Positive punishment C. Positive reinforcement D. Negative punishment

A. Negative reinforcement Positive refers to adding a stimulus. Negative refers to removing a stimulus. Punishment decreases further instances of behavior. Reinforcement increases further instances of behavior. Kelly's nagging is being removed and Jeff's behavior increases; this is negative reinforcement.

Dr. Walsh is interested in seeing whether symptoms of depression can be manipulated using principles of classical conditioning. For several weeks of an experiment, he gives a group of patients a sweetened soda that has a mood-enhancing drug in it and notices that symptoms of depression improve significantly. Then, he removes the drug from the beverage and notices that the symptoms are still improved when the patients consume the soda. Which of the following is the conditioned stimulus in Dr. Walsh's experiment? A. The sweetened soda B. The improved symptoms in response to the soda C. The improved symptoms in response to the drug D. The mood-enhancing drug

A. The sweetened soda The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The pairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response. Improvement in symptoms is the response, not the stimulus. The soda and drug are paired together to form the conditioned response.

In a consumer research study, two groups were asked to make product selections. In Group A, consumers were asked to choose 1 product out of 5. In Group B, consumers were asked to choose 1 product out of 25. The results showed that those in Group A were more satisfied with their choices compared to those in Group B who were presented with more choices. Which of the following is true regarding the study results? A. This is an example of the tyranny of choice. B. Group A consumers were benefactors of decision paralysis. C. Information overload does not seem to overwhelm Group A. D. This is an example of how information overload may have positive outcomes on consumers.

A. This is an example of the tyranny of choice. Information overload tends to have a negative effect on consumers' satisfaction. Decision paralysis, increased regret, and a sense of overwhelmingness can results from too many choices. This is referred to as the tyranny of choice, where abundant choices become a difficulty for consumers.

In a 1930s study on the relationship between attitudes and behavior, a researcher traveled with a Chinese couple to 251 hotels and restaurants. At the time of the study, it was thought that there was heavy prejudice towards Asians, and there were no laws against racial discrimination. After their travels, the researcher sent letters to all of the businesses and asked whether they would accept Chinese guests in their establishments. During their travels, only 1 establishment had refused to serve them. However, in the 128 letter responses received, 92% of the establishments said that they would not want to accept Chinese guests. According to the information offered in this study, which of the following is false? A. Cognitive and affective components of attitudes does not necessarily match behavior. B. Behavior influences attitudes through changes in cognition. C. This study demonstrated the gap between attitude and behaviors. D. Perceptions and attitudes toward race does not necessarily manifest in behavior.

B. Behavior influences attitudes through changes in cognition.

In a research experiment, shocks were administered to two groups of dogs in barriers. In Group I, there was a button that would deactivate the shock that the dogs could press. In Group II, there was no button. The two groups of dogs were then placed together and shocks were administered with no deactivation button. The dogs from Group I actively looked for ways to escape the shock situation, some by jumping over the barrier blocks. However, the dogs from Group II remained in place without looking for a solution and whimpered. This is an example of: A. Internal locus of control B. Learned helplessness C. Tyranny of choice D. External locus of control

B. Learned helplessness The is an example of "learned helplessness", where the group of dogs learned that they had a lack of control over a situation, and therefore, will not attempt to look for solutions because they believe they are helpless.

Biological Processes that affect Associative Learning

Biological Predispositions = an increased chance of developing a disease or pattern of behavior based on the genes we inherited from our parents (and our parents' parents) Instinctive Drift = tendency of an animal, of any species, to revert to unconscious and automatic behaviour that interferes with operant conditioning and the learned responses that come with it.

In a study, a researcher divided participants into three groups. In Group A, participants were asked to resist pieces of chocolate in a bowl. In Group B, participants were asked to resist pieces of radishes in a bowl. In Group C, participants were given nothing to resist. Afterwards, all of the participants were asked to solve a difficult math problem. The results showed that those who had to resist chocolate were more likely to give up sooner on the problem. This is an example of: A. Cognitive dissonance B. Tyranny of choice C. Ego depletion D. Learned helplessness

C. Ego depletion Those who had to resist chocolate exerted a lot of self-control. Too much priority place on self-control in the short-term may result in negative consequences in the long-term because of mental exhaustion. This is referred to as ego depletion, where our limited mental resources are used up for other tasks

Fixed action patterns are responses to a particular type of stimuli that result from which of the following? A. Operant conditioning B. Cognitive responses C. Innate learning D. Classical conditioning

C. Innate learning A fixed action pattern is an automatic response. Fixed action patterns are not learned behaviors. Fixed action patterns are considered "hard wired" or innate.

Research shows that our behavior is affected by intentions. In addition to intentions, however, it is also found that whether we have the resources or capacity to carry out these intentions also influence our behavior. This additional factor can be referred to as: A. Subjective norms B. Planned behavior C. Perceived behavior control D. Attitudes

C. Perceived behavior control This demonstrates a person's perception of the ease or difficulty in performing a behavior. Whether a person perceives that he or she has the resources or ability to carry out certain intentions influences their behavior. Perceived behavior control refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior.

Stuart acquires a classically conditioned phobia of ducks. Now he shows a phobic response not just to ducks, but to other birds as well, especially ones that can swim. What are the changes in his phobia an example of? A. Unconditioned response B. Shaped response C. Stimulus generalization D. Stimulus discrimination

C. Stimulus generalization Stuart is initially afraid of one type of bird, but is now afraid of most birds. As time passes, his ability to differentiate between types of birds decreases. His ability to discriminate between stimuli has decreased, not increased. Stimulus generalization is when stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response. Stuart's fear of most birds represents a stimulus generalization.

A speaker comes to give a talk on socio-economic inequality. As a listener, you find that the topic is interesting and important. You feel motivated as you listen to the talk, and you think deeply about the topic. After the talk, you thoroughly feel that the talk changed your perceptions and attitudes towards inequality. Which of the following is true, according to the experience? A. This is an example of the elaboration likelihood model. B. This is an example of the peripheral route to persuasion. C. This is an example of the central route to persuasion. D. The listener here was receptive to change and was persuaded.

C. This is an example of the central route to persuasion. This is a demonstration of how the elaboration likelihood model works. In this passage, the listener listens carefully to the speaker and thinks about the logic behind the message instead of focusing on superficial characteristics of the talk. This elaboration on a persuasive argument is referred to as the central route processing.

A salesperson often gets a customer to agree first to a small request, such as a home-visit appointment, an application form, or a trial period. After this initial small compliance, the salesperson will then ask the customer to do bigger things, such as actual purchases. Based on past small-scale compliance, the customer would be expected to experience cognitive dissonance if he/she switched to non-compliant behavior. This is most accurately an example of: A. Role-playing phenomenon B. Elaboration likelihood model C. Theory of planned behavior D. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

D. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

A researcher studying student intentions to engage in safer sex practices found that individual attitudes toward wearing condoms, and their friend's attitudes toward wearing condoms explained the variations in the intent of an individual to use condoms in the short-term. However, the study further showed that the perception of one's ability to use condoms or of condom availability significantly explained the variation between condom usage and non-usage. This "perception" is an example of: A. Theory of perception B. Cognitive dissonance C. Social cognition D. Perceived behavior control

D. Perceived behavior control

Dr. Soreth is teaching a pigeon to peck a green button. First she reinforces the pigeon for turning toward the green button, then for approaching the button, and so on in very small steps. She does this until the pigeon is successfully and consistently pecking the button. What principle of learning is Dr. Soreth using? A. Exposure B. Extinction C. Discrimination D. Shaping

D. Shaping

In a study on observational learning, three groups of nursery children were shown three different video clips. The first showed an adult person punching a blowup clown and being rewarded, the second showed a person punching a blowup clown and being punished, and the last showed a person punching a blowup clown with no rewards or punishment. When left alone with blowup clown later on, the children who had watched the version in which the person received punishment were much less likely to punch the clown compared to children in other groups. According to this passage, which of the following is most accurate? A. The children acquired the negative punching behavior after observing and learning from the person in the videos. B. Even if the stimulus (clown) was not there right after the videos, the children would be likely to act on what they learned in the videos (punching). C. The children mostly likely acquired the behavior because they were observing an adult. D. The consequences of what happened to the person after the punching behavior played a role in the learning of the children.

D. The consequences of what happened to the person after the punching behavior played a role in the learning of the children.

Dr. Soreth is a behavioral researcher who uses pigeons in her research; she teaches the birds to peck a green button and receive a treat. She wants to try out a new schedule of reinforcement for the pigeons. She wants the birds to peck as much as possible, and to have their pecking behavior occur at a steady rate with very little pausing between responses. Which schedule of reinforcement would be best for her to choose? A. Fixed interval B. Variable interval C. Fixed ratio D. Variable ratio

D. Variable ratio A fixed ratio schedule is one in which reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses are completed. A fixed interval schedule is one in which reinforcement is given after a specific amount of time has passed. A variable interval schedule is one in which reinforcement is given after random amounts of time have passed. A variable ratio schedule is one in which reinforcement is given after random numbers of responses are completed. A variable ratio schedule produces the highest, steadiest rate of responding with short pauses after delivery of the reinforcers.

Which of the following strategies describes how a person would extinguish a response using principles of operant conditioning? A. Keep subject from being exposed to the stimulus for an extended time B. Present the unconditioned stimulus without the conditioned stimulus C. Present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus D. Withhold all reinforcement after responses to the stimulus

D. Withhold all reinforcement after responses to the stimulus

Types of Reinforcement (2)

Positive reinforcement: behavior --> reward --> more of that behavior. ex. study for exam, and I'll reward you w/ a good grade. Negative reinforcement: behavior --> less punishment --> more of that behavior ex. study for you exam, and I'll stop giving you bad grades.

Processes of Shaping and Extinction

REINFORCEMENT shapes a behavior. When the reinforcement no longer happens, the behavior relapses, it's called EXTINCTION.

Discrimination

ex. dog salivates only to Pavlov ringing the bell.

Generalization

ex. dog salivates to anyone ringing a bell.

Classical Conditioning

stimulus --> biological response