MCAT ALL SET 2: Bio ch6-12 + Chem
Remove clotting factors from blood plasma and you get...
"serum" leftover
Oxidation number rules: group IA Ex: Li
+1
How many nephrons does a kidney have?
1M
SA Node Intrinsic rate
60-100 bpm
How many periods on the table are there?
7, representing n = 7
Which has more smooth muscle, arteries or veins?
ARTERIES
Oxidizing Agent
Accepts electrons and becomes reduced.
Electron-donating groups on a molecule make it a better ______________ (acid/base)
BASE
Borate
BO3 3-
3 major functions of the excretory system, in general
Blood Pressure, Osmoregulation, pH Regulation
Cyanide
CN-
2 types of bone components
Compact and Spongy
What makes a better electrolyte, a compound that releases 2 cations and 1 anions or that releases 1 cation and 3 anions?
Compound 2; it releases MORE ions that makes it a better dissociator in a way!
As Zeff increases, atomic radii _______________
DECREASES
When a reactions moves towards its equilibrium position, Gibbs Free Energy of the system...
DECREASES and proceeds spontaneously
Chromosomal Mutation: Duplication
DNA copied many times
Weak Acid/Base Definition
DO NOT fully dissociate in water; EQUALIBRIUM chemical equation
Reducing Agent
Donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
Equivalents (equation)(chem)
Equivalents = (mass of compound)/(Gram Equivalent Weight)
Exothermic/Endothermic VS exergonic/endergonic?
Exo/Endothermic represents the relative change in heat/enthalpy in a system, whereas Exer/Endergonic refers to the relative change in the free energy of a system
4 anatomical parts of the stomach
Fundus, Body, Antrum, Pylorus
Which of the following has the largest dipole moment? HCN H2O CCl4 SO2
HCN
In reaction control, at what T/energy transfer is the thermodynamic product formed?
HIGH
The adaptive immune system is also called '___________ immunity', because antibodies dissolve in __________, not in cells
Humoral Immunity; blood
How to solve for conc'ns at equilibrium with starting [conc] and the Keq:
ICE table!
What is different between classical mechanics angular momentum and electron angular momentum?
In classical, objects can have infinite values for angular momentum, but in quantum mechanics, the value ms defines only 2 values
What has the highest Zeff, Cl, Cl-, K, or K+? Why?
K+; 19p+/18e-; it has the most protons compared to electrons! Use the equation: (# protons)/(# electrons)
Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
Ka = [H3O][A-]/[HA]; the bigger Ka, the stronger the acid; for weak acids
Keq for an electrolytic cell:
Keq < 1 (non-spont)
Which has stronger London Dispersion Forces, large or small molecules?
Large molecules are more easily polarizable than smaller molecules. Thus have greater dispersion forces
Are concentrations of reactants and products the same at equilibrium?
NOT NECESSARILY
List of state function examples (themochem)? mnemonic?
P, density, T, V, enthalpy (H), U, Gibbs free energy (G), entropy (S) Mnemonic: they occur when I'm under pressure, feeling dense, and want TV and HUGS
What is the name for HIO4? H2TiO3 (titanate)?
Periodic acid Titanic acid
Dihybrid Cross
Punnett square for TWO traits
In the reaction: A(aq) + 2B (g) <-> C(g) + heat If A or B is added, which direction will it be shifted to?
RIGHT
Lead-Acid and Nickel-Cadmium are 2 types of __________________
Rechargeable batteries
Alkali salts are _____________ (soluble/insoluble)
Soluble
Skeletal muscle appears ___________ (i.e. ___________) microscopically because of repeating units of ___________ and ___________, called ___________ together
Striated (striped); myosin and actin; Sarcomeres
The reverse of an acid-base neutralization is called...
a HYDROLYSIS
Vitamin D & bone
activated by parathyroid hormone & also resorbs calcium from it; promotes building of NEW, BETTER bone!
AmphOteric Species? examples?
acts like an acid in a basic environment, base in acidic Amphoteric means that they have reactions as both acids and bases. via H+ transfer or e- transfer
Megakaryocytes
bone marrow cells that fragment into platelets!
Non-Electrolytes (+examples)
compounds that do not dissociate AT ALL in water (and don't really dissolve either) Ex: non-polar gases, organic compounds (O, CO2, glucose)
Joints
connective tissue that can be movable or immovable
If species are more taxonomically distant, their proportion of shared genes...
decreases
Muscle Class: Flexion
decreases the angle in a joint (e.g., bicep curl)
Too little water absorption in the intestines causes __________________, and too much causes __________________
diarrhea, constipation
The skin is derived from the embryonic structure of the...
ectoderm
All electrochemical cells contain _______________ where the O-R takes place
electrodes
What happens to an electron's energy as it moves to higher n?
energy INCREASES!!! Becomes more positive! Even though the magnitude is going down Positive E = emission Negative E = adsorption
3 cell types found in blood
erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
Which electrons interact more with the environment, those close or far from the nucleus?
far
Valence Electrons have ___________ potential energy, which allows them to ________________
farthest from the nucleus, greatest Ep; held not-so-tightly and can bond
Brown Fat
fat that MAY be present in humans to insulate on top of white fat; usually found in BABIES; low efficiency ETC which releases a lot of thermal energy 'by accident' to keep you warm
__________________ (secreted by the _________________) and __________________ (secreted by the __________________) stimulate the sensation of hunger
glucagon; pancreas ghrelin; pancreas/stomach
What force is stronger between electron and the nucleus: gravitational or electrostatic
gravitational or electrostatic electrostatic, because the charge difference is WAY bigger than its mass,
On the surface of skin, we find_____________
hair & openings for sweat = sebaceous glands
Bone
hard(er than cartilage) material that makes up the skeleton
2 common measurements used to count RBCs
hemoglobin count, hematocrit count
What type of IMF stabilizes nucleotides in DNA?
hydrogen bonds!
Are work and energy on a system dependent or independent?
independent; you can measure one without the other measured
Two types of digestion
intracellular digestion & extracellular digestion
Ways DNA can mutate
ionizing radiation (UV), Mutagen chemical exposure, natural mistake from DNAP, transposon inserted into the middle of a gene
What was the issue with Bohr's model of the atom?
it could not predict the properties of things with more than 1 electron because it did not account for repulsion between electrons
Range of a buffer's optimal capacity in pKa
it's pKa ± 1
Fingernails & hair are made of _______________ by specialized cells in the skin
keratin
Metals (on periodic table)
left and middle of periodic table (active metals, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides)
__________________ and __________________ stimulate the sensation of satiety
leptin & cholecystokinin
Gallbladder
located beneath the liver; stores/concentrates bile
The production of vaccines exploits our body's ability to produce _______________
memory B-cells
Medical devices use ________________ to measure blood pressure, based on the design of a ________________
mercury; barometer
If you're blood pressure is low (low volume), you will pee ______________ and your pee will be ______________; if your blood pressure is high (e.g., drinking a lot), you will pee ______________ and your pee will be ______________
minimally; concentrated ; maximally; diluted
Layers of the epidermis, from outside to inside
mnemonic: Come, Let's Get Sun Burned; Stratum: Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale
In general, liquids exist at ______ P and _______ T
moderate and moderate
Chalcogens at high concentrations
most are TOXIC, even any 'useful' ones (O, S, Se)
Muscle Class: Adductor
move a part of body TOWARDS midline
The respiratory system is made up of ____________ membranes lined with ____________ that trap particulate matter, pushing it up to the ____________. Here, it has 2 options: to be ____________ or to be ____________
mucous; cilia; oropharynx; swallowed; expelled
Pus is the result of a clump of dead ____________
neutrophils
The Granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophil, basophils: leukocytes with cytoplasmic granules that can be seen by microscopy which contain compounds that are toxic to invaders and release via exocytosis; involved in inflammation (allergies, pus, destruction of enemies)
The salivary glands are controlled by the __________________ nervous system's nerves
parasympathetic
The 3 isotopes of hydrogen
protium (1p 0n), deuterium (1p 1n), tritium (1p 2n)
3 basic subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, electrons
Muscle Class: Lateral Rotation
rotates the axis of your limb AWAY from the midline
Genes
segments of DNA that code for heritable traits
Ruffini's Endings (dermis)? sense what?
sensory receptors that respond to stretch
When the sympathetic system is active, blood flow __________________ to the digestive tract
slows
Wave equation (speed)
speed of any wave; v = f𝜆
Titin (Sarcomere)
spring that anchors actin-myosin together, preventing huge stretch
Factors that cause the heartbeat to raise above 100 (4)
stress, exercise, surprise, danger
Isolated System (thermochem)
system cannot exchange energy or work with surroundings (e.g., calorimeter)
2 phases of heart contraction
systole and diastole
Side of heart where deoxygenated blood returns
the RIGHT side
The equilibrium point of solvation is...
the SATURATION point (maximum solute dissolved); moving towards here is spont, and moving away is non-spont
Bicuspid Valve
the atrioventricular valve that separates the left atrium from left ventricle; 2 leaflets; aka Mitral
Tricuspid Valve
the atrioventricular valve that separates the right atrium from right ventricle
What does the (-) sign in the electron energy equation represent? (Bohr)
the attraction of an atom; it is attracted in any quantized state
Gibbs Free Energy? equation?
the energy of a system that is available to do work at a constant temperature and pressure the change in enthalpy + entropy as a system undergoes a process (all 3 are state functions); DETERMINES IF A PROCESS IS SPONTANEOUS OR NOT
Pancreatic Amylase
the enzyme in pancreatic juice that breaks down large polysaccharides into disaccharides
Gastric Juice
the fluid produced by the Chief & Parietal cells of the gastric glands
The larger the alkane you're combusting...
the more numerous/varied its products will be
Microglia
the name for macrophages in the CNS
Venules
the re-combining of capillaries after they deliver oxygen
Typical hemoglobin count of males & females
13.5-17.5g/dL for males and 12-16 for females
1 mol of an ideal gas at STP (0C, 1atm) is ___________L; this fact is useful because...
22.4L; useful because we can use it ask a starting point for any gas in any equation! It can be a reference point
3 main sources of energy for the body:
carbs, fats, proteins
What is most of the heart composed of?
cardiac muscle
3 types of electrochemical (O-R) cells
galvanic (voltaic), electrolytic, concentration cells
A positive E˚cell indicates a ____________ cell (galvanic/electrolytic)
galvanic cell; spontaneous; O-R is occurring in the direction of reduction potentials as it would naturally
All nonrechargable batteries in your home are ___________ cells (galvanic (voltaic), electrolytic, concentration cells)
galvanic cells
How much free energy is added in reaction control for the kinetic product?
lower free energy (to reach transition state); preferred with less heat available
Saliva aids in mechanical digestion by __________________ the food
lubricating
Real Gas Isothermal Curves
not that low V skews the expected curve
Titration: Weak Acid w/ Weak Base curve? pH?
not-too-acidic pH to start, not very sharp rise at equivalence point, equivalence point near neutral
Memory T-cells
similar to memory B-cells, lying in wait until an antigen appears again, mounting a rapid, efficient response to contain it
Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds
simply the combo of cation + anion names!
Our relationship with gut bacteria is __________________; bacteria gets __________________, we get their __________________ (vitamin K, vitamin B7)
symbiotic; food, by-products
The __________________ division of the ANS will inhibit digestion
sympathetic
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic effects on cardiac output
sympathetic NS will increase output, parasympathetic will decrease
Root-Mean-Square Speed (u(rms))(Kinetic Molecular Theory)
u(rms) = √(3RT/M); this is defined as the average speed of gas molecules in a gas, based on the temperature (which measures their average Ek) R is 8.314J/Kmol in this case!!
What difference in electronegativity between 2 atoms is needed to make an ionic compound?
ΔEN ≤ 1.7 (on the Pauling Scale; GREATER THAN)
ΔG equation for an electrochmical cell from its ΔG˚
ΔG = ΔG˚ + RTlnQ
ΔG˚ of an electrochemical cell via equilibrium constant
ΔG˚ = -RTln(Keq)
All ΔG˚ equations for electrochemical cells:
ΔG˚ = -nFE˚cell = -RTln(Keq)
STP (Standard T & P) levels (gas phase)
273K (0C) & 1atm: the variables under which many gas processes occur
Blood composition by volume
55% liquid (plasma), 45% cells (RBC, WBC, platelets)
Fetal skeletons are made of mostly made of ____________ which is beneficial because________________
cartilage; they grow in a closed environment and must make it through the birth canal
Heterogeneous Catalysts
catalysts in a different phase from the reactants (s/l/g)
Homogeneous Catalysts
catalysts in the same phase as the reactants (s/l/g)
In ALL electrochemical cells, CURRENT (I) move from __________ to _________________ (anode/cathode)
cathode (+) to anode (-); THIS IS OPPOSITE THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRONS MOVING, THIS IS THE DIRECTION OF 'COVENTIONAL FLOW' simply equal magnitude and opposite direction
Guy-Lussac's Law? what is constant? what are the variables?
at constant V & n (isovolumetric), P and T are proportional: P/T = k P1/T1 = P2/T2
When is the pH = pKa of the buffer in titration?
at the EQUIVALENCE POINT
Lymphatic System: equalizing fluid distribution
at the artery end of the capillaries, fluid will exit the vessels based on Starling Forces (hydrostatic vs osmotic pressure) hydrostatic pressure high on arteriole side pushing water out, but oncotic (dissolved protein) pressure high on venous side which draws water in to dilute: however, NET ONCOTIC < NET HYDROSTATIC, meaning less water drawn in, so some fluid stays in tissue: LYMPHATIC TISSUES DRAIN THAT LEFTOVER FLUID AND RETURN IT TO BLOODSTREAM AKA: LYMPH VESSELS ACT AS DRAINS TO COLLECT EXCESS TISSUE FLUID AND RETURN IT TO THE VENOUS BLOOD BEFORE GOING BACK TO THE HEART
A B-cell that has never encountered its antigen before is '__________', and sits in the ______________ not producing antibodies until it _________ to the antigen; at this point, it proliferates into 2 types of cells: 1) _______________ 2) _______________
'naive'; lymph nodes; binds; Plasma Cells, Memory Cells
When B-cells have recently left the bone marrow, we call them '__________', meaning they have not been exposed to antigens yet
'naïve'
Muscle that surrounds the bladder? what nervous system branch contracts this?
'the detrusor muscle' parasympathetic activity causes it to contract
How do you calculate how strong the Zeff is?
(# protons)/(# electrons); the HIGHER this number is, the higher/stronger Zeff is
Van der Waals Equation of State? (real gas) variables?
(P+n^2a/V^2)(V-nb) = nRT a and b are physical constants determined experimentally for each gas a corrects for the attractive forces between molecules (directly proportional to the intermolecular forces the gas should produce), & b corrects for volume the molecules ACTUALLY take up (larger molecules have larger b); a>>>b usually
Linked genes have a recombination frequency of...
0%
Standard State Conditions (gas phase)
1. all gases are at 1 atm 2. all liquids are pure 3. all solids are pure 4. all solutions are at 1-M 5. the energy of formation of an element in its normal state is defined as 0 6. temperature used for standard state values is almost invariably room temperature. standard state values can be calculated for other temperatures, however. (298K, 25C) NOT THE SAME AS STP
Appendicular Skeleton (4)
1/2 of our skeleton: upper limb bones (humerus, radius ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalangers), lower limb bones (femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges) pectoral girdle (scapula, clavicle), pelvis
Atomic Radius? trend on periodic table?
1/2 the distance between the centres of 2 atoms of an element next to each other (i.e. the distance from the centre of an atom to the valence electrons, but that's impossible to measure) Zeff increases (more + nucleus), so atomic radius decreases left to right & n increases down a group, so atomic radius increases down
A monohybrid cross of 2 heterozygotic traits will lead to a ratio of ______ genotype and ____ phenotype
1:2:1 genotype, 3:1 phenotype
Mass of a proton
1amu
Conversion of atm, mmHg, Torr, Pa
1atm ⟷ 760mmHg ⟷ 760 Torr ⟷ 101.325 kPa
1ppm of a solute means...
1mg/L of the substance in water
What is the temperature of Standard State conditions (chem)? pressure?
298K (25C) 1 atm
Whereas a person drinks about __________________L of fluid a day, the secretions into our upper gastrointestinal track total up to __________________L per day
2; 7
Types of chemical bonds
2; ionic and covalent
Temperature optimum for reactions in biological systems? what happens after?
35-40˚C, after which point severe denaturation occurs to the catalyst/enzymes
Maximum number of electrons in a subshell (l)
4l + 2
Purkinje Fibers
4th place excited in the heart; sends electrical signal to ventricular muscle (contracted via connected intercalated discs)
Typical cardiac output value for a person
5L; the total blood pumped by a ventricle in 1 minute
Bicarbonate buffer system's carbonic acid pKa & meaning? why is this ok?
6.37 (although blood pH is 7.4); this is technically not optimal for the buffer to work, but it's pKa ± 1 It is more common for acidemia (too much acid in blood) to occur than alkalemia (too much base in blood) -> as acidemia becomes more severe, the buffer system becomes more effective resisting further lowering of pH
About ____% of NaCl that was secreted is reabsorbed at the proximal c. tubule
70%
Normal partial pressure of O2 in the blood
70-100mmHg
Approximately ______% of our blood passes through veins at any time
75%!
The pH of pure water at 25˚C is...
7; NOTE THAT 7 MEANS SOMETHING DIFFERENT AT ALL OTHER TEMPERATURES!!!!
Length of the small intestine
7m
Ideal Gas Constant (for gases)(R)
8.21 x 10^(-2) Latm/molK
Ideal Gas Constant (for energy)
8.314K/molK (Pa and m^3 have been substituted in)
Ideal Gas
A hypothetical gas with molecules that have NO inter-molecular forces & NO volume
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
A law that if two systems are separately found to be in thermal equilibrium with a third system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other; that is, all three systems are at the same temperature. Also known as thermodynamic equilibrium.
Suppose that an electron starts in the n=4 shell of a neutral hydrogen atom. How many photons will be emitted once it has fallen to the n=1 shell?
A photon will be emitted each time the electron moves from shell to another. The electron can fall to any shell between n=4 and n=1. That means that the electron can fall through 4 paths: n=4 n=1 (1 photon) n=4 n=3 n=1 (2 photons) n=4 n=2 n=1 (2 photons) n=4 n=3 n=2 n=1 (3 photons) So, 1, 2, or 3 photons can be emitted.
What are pi bonds? rotation?
AKA: double bonds When orbitals overlap in such a way that there are two parallel electron cloud densities, a pi bond forms. They do NOT allow for free rotation. Rotating that bond will not allow the lobes to keep overlapping and "bonded", so it was to break to rotate
Hypodermis
AKA: subcutaneous layer; layer of connective tissue (fat, fibre) that connects the skin as a whole to the rest of the body; 'lowest' layer of skin
If Br2(l) → Br2(g) has ΔH(rxn) 31kJ/mol, what is the ΔH (also under standard conditions) of Br2(l) → 2Br → Br2(g)?
ALSO 31kJ/mol; enthalpy is a state function, so to go from 1 set of reactants to 1 set of products, it's the same energy
"Universal Acceptor" of blood
AB+ blood type; they recognize all antigens
A solution is prepared with an unknown concentration of a theoretical compound with Ka = 1.0. What is the pH of this compound: acidic, basic, or neutral?
ACIDIC The higher the Ka = stronger the acid Weak acids = several levels below 1 Ka The pKa of this is -log (1) = 0 -> with such a low pKa, the compound is an acid
Heat of Vaporization at the critical point value?
ALWAYS zero for all substances and all T and P above the critical point; no heat change occurs in vaporization
What other variables does Hess's Law apply to?
ANY STATE FUNCTION; entropy, Gibbs Free Energy
The number of melanocytes (melanin-producing cells of the stratum basale) between people of light and dark skin tone...
ARE THE SAME! They just differ in activity of melanin production!
Oxidation number rules: free elements (one kind of atom present) ex: N2 ex: P4 ex: S8 ex: He
All are 0
In the following reaction, identify the acid, base, conjugate acid, and conjugate base: H2PO4- + H2O <-> H3PO4 + OH-
Acid = H2O Base = H2PO4- Conjugate acid = H3PO4 Conjugate base = OH-
Most of the pancreas is made of __________________ = Cells that produce __________________
Acinar Cells; Pancreatic digestive Juices (exocrine stuff)
Hydrogen + Polyatomic Oxyanion Naming: HCO3- H2PO4-
Add 1 hydrogen = 'hydrogen -ate' or 'bi___ate' (HCO3-; hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate) Add 2 H = 'dihydrogen -ate' (H2PO4-, dihydrogen phosphate)
Monocytes
Agranulocytes that phagocytose foreign matter (bacteria); organs keep a collection of them, but once travelled in the blood, they are called macrophages
The gas phase is the simplest to understand because their behavior is irrelevant of identity, meaning_____________
All gases behave essentially the same no matter what the molecules of gas are
Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, has a very strong rotten egg odor. Methyl salicylate, C8H8O3, has a wintergreen odor, and benzaldehyde, C7H6O, has a pleasant almond odor. If the vapors for these three substances were released at the same time from across a room, which odor would you smell first?
All of the gases have the same temperature, they all have the same kinetic energy. Therefore, the lightest molecules will move fastest.
Oxidizing & reducing agents are _______________ (amphoteric/amphiprotic) because___________
Amphoteric they act as Lewis acid/bases, because they donate/accept electrons
Identify which reactants are amphoteric species in the following reaction and if the compound is also amphiprotic HCO3- + HBr <-> H2CO3 + Br- 3HCl + Al(OH)3 <-> AlCl3 + 3H2O
Amphoteric: HCO3- Amphiprotic?-> YES Amphoteric: Al(OH)3 Amphiprotic?-> NO
AmphIprotic Species (Brønsted-Lowry)
An amphiprotic substance, on the other hand, is specifically an amphoteric substance that transfers H+ ions.
Why is the anode is electrolytic cells designated as the 'positive' one?
An electrolytic cell. The battery pumps electrons away from the anode (making it positive) and into the cathode (making it negative). The positive anode attracts anions toward it, while the negative cathode attracts cations toward it
The most resistance to blood flow is found in the...
Arterioles!
Molecular Clock Model (Evolution)
As the genetic molecule similarity of a species decreases, we know its been a longer amount of time since they split from their common ancestor
At the end of the liver's clotting factor cascade, ___________ activates ___________ by turning it into __________ which can convert __________ into ____________
At the end of the clotting factor cascade, thromboplastin activates prothrombin by turning it into thrombin which can convert fibrinogen into fibrin
How a barometer of mercury works
Atmospheric pressure creates a downwards force on the pool of mercury at the base, while the mercury in the tube exert an opposite force, its weight (based on density) the weight of mercury creates a vacuum at the top of the tube; when external air exerts force greater than the mercury's weight, the column rises, but when lower, the column falls: this change is measure in mm
Autoimmunity
Autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an aberrant immune response is termed an "autoimmune disease".
2 anatomical components of our skeletal structure
Axial & Appendicular Skeletons
Memory B-cells
B-cells that differentiate and sit in the lymph nodes, awaiting re-exposure to the pathogen again
Molarity vs Molality in WATER at room T, vs other solvents
BASICALLY THE SAME since 1L water = 1kg water; for other solvents they will be diff
T/F: Gases are infinitely compressible
FALSE Easily compressible, but not infinite
Bohr's 'Planetary Model'
Bohr's theory in which electrons orbits atoms like planets around the sun (set energy, distance, circular)
The _________________ Constant (value: _________________) is seen as the link between the macroscopic & microscopic behaviours of gases (as a whole vs individual molecules)
Boltzmann Constant; (1.38 x 10^(-23)J/K
Around each glomerulus is a structure called________which leads into (in order)__________________
Bowman's Capsule proximal convoluted tubule ➝ descending loop of Henle ➝ ascending loops of Henle ➝ distal convoluted tubule
The 'horizontal' portions of the nephron (______________, ______________ and ______________) focus on the ______________ of what passes through the kidney
Bowman's Capsule, Proximal C. Tubule, Distal C. Tubule IDENTITY; meaning these 3 focus on what the body needs, and what it doesn't when secretion/reabsorbing
Polyatomic Oxyanion Naming ("The 8 ates") (EXTENDED SERIES): ClO- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
BrIClNCCrSP; (BrO3 -), (IO3 -), (ClO3 -), (NO3 -), (CO3 2-), (CrO4 2-), (SO4 2-), (PO4 3-); all of these are 'ates'; remove 1 O = 'ite', remove 2 O = 'hypo___ite', add 1 O = 'per_____ate'; CHARGE NEVER CHANGES Ex: ClO- = hypochlorite ClO2- = Chlorite ClO3- = Chlorate ClO4- = Perchlorate
In a energy diagram showing a reaction coordinate, where would the intermediate be?
C
T/F: If ∆G is negative, then the reaction proceeds faster
FALSE Reaction rate has literally nothing to do with ∆G, it's a thermodynamic property, not a kinetic property; Ea would measure rate; the products can form at different rates, can be slow or fast
Elements that obey the octet rule
C, N, O, F, Na, Mg; all other elements can vary slightly
Acetate
C2H3O2 -
If you increase the SA of an electrode by factor X, what else increases by factor X?
CURRENT; the increases surface area means a proportional amount more of electrons are released per time!
'Unique' way Cardiac Myocytes (cardiac muscle cells) communicates
Cardiac Muscle Myocytes connected by 'Intercalated Discs' with many Gap Junction (connecting adjacent cell cytoplasms); adjacent cells can thus send ions and rapidly depolarize one another for rapid, unified contraction
T-Cell function
Cell-mediated immunity; immune system directly kills infected cells
The digestive tract gets enzymes from 2 places: __________________ lining the digestive tract & __________________
Cells lining the digestive tract, accessory organs
Oxidation States
Charges when bonding to other atoms
In the stomach, the __________________ cells secrete pepsinogen, which is a __________________ of pepsin; the __________________ cells secrete H+ ions (in the form of __________________) which __________________ pepsinogen
Chief; zymogen; Parietal; HCl; cleave & activate
Cartilage is a firm-elastic matrix of '_____________ ' secreted from _____________
Chondrin (a resilient translucent bluish-white substance that forms the matrix of cartilage) ; Chondrocytes
Major things dumped by urine (via kidney)
mnemonic: Dump the HUNK - H+ Urea NH3 K+
First-Order Reaction ln[A] vs t Plot
negative straight line, k = -slope
The MHC II pathway (antigen-presenting cells) is also called the ______________ Pathway, because...
Exogenous; the antigens originate outside the cell
Dichromate
Cr2O7 2-
When cells present a foreign antigen in their MHC I, _________________ recognize this and kill the infected cell
Cytotoxic T-Cells
Electrons in electrochemical cells/galvanic flow from ________ to ________ electric potential
negative to positive
What happens to the molecular geometry angles as # lone pairs increases?
DROPS from the ideal bond angle as # LPs INCREASE e.g., NH3 (1 LP) is tetrahedral EG but 107˚ angles, and water is tetrahedral but 2 LP makes it 104.5˚ angles
Process Functions? 2 examples?
Describe path taken to get from one state to another work and heat e.g., Q, W
The internal edge of the epiphyses (ends of long bones) have ________________ (________________) ________________, a cartilaginous structure from which the bone will longitudinally grow
Epiphyseal Growth Plate
T/F: pH values are never negative values
FALSE The strong acids do not dissociate completely at high concentrations. Some hydrogen remains bound to the chlorine so that actual H+ concentration is less and the observed pH becomes more than what is expected from the molar concentration of the acids. Ex: What is the pH of 10 M HCl solution? -> -log(10) = -1
T/F: Kf = kr f = forward reaction r = reverse reaction
FALSE The reaction rates of both forward and reverse are equal HOWEVER the rate constants (k) are not
How fast is the reaction in reaction control to form the kinetic product?
FAST as only low energy needed
Peyer's Patch
GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue) located in the small intestine
Suppressor T-cells and Helper T-cells both express CD4, but can be differentiated by the presence of protein ______________ on the surface of the ______________ T-cells
Foxp3; on Suppressor T-cells
If a process is spontaneous and in the forward direction, what are the values of G in relation to 0 and Keq in relation to Q G __ 0 Keq ____ Q (>, <, =)
G < 0 Keq > Q
A change in Zeff going down a group is ________ than a similar change in Zeff going across a period
GREATER
Real Gases vs ideal gases (chem)
Gases whose particles actually occupy volume & intermolecularly interact
Which hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2, HbA (regular) or HbF (fetal)? Why?
HbF; this is because infants' Hb must literally rip O2 off their mother's heme
Which value would be more accurate to use: ∆Hf or ∆Hrxn? Explain why ∆Hf = -2662 kJ/mol ∆Hrxn = -2268 kJ/mol
Heats of formation values are more specific to standard conditions and are more accurate than averaged bond enthalpy values
In HIV/AIDS, the _____________ cells are targeted because they attract & amplify the activity of other immune cells, disallowing adequate response to infection, even to weak infections
Helper T-cells
Hematopoietic Pathway of T/B cell production
Hematopoietic stem cell, lymphoid stem cell, then either T or B cell progenitors, then T and B cells, which become T helper cells or plasma cells
In the vapour pressure equations [a] = kH x Pa OR [a]1/P1 = [a]2/P2 = kH, kH is __________________ and it varies depending on_______________
Henry's Constant; varies; depending on IDENTITY OF THE GAS
5 Different forms of Keq:
Ksp (equilibrium of dissolved vs solid ions), Kw (acid-base), Ka (acid dissociation), Kb (base dissociation), Enzyme Kinetics (Kd, Kb, Ka)
Typical hematocrit count for males & females
normally 41-53% for males and 36-46% for females
The addition of a catalyst will ______________ the forward rate constant and ___________ the reverse rate constant
INCREASE INCREASE
"Leaking" vs "Sucking" pressure gradient in blood
Hydrostatic Pressure = leaking; high pressure from heart/elastic vessels pushes blood to interstitium/out capillaries VS Osmotic Pressure = sucking; high solutes in blood draw water into blood; usually called Oncotic Pressure as most blood osmolarity is from plasma proteins
Periodic Trend of Zeff (horizontally and vertically)
INCREASES from left to right (as more protons added); valence electrons pulled harder -> atomic size decreases It INCREASES from down to up, because of additional shells of electrons, which also decreases Zeff
Are viruses intra or extracellular pathogens?
INTRACELLULAR ONLY!
Since Cytotoxic T-cells respond to MHC-I with endogenous antigens, they best fight________________
INTRACELLULAR pathogens; bacteria, fungi
How to determine which order each reactant is in a rate law?
If A increases by 2 and the rate increases by 2, then it is in the first order (MAKE SURE TO CHECK ALL)
If a liquid boils in a closed container, what will occur to the liquid and gas levels in the container?
If a liquid boils in a closed container, then the pressure building in the container will cause the liquid and gas particles to evaporate and condense in equilibrium
What type of antibody are Rh?
IgG; can pass the fetus and be fatal in Erythroblastosis Fetalis
The 5 subtypes of antibodies/Igs
IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, IgA (DAMEG)
When infected by a virus & to prevent spread, a cell produces ___________ which...
Interferons; prevent viral replication + dispersion by signalling nearby cells to decrease the production of all proteins (viral & cellular) & upregulate MHC I and II, which increases their presentation of antigens to better detect infected cells
Water Dissociation Constant (Kw)? what can only change Kw?
Kw = [H3O +][OH-] = 10^(-14) at 25C those 2 concentrations are equal unless THEY ARE ONLY UNEQUAL IF ANOTHER SPECIES SKEWS [H3O] OR [OH] IN A DIFFERENT DIRECTION Kw MUST STAY CONSTANT, so according to Le Chatlier's: if you add acid, the system increase [H3O] by adding an acid, [OH] must decrease to maintain Kw; ONLY TEMPERATURE CAN CHANGE Kw
How to calculate pH when the concentration of H dissociated is very small (around 10^(-7))
Kw = [x + y][x] = 10^(-14), where x is the amount already dissolved, and y is the amount dissolved by that new substance
Bohr's Electron Angular Momentum equation
L = nh/2π; predicts only possible angular momentum values for an electron against classical mechanics' infinite; n = principle QN and h is Planck's constant
Electrolytic Cell equation (Faraday)
M^(n+) + n(e-) → M(s); n is the number of electrons transferred and M the metal atom; i.e. to produce a certain number of moles of metal M, you need the same amount of ion M, and the correct number of electrons to do so corresponding to its charge!: liberation of the metal is proportional to the number of electrons exchanged in the redox fueling it
__________________ Factor, which is the 2nd thing secreted by the __________________ Gastric Gland Cells, is involved in properly absorbing vitamin __________________
Intrinsic; Parietal; B12
Iodimetric Titration
Involves the use of starch indicators to identify iodine complexes. It relies on the titration of free iodine radicals. The presence of iodine is initially determined by a dark solution in the presence of starch and at the endpoint of the titration, a colorless solution develops
Counterions (chem)
Is the ion that accompanies an ionic species in order to maintain electric neutrality. In table salt (NaCl), the sodium ion (positively charged) is the counterion for the chlorine ion (negatively charged) and vice versa.
The pancreas' hormones are released from its __________________
Islets of Langerhans
"General" way you should think about Keq
Keq = [products]/[reactants] Definition of equilibrium constant. : a number that expresses the relationship between the amounts of products and reactants present at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at a given temperature
What are the rate constants for the forward & backwards reactions that help determine Keq?
Keq = kf/kr since rate f(forward) = rate r(backwards), kf[A][B] = kr[C][D] for example, meaning kf/kr = [C][D]/[A][B]
Keq for a galvanic cell:
Keq > 1 (spontaneous)
For a reaction to be spontaneous, need it be fast or slow go to completion?
It can be either; some are fast and some are slow (ex: enzymes make slow reactions faster)
If the arteries weren't elastic and decreased volume in diastole, what would happen to blood pressure?
It would be ZERO! When the heart relaxes not enough blood would be pumped into the massive arteries
The stem cells (in stratum basale) of skin produce the dominant skin cell type is called ______________
Keratinocytes (produce keratin)
The Ksp vs Kf for a metal before adding the ligand and AFTER adding it has relative sizes of...
Kf >>> Ksp
Atrioventricular valves mnemonic
LAB RAT: Left Atrium: Bicuspid, Right Atrium: Tricuspid
Lymphatic vessels become __________________ as they move towards the centre of the body
LARGER
At extremely high pressures, a real gas's volume will be _________________ than that predicted by the Ideal Gas Law, because...
LARGER; because the size of the molecules become large compared to the space between them: THEY CANNOT TAKE UP 0 MASS like is expected in the equation
In the reaction: A(aq) + 2B (g) <-> C(g) + heat If C is added, which direction will it be shifted to?
LEFT
Lewis Acid/Base Definitions
Lewis Acid = electron pair acceptor Lewis Base = electron pair donor (MUST BE FROM A LONE PAIR); note: similar to electrophile-nucleophile, coordinate covalent bond, complex ions
When the bolus reaches the stomach, the __________________ (__________________) sphincter relaxes and allows it in
Lower Esophageal (Cardiac) Sphincter
Ground State
Lowest energy, lowest radii orbit of an electron (n = 1); ALL SYSTEMS TEND TOWARDS MINIMUM ENERGY
Helper T-cells produce molecules called _______________, which...
Lymphokines; recruit other immune cells and increase their activity
Dilution Equation (chem)
M1V1 = M2V2
Skeletal muscle has #____ nuclei in the cells, because...
MANY; the cells fuse into long rods when skeletal muscle develops
Cytotoxic T-cells respond to antigens on other cells presented in MHC ___
MHC I; all body cells
Helper T-cells respond to antigens on other cells presented in MHC ___
MHC II (specific antigen-presenting cells)
Permanganate
MnO4-
How can the ideal gas laws be used to find the identity of a gas?
Molar Mass 𝜌 = PM/RT
Old cation naming system?
Old: higher charge is 'ic', lower charge is 'ous' added to latin name (Ferric = 3+, Ferrous = 2+)
Differential Reproduction
Mutation or Recombination can result in favourable changes to reproductive success, which increase fitness and are passed on (opposite is true; others have it lowered differentially), those good genes become more frequent in the gene pool
Which of the following processes has the most exothermic standard heat of combustion? Ethane Propane N-butane N-pentane
N-pentane Longer products = greater heat of combustion and release more heat
Ammonium
NH4 +
What is the formal charge of each of the elements in NO3-?
O1 = -1 O2 = -1 O3 = 0 N = +1 overall net formal charge: -1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qXiD-BI_uc&feature=share
Number of nuclei in smooth muscle cells
ONE only.
VSEPR: 6 regions of electron density; shape/angle/example
Octahedral/90˚,180˚/SF6
1) Determine, just by looking at this equation whether ∆S is positive or negative. Explain why: 4HCN(l) + 5O2(g) -> 2H2O(g) + 4CO2(g) + 2N2(g)
POSITIVE - although it is 9 molecules going to 8, there is a liquid going to gas and phase changes are more important usually
Ideal Gas Law equation
PV = nRT R is the ideal gas costant of 8.21 x 10^(-2) Latm/molK; used to solve for the 4th variable when the other 3 are known, or to measure change in 1 variable when all others are held constant
__________ is the molecule that breaks down clots when it's time; produced from ____________
Plasmin; plasminogen
As T-cells mature in the thymus, Positive Selection occurs for T-cells that can.__________whereas Negative Selection occurs for T-cells that___________
Positive Selection = for T-cells that react to MHC (if they cannot, they will not work, and undergo apoptosis) Negative Selection = killing self-antigen-reactive T-cells; However, T cells whose TCRs bind too strongly to MHC complexes, and will likely be self-reactive, are killed in the process of negative selection (bottom).
Postzygotic Reproductive Isolation mechanism
Postzygotic isolation prevents the formation of fertile offspring 2 different species yield zygotes and maybe even offspring, but those are not viable OR are sterile (hybrid inviable, hybrid sterile, hybrid breakdown (second gen hybrids won't be viable/fertile)
Erythrocytes
RBCs; specialized for oxygen transport; O2 has low solubility (non-polar) in cytoplasm, thus Hemoglobin binds and carries it
How long will an atom stay in the excited state of an atom?
REALLY brief, electrons will fall back down to ground state fast
calculate the ph of a 1 x 10^-8 m hcl solution
REMEMBER IT IS A STRONG ACID THAT IS VERY DILUTED SO THE PH MUST BE BELOW 7
The __________________ glands of the stomach contain cells called __________________ which secrete Gastrin, a __________________ hormones that induces the stomach to secrete __________________ & for the stomach to __________________
Pyloric; G-Cells, peptide hormones; HCl; contract
Exothermic? Q value? absorbs or releases heat?
Q < 0; system releases heat
Enthalpy ____ Heat (Q) (>, <, =)?
Q = ∆H under constant pressure; ASSUMPTION YOU ALWAYS MAKE ON THE MCAT
In the rate constant (k), it is only constant if the only change is ______________________. If the _____________________ is changed, for example, then the rate constant changes
Reactant concentration Temperature is changed or a catalyst
2 types of fiber in skeletal muscle
Red, White
Prezygotic Reproductive Isolation mechanism
Reproductive isolation is a mechanism that keeps species from mating with others. Prezygotic isolation prevents the fertilization of eggs prevent the zygote from forming between 2 different species in ANY way (temporal isolated/do not mate at same times, behavioural (are not attracted), reproductive (incompatible anatomy), gametic (fertilization cannot occur even if sex can)
Myofibrils (sarcomeres joined end-to-end) are surrounded by....
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR), a modified ER with high Ca2+ storage & Sarcoplasm (modified cytoplasm) OUTSIDE the SR
If IP = Ksp, is the solution saturated, unsaturated, or super-saturated?
Saturated
noble metals
Ruthenium. Rhodium. Palladium. Silver. Osmium. Iridium. Platinum. Gold. relatively nonreactive
"Cooperative" Dissociation Curve of Hemoglobin
S-shaped; 100% Hb saturation at 100mmHg partial pressure O2 in the lungs; at rest typically sit at 40mmHg O2, 80% Hb bound, with 20% released to tissue
Elements with ___________ valence electron configurations generally behave in ________ ways, as long as ____________
SIMILAR SIMILAR They are the same type (metal, nonmetal, metalloid)
How fast is the reaction in reaction control to form the thermodynamic product?
SLOW, needs more E
When Ksp involves a dissolved gas, it is dependent on both...
T & P
__________________ sugars (such as __________________, __________________ and __________________) and __________________ are absorbed via __________________ and __________________ into the __________________ cells lining the small intestine; THEN they move across the cell into the __________________ capillaries, with constant blood flow carrying them away through the __________________ to the liver
Simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose); amino acids; secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion; Intestinal Epithelial Cells; intestinal capillaries; Hepatic Portal Circulation
___________ muscle, when contracted, compresses venous structures to take blood/lymph around
Skeletal
The largest organ in our body by weight/size is....
Skin!/integument (16% body weight)
What values of Keq are considered super small that equation is reactant favored and that the equation's x can be converted to just 1? large?
Small = 10^-4 or smaller Large = 10^4 or larger
What force EXACTLY pushes filtrate from the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule (nephron) in the kidney?
Starling Forces; specifically, the fact that the glomerulus' hydrostatic pressure is higher than oncotic and that forces fluid in
Suppressor (Regulatory) T-cells
T cells that also express CD4 (like Th) but ALSO protein Foxp3; tone down the immune response once the infection is contained & promote Self-Tolerance (kill lymphocyte cells that autoimmunely react to self)
2 main cells of the adaptive immune system
T-cells, B-cells (lymphocytes)
In the Van der Waals Equation of state, a corrects for _________________ and b corrects for _________________, usually a __________(greater/less/equal) b
a corrects for the attractive forces between molecules (directly proportional to the intermolecular forces the gas should produce) b corrects for volume the molecules ACTUALLY take up (larger molecules have larger b) a>>>b
When a muscle is attached to two bones, the bone with the larger attachment (usually proximal to the muscle) is called _________ and the smaller attachment is called ________ what is another difference between the two?
The Origin; The Insertion AKA: The origin is the attachment site that doesn't move during contraction, while the insertion is the attachment site that does move when the muscle contracts. The insertion is usually distal, or further away, while the origin is proximal, or closer to the body, relative to the insertion.
Oxidation Potential
The ability of a substance to be spontaneously oxidized; a more positive oxidation potential (measured in volts) is indicative of a substance that is easier to oxidize and will therefore more likely act as an anode in an electrochemical cell. AKA: wants to give electrons
Define Lewis Acid
a molecule that can Accept a pair of electrons; i.e. can accept a coordinate covalent bond
Define Lewis Base
a molecule that can donate (Bestow) a pair of electrons; i.e. can create a coordinate covalent bond
Muscle Fiber
a name for myocytes (muscle cell) inside, myofibrils are arranged in parallel
Dipole
a partial charge of atoms created by a polar pole in a covalent bond less EN atom is 𝛿+ and more EN is 𝛿-
In the equation: ∆G⁰rxn = -RTln(Keq) the higher Keq, the _________ (less/more) spontaneous the reaction
The higher Keq, the higher the ln, and the more negative the G is, and the more spontaneous the reaction
Mechanical Digestion
physically breaking down food into smaller pieces (no chemical bonds broken)
Pauling Electronegativity Scale? range?
The most common scale used to express electronegativity of the elements Ranges for Cs the lowest electronegativity of .7 (most electropositive) to F of most electronegativity of 4
Macrophages
what monocytes (agranulocytes) are called when they travel in the bloodstream
ADH & the Excretory System (FULL story)
a peptide hormone (hypothalamus synthesis ➝ posterior pituitary release): in response to INCREASED BLOOD OSMOLARITY ➝ release from hypo + P.P. ➝ makes collecting duct cells 'leaky' to reabsorb water as interstitium is hypertonic at this point; water absorbed & dilutes blood
Reaction Rate two ways of determining it? is it - or +?
The rate can either be in terms of APPEARANCE OF PRODUCTS (denoted as + equation)(in picture the second rate number) or DISAPPEARANCE OF REACTANTS (denoted as - equation) over time in mol/L/s (mol/L•s, M/s) RATE IS ALWAYS POSITIVE aA + bB → cC + dD: rate = -Δ[A]/aΔt = -Δ[B]/bΔt = Δ[C]/cΔt = Δ[D]/dΔt (A and B are negative as they are used up) (coefficients are used as scaled to make all reaction rates 'equal')
The transition metals have ____________ variability in their ionization energies and electronegativities
The transition metals have little variability in their ionization energies and electronegativities due to their similar valence electron shells, which is the s shell. Even though, for instance, 3d fills after 4s, when forming ions, we remove from the highest energy orbital or the s orbital.
Albumin
a protein produced by the liver to maintain blood oncotic pressure & carry drugs/hormones
Water that travels from the intestines to the blood vessels (reabsorption) does so in 2 ways: __________________, which mean...
Transcellularly (across the cell membrane), Paracellularly (squeezes between the cells)
VSEPR: 3 regions of electron density; shape/angle/example
Trigonal Planar/120˚/BH3
Strong bones require ________________ distribution of the organic & inorganic parts of the bone matrix
UNIFORM
If IP < Ksp, is the solution saturated, unsaturated, or super-saturated?
Unsaturated
In what direction does most blood in veins flow, up or down?
Up, since the heart is in the chest that must mean most vessels are below it
If the slow step in a reaction mechanism is given, what is the rate law?
Uses ONLY THE REACTANTS AND EXPONENTS OF THE slow step!
Liquid-Solid Equilibrium? how do particles enter the solid phase? liquid phase? what processes are involved?
Vibration motion increases with T and can free solids as liquid Melting and freezing
Exoskeleton
a skeleton that encases a whole organism (arthropods, crustaceans, insects); shed & regrown as the organism ages (VERY difficult)
Ideal Solution (chem)
a solution where the stability of old solute-solute and solute-solvent IMFs is basically the same, thus enthalpy is = 0
Each organ's macrophages population may have a ___________ name
a specific name; e.g., microglia in CNS, skin Langerhans cells, Osteoblasts in the bone
If all of the reactants' concentrations were doubled, what would happen to the rate of zero-order reactions? first order? second order?
Zero-order = rate unaffected First-order = rate doubled Second-order = rate multiplied by 4
Can catalysts chemically react and change?
YES! but always return to their original state when the products are ready
Radioactive Decay con'n equation
[A] = [A]0e(-kt), where A is the conc'n at any time, A0 was the initial conc'n, k is the rate constant, and t is time
Absorption Spectrum
a spectrum of what energies an atom's electrons absorb; correspond EXACTLY to the emissions
Which atoms on the periodic table can form molecules?
all but the noble gases
Maximum muscle contract strength occurs when...
all fibers receive the signal to contract simultaneously (note that the strength of each is equal, and the only thing that varies the strength of contraction is the number of cells doing it)
Avogadro's Principle (Gas)? what are the variables? what is constant?
all gases at a constant T & P will occupy volume that is proportional to the number of moles: n/V = k; n1/V1 = n2/V2 (P/RT is constant in the ideal gas law) as n increases, V increases
Gene Pool
all of the alleles that exist for as species
All phase changes are __________ (reversible/irreversible) and the 2 nearest states exist in ______________
all phase changes are reversible, and the 2 nearest states exist in an equilibrium at ALL Ps and Ts! (some molecules freeze, some melt by absorbing E IN EQUAL PROPORTIONS, etc.)
Muscle contraction, like the nervous system, operates on _______ _______ _______ actions, determined by a _______ value, therefore the _______ of the response by individual muscle cells cannot be changed, the only thing that can be changed to vary the strength of muscle contraction is...
all-or-nothing; threshold; strength; change the NUMBER OF CELLS REACHING THE THRESHOLD EXCITEMENT
In detoxification, the liver notably creates __________________ into __________________ which is excreted from the nephron; it also breaks down __________________ and __________________
ammonia (toxic waste of amino acid breakdown) into urea; alcohol, medications
Since Helper T-cells respond to MHC-II with exogenous antigens, they best fight...
bacteria, fungi, parasites: EXTRACELLULAR INFECTIONS
Stomach acid is beneficially as it kills most harmful __________________, notably except for __________________ which causes __________________
bacteria; Helicobacter pylori; ulcers
Why must the heart produce such great pressure for the arteries?
because they are ELASTIC and they RESIST blood flow otherwise!
Kidney: Glomerular Filtration (1/3)
blood passes through Glomerulus, and 20% becomes 'Filtrate' passing ➝ Bowman's Capsule via Starling Forces (hydrostatic vs oncotic pressure b/t blood & bowman's capsule; hydrostatic is stronger than oncotic in glomerulus forces fluid into Bowman/nephron)
The type of 'fiber' muscles contain is usually...
both red & white, in different proportions
If the partial pressure of a gas is __________________, then the solubility of the gas __________________ (henrys law)
increases; increases
When a muscle is attached to two bones, contraction will cause________
cause 1 bone to move, but not the other
Pharynx
cavity from the mouth → posterior nasal cavity → esophagus & larynx
Dipeptidases
cleave a dipeptide into 2 single amino acids
D orbital shape
clover
During clotting, the liver releases __________ that perform a ________
coagulation factors; cascade
Articular Capsule
coats the articular surfaces of movable joint bones so impact is on lubricated cartilage, not on bone
A-Band (Sarcomere)
completely filled with thick filaments, even if there are a little thin ones overlapping
Paramagnetic Materials
contain unpaired electrons which orient their spins to align with a magnetic field; weakly attracted to the field (e.g., Fe with unpaired electrons will be pulled towards a magnet)
Diamagnetic Materials
contained 100% paired electrons and resist reorientation slightly repelled by a magnetic field ex: graphite: an allotrope of carbon with fully paired electrons as a result of covalent bonding between the layers (thus diamagnetic); will suspend in the air over strong neodymium magnets
As concentration of a solution increases, its density...
increases; you're literally adding tiny things with huge molar mass
Constant-volume calorimetry (Bomb Calorimeter)
decomposition vessel or constant-volume calorimetry; usually hydrocarbon in pure oxygen gas placed in insulated vessel with known mass of water (System = the gases + steel container, surrounding = water); adiabatic & isovolumetric; ignited, hydrocarbon combusts, and the heat is the heat of reaction; no work done as isovolumetric; TEMPERATURE CHANGE OF THE BATH MEASURED
Solubility & Le Châtelier's
e.g., CO2(g) -> CO2(aq) + E if you lower T, the reaction shifts right to release more E, increasing solubility of stuff
Gases are also classified as ________________, meaning they take the shape of their container, but they are different from liquids because...
fluids different because they are far apart & have weak forces, so they will expand to fill the space (unlike liquids!)
Other than generally being activated by parasympathetic action, the salivary glands can be active when...
food is nearby (sight/smell)
Protons
found in the nucleus of the atom; +1 charge; p/p+/1,1H symbol
The mucosa layer of the stomach contains both __________________ and __________________ glands
gastric, pyloric
Gene Mapping (Recombination Frequency)(Linkage) Theory
genes are linear on the chromosome and exchanges during prophase I the FURTHER APART 2 genes are, the MORE LIKELY they will be separated by a chiasma (crossing over), thus the GREATER RECOMBINATION FREQUENCY (𝜃) crude measurement of distance between the genes
Linked Genes
genes that are actually inherited together
Atomic Radius vs Atomic Number Graph
get the gist; more or less decreases across the period, increases down a group
Shortcut equation to find out which reactant is the limiting reagent
get the mols of all reactant; calculate n/C (# mols div by coeff); the LOWEST NUMBER IS THE LR BECAUSE IT IS USED PROPORTIONALLY MORE
Gastric Glands
glands activated parasympathetically by the vagus nerve in response to food presence; present mostly in fundus/body of the stomach
How to find the equilibrium temperature of mixing 2 liquids of the same liquid type?
heat absorbed by 1 is transferred to the other; -heat absorbed by 1 is transferred to the other; q(hot liquid) = -q(cold liquid), and solve for T2; you do not need to know c if it's the same for both
How to create a supersaturated solution (solution with more solute dissolved than should be; i.e. it should be precipitate)
heat up a solution, add more solute, and cool it down; it will stay dissolved but is thermodynamically unstable & adding ANYTHING, cool too much will cause spontaneous precipitation
Non-metal atomic properties: Electronegativity Electropositivity Atomic radius size Ionic radius size Ionization energy Electron affinity Heat conduction
high ionization energies, high electron affinities, and electronegativities, small atomic radii, large ionic radii poor conductors of heat/elec: all due to inability to give up electrons
Oxyhemoglobin Binding Curve & T
higher T = lower affinity (shift right), lower T = higher affinity (shift left)
What is important to remember for Ksp when one ion has a subscript of 2 or 3 or whatever? Ex: Zn(OH)2 => KSP equation?
if the conc'n is unknown, this must go in the bracket: e.g., Zn(OH)2 = Zn + 2OH, in the Ksp if you don't known con'c, Ksp = [Zn][OH]^2, and since OH is x2 conc'n of Zn, Ksp = [x][2x]^2
Electronegativity & Acidity
if there is an electronegative element(s) near an H, this makes it MORE ACIDIC because it pulls the electron density out of the bond holding the acidic proton -> weakens proton bonding -> easier to dissociate -> stronger acid
When pathogens breach our body's 1st-line of defense (skin, enzymes), the body readies the ________ immune system
innate
Where does the reaction for CO2 to become bicarbonate occur?
inside a red blood cell (where carbonic anhydrase is kept)
Ways that catalysts can act
interact by ADSORPTION, through formation of INTERMEDIATES, or STABILIZE INTERMEDIATES to reduce Ea, or INCREASE COLLISIONS, or ORIENT REACTANTS, or DONATE ELECTRON DENSITY, or REDUCE INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS
What happens when an atom drops from excited to ground state?
is released E-M radiation energy; FLUORESCENCE; photons
If acetylcholine is increased in the body by some drug, what will happen to urination?
it will INCREASE; this is because it is parasympathetically activated, which acetylcholine governs
Nutrients are obtained from food within the __________________ of the __________________; this is considered __________________ digestion
lumen; alimentary canal; extracellular digestion
Hematopoietic Pathways
memorize
What are the units for the rate of a reaction (R)? k?
mol/second the units for K can change depending on the orders of the exponents Ex: if the reaction is R=k[A]1[B]2 -> then the units for k would be 1/M^2*s
Vagus Nerve
parasympathetic nerve to the heart; slows heart rate
Volkmann's Canals
part of osteons (subunit of bony matrix) perpendicular to the bone with blood vessels, nerves, lymph to maintain bone
If bilirubin (a __________________ in bile) cannot be processed/excreted (liver damage, RBC/hemoglobin destruction, blocked ducts) them the condition __________________ will occur
pigment; jaundice (yellowing of the skin)
Out of the 5 infectious pathogens, our body can defend again ALL except...
prions; there is no immune defense to them
Isobaric Process? what variables are constant? equation? graph? (thermochem)
process in a system where P is constant; energy not affected, but it appears a flat line
Myofibrils
sarcomeres joined end-to-end
Hess's Law
since enthalpy is a state function, path taken is irrelevant: enthalpy changes for reactions are additive; you can add the heats of reactions and chemical equations of those reactions to get the ΔH(rxn)
3 types of muscle
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
Synovium
soft tissue that secretes Synovial Fluid to lubricate movable joints
In what solid gas liquid phases are dipole-dipole interactions noticeable active? Why?
solid and liquid, but not gas (distance too far to interact)
On a phase diagram, the __________ phase boundary extends indefinitely, but the __________ phase boundary ends at the "Critical Point"
solid-liquid; liquid-gas
Electrolytes? which compounds are best electrolytes?
solutes that enable the solution to carry electricity; i.e. aqueous solutions with ions Ionic compounds make good electrolytes because they dissolve most readily. Nonpolar covalent compounds are the weakest because they do not form current-carrying ions
Thermoregulation via skin (4)
sweating, piloerection, vasodilation, vasoconstriction
According to Graham's Law of Effusion, when _________________ is constant for 2 gases, their rates of effusion are proportional to their _________________
temperature is constant; proportional to average speed
Thrombus
the alternative name for a clot
Endothelial Cells (location + 3 functions)(circulatory)
the cells that line all blood vessels & 1) maintain blood vessels by releases chemicals for vasoconstriction/dilation & 2) allow WBC to pass through vessel during inflammation & 3) release chemicals when damaged to form clot & repair
Rugae
the foldings on the inside of the stomach's surface
Halides
the ionic form of halogens; form this in nature because of high reactivity (OR they're diatomic)
Oncotic Pressure
the name for Osmotic Pressure since most blood osmolarity is from plasma proteins
Motor Unit
the name for a motor nerve terminal + the many myocytes/muscle fibers it controls
If 2 subshells possess the same n + l value, which has higher energy?
the one with the higher n
If one reaction has ∆G = -10, and one = -20, which is more spontaneous?
the one with the lower (more negative) GFE
Mitral valve
the other name for the bicuspid valve (the valve that separates the left atrium from left ventricle; 2 leaflets)
Water is osmotically reabsorbed easily in the intestines because...
the other nutrient solutes are absorbed by the cells, increasing osmotic pressure in the cells, making water draw out of the intestines with it
The rate of evolution depends on...
the severity of the pressures acting on a population (i.e. if the species is suited & no pressures, SLOW evolution just from the base rate of gene mutation OR if the environment keeps wildly changes, the species will evolve to keep up fast)
VSEPR electron geometry vs molecular geometry
the shape the electrons (all PAIRS: bonds, LPs) make vs the shape the BONDS (atoms) make (determined by COORDINATION NUMBER) e.g., NH3 have tetrahedral electron geometry, but pyramidal molecular geometry
Melting Point/Freezing Point
the shared temperature at which melting/freezing can occur, depending on the direction you're considering THEY ARE AT THE EXACT SAME TEMP
Empirical Formula
the simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound
Compact Bone
the type of bone that is characteristically hard & dense
What's the benefit of adaptive radiation?
they all occupy DIFFERENT NICHES and thus do not compete
Which is greater: 1 mol of Mg(OH)2 OR 1 mol of H2O
they are THE SAME e.g., 1 mol of Mg(OH)2 and 1 mol of H2O are BOTH 6.022•10^23
How are the 2 electrons in a covalent bond actually kept "shared" by the 2 atoms?
they are attracted to both positive nuclei of the atoms
Elasticity of the arteries & benefit
they are elastic; expand in volume when ventricles contract and push blood in; since they decrease volume too, they can keep blood pressure that isn't ridiculously low; also it forces blood forward
ANY PHASES OF MATTER COMBINED (s, l, g mixed with a s, l, or g) IS CONSIDERED A SOLUTION IF they are _________________ (homo/hetero)
they are homogenous
Oxidation-Reduction Titrations
titration following TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS; indicators measure voltage (emf) value and will change colour e.g., starch indicator used to identify iodine (iodimetric titration)
Formal Charge
to account for the difference in # ve for the atom in a molecule vs neutral atom AND the many Lewis structures that can be accounted for (different connectivity; different molecules) the molecules with the lowest formal charge is the most likely to occur in nature: FC = VE - [non-boding electrons] - 1/2 # [bonding electrons (aka # bonds)] (for the central molecule; V is its usual # ve, minus dots and sticks attached to it)
The 'primary job' of the kidney and the 3 things it does to achieve it
to regulate blood volume & osmolarity: Filtration, Secretion, and Reabsorption
Esophagus
tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
What colour are solutions containing transition metal complexes? why?
vibrant and multi-coloured; multi comes from the DIFFERENT OXIDATION STATES (e.g., Fe3+ and Fe2+ in 2 different mixtures will be vibrantly different colours) because it causes SPLITTING THE D LEVEL IN 2 and an exact amount of energy will raise them from the lower to higher d, and the remaining 'Subtraction Frequency' is what's seen Mn can exist in +2, +3, +4, +6, or +7 oxidation state and thus can form many different ionic compounds -> corresponds to different colors
Equivalence Point (a-b titration)
when the number of acid equivalents = the number of base equivalents; occurs at pH = 7 for strong acid/base; MULTIPLE for when you're doing polyprotic acids
Osmotic Pressure (colligative properties)
"the amount of pressure applied to counteract the attract of water" Π = 3.141592653589793 iMRT (I is vant hoff, M is molarity, R is ideal gas constant for E, and T is T in K)
Normality? what is the normality of H+ in 2.0M of H3PO4
"the molarity of the thing that matters"; = the number of equivalents in solution based on molarity; e.g., H3PO4 gives 3 equivalents of H+, for 2M solution of it gives 3 each, meaning a 6 N SOLUTION
Hund's Rule
'getting on the bus rule' AKA: Hund's rule states that the lowest energy electron configuration, the ground state, in any electron subshell is the one with the greatest number of parallel electron spins.
Normality (N)
'molarity of the stuff of interest'; = the number of equivalents per L of solution equivalent = 1 mol of the substance of concern; situation-dependent, e.g. the normality of permanganate in acid is 5N electrons, but 1N electrons in base
Thermodynamic Control/Product (rxn control)? temp? energy? speed? stability?
(as opposed to thermodynamic control) formed at HIGH T (larger heat transfer) higher free energy added, therefore SLOWER LOWER free energy thus more stable (larger ΔG)
Kinetic Control/Product (rxn control)? temp? speed? energy? stability?
(as opposed to thermodynamic control) formed at LOW T (smaller heat transfer); lower free energy added, therefore FASTER HIGHER free energy thus less stable (lesser ΔG)
Periodic Table of Elements
(by Dmitri Mendeleev) ordered the known elements by atomic weight; revealed periodic trends in physical/chemical properties
Pathway of urine excrement
(filter from kidneys) ➝ renal pelvis ➝ ureter ➝ bladder ➝ urethra
Calcitonin & bone
(from parafollicular cells of thyroid) 'tones down the calcium' when its too high in blood, promoting bone growth
How does Zeff relate to electrostatic forces q1 and q2?
(from physics) The values q1 and q2 can represent the net charge of the nucleus and valence electron shell respectively. The larger each charge gets (like going right in periodic table), the higher the Zeff
2 Roles of Interferons
(produced by a virally infected cell to prevent spread): 1) signal nearby cells to reduce protein production (viral & cellular) 2) Upregulate MHC I and II, which increases their presentation of antigens to better detect infected cells
Enteropeptidase
(used to be called Enterokinase); activates trypsin from trypsinogen & procarboxypeptidases A/B to active forms
Oxidation number rules: group IIA Ex: Ca
+2
Solidification/Crystallization/Freezing
- the transition from liquid to solid - occurs at the freezing point
Oxidation number rules: group VIIA Ex: Cl Ex: Cl in HCl Ex: Cl in HOCl
-1, unless they're combined with an atom of higher En Ex: Cl = -1 Ex: Cl in HCl = -1 Ex: HOCl = +1
Oxidation state of oxygen radical
-1/2; 1 negative charge shared b/t 2 oxygen
How to estimate logarithms of -log(n x 10^(-m)): ex: what is the pH of a solution with [H+] = 7.45*10^-3
-log(n x 10^(-m)) = m - 0.n log(n) is between 0 and 1 since n is between 1 and 10, so guesstimate
Non-penetrance (genetics)
0% of people with the genotype express the phenotype
Electronegativity difference for polar covalent bond
0.5 ≤ ΔEN ≤ 1.7; enough to yank the electrons but not take them from the atom
Noble Gas Electron Affinity
0; they do not need to gain any electrons
How many oxygen molecules can 1 RBC carry?
1 BILLION: 250M hemoglobin/RBC x 4 O2/hemoglobin
Single-Displacement Reactions
1 atom/ion is replaced by another atom/ion Cu + AgNO3 → Ag + CuNO3 usually are OXIDATION-REDUCTION too
Calorie : Joule Conversion
1 cal = 4.184J
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
1 species oxidized by the other, 1 reduced
Antibodies can take up to __________ to fully response after initial infection
1 week
How many layers of endothelial cells do capillaries have?
1!
Nephron part 1 of 4: Proximal Convoluted Tubule? reabsorbed? secreted?
1) AA, H-vitamins, salts + water reabsorbed; filtrate remains isotonic to the interstitium; Interstitium (surrounding connective tissue) takes to vasa recta, 2) HUNK secreted
2 antigen groups on blood cells
1) ABO Antigens 2) Rh Factor
3 locations of lymphocyte maturation
1) Bone marrow (B-Cells), 2) Thymus (T-Cells), the book didn't list the third
2 divisions of adaptive immunity
1) Cell-mediated (cytotoxic) & 2) Humoral
Neutrophils can follow bacteria in 2 ways when trying to phagocytose them:
1) Chemotaxis: chemical stimuli (moving up the concentration gradient towards them) 2) sense the antibody placed on it by a B-cell & phagocytosing them
The 2 means to activate the Complement System (proteins in the blood that act as non-specific defense)
1) Classical (binding of antigen to antibody) or 2) Alternative (no antibodies)
For: Combined Gas Law, Avogadro's Principle, Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, & Guy-Lussac's Law, list: Variables held constant __________________ Variables that are not: __________________, (5 equations)
1) Combined gas law: only n is constant, all rest are not; 2) Avogadro's Principle: T & P are constant, n & V are not, 3) Boyle's Law: T & n are constant, P & V are not, 4) Charles's Law: P & n are constant, V & T are not, 5) Guy-Lussac's Law: V & n are constant, P & T are not
The 2 supplemental energy reserves in muscle
1) Creatine Phosphate and 2) Myoglobin
2 Roles of the duodenum
1) Digestive (MAJOR) & 2) Absorption (minor)
3 Intermolecular forces from weakest to strongest
1) Dispersion (London) forces 2) Dipole-Dipole 3) Hydrogen Bond
3 rules that define how valence electrons work
1) Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff), 2) Principal Quantum Number 3) Stable Octets
Darwin's 3 original tenants of evolution:
1) Few offspring survive to reproductive maturity, 2) Chance variation in individuals are heritable, and if they give a survival advantage, are 'favourable', 3) Individuals with those genes are more likely to survive to reproductive age AND THUS have children = FITNESS (relative genetic contribution to next generation)
The 5 Assumptions of Kinetic Molecular Theory (gases)
1) Gases are made up of particles of negligible volumes compared to the container volume 2) Gas atoms do not attract/repel 3) Gases are in continuous, random motion & collide with other gases/the container, 4) Collisions between gas particles or the container are elastic (momentum & kinetic energy conserved), 5) Average kinetic energy of all gas particles is proportional to the absolute T of the gas, which is constant for all gases at that T regardless of chemical identity or atomic mass
Mendel's First Law (Segregation) 4 tenants:
1) Genes exist as different alleles, 2) an organism has 2 alleles (1 from each parent), 3) 2 alleles segregate is meiosis and gametes on have 1 allele, 4) 2 alleles usually exist as dominant & recessive
2 divisions of leukocytes and what is means
1) Granulocytes 2) Agranulocytes; depends on the presence of 'granules' of toxic enzymes/chemicals that are exocytose to destroy pathogens
The 7 aqueous (water-soluble) solubility rules (get the gist, don't memorize)
1) Group 1 & NH4+ salts are aqueous, 2) NO3- (nitrate) & CH3COO- (acetate) salts are aqueous, 3) Halides (excluding fluoride) are soluble EXCEPT with Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg2 2+ salts 4) SO4 2- salts are soluble EXCEPT with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ 5) All metal oxides are insoluble unless they have Group 1, NH4+, CaO, SrO and BaO which ALL FORM METAL HYDROXIDES, 6) Hydroxides are insoluble EXCEPT with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ 7) All carbonates, phosphates, sulfides and sulfates are insoluble, EXCEPT with alkali/ammonium
3 major types of T-cells:
1) Helper T-cells (Th) aka CD4+, 2) Suppressor T-cells, 3) Cytotoxic (Killer) T-cells
2 'Pressures' that maintain fluid/solute balance in blood
1) Hydrostatic Pressure (leaking), 2) Osmotic Pressure (sucking)
2 divisions of the immune systen
1) Innate (non-specific attacking) and 2) Adaptive Immunity (specific, targeting immunity)
2 different sets of reactions unimolecular reactions can undergo
1) Kinetic 2) Thermodynamic
2 classes of MHC molecules & the difference between then
1) MHC I (on all nucleated cells), 2) MHC II (displayed only by 'professional' antigen-presenting cells)
The 2 types of active immunization (causing a person's cells to produce antibodies) are:
1) Natural (have them exposed to the virus) or 2) Artificially (exposed to weakened virus/antigens via vaccine)
Muscle Contraction 3/3: Relaxation (4)
1) No more AP (from brain) 2) AChE (actylcholine esterase) breaks down ACh 3) Ca2+ release from SR ceases 4) Ca2+ ATPase pumps leftover Ca2+ in mmuscle back to SR (slow)
If an antibody binds to an antigen in the body fluids... (3)
1) Opsonization: it can attract leukocytes to phagocytose the invader, 2) Agglutination: antibodies clump the pathogens in a large insoluble complex to phagocytose, 3) Neutralization: prevent the pathogen from entering tissue & such
What are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood?
1) Pulmonary Vein (from lungs to heart), 2) Umbilical Vein (from mother to baby w/ oxygen)
2 Ways secretin controls pH of the digestive tract
1) Reduces HCl release by parietal calls, 2) Increases bicarbonate from the pancreas
2 enzymes present in saliva
1) Salivary Amylase (ptyalin)(breaks down carbs), 2) Lipase (fats)
3 geometric properties that determine molecule stability
1) Torsional Strain 2) Angle Strain 3) Steric (non-bonded) Strain
Blood-Electricity Analogy
1) blood flow is pushed forward by a pressure gradient, just like current is driven through a resistor via voltage (a sort of pressure): the equation V = IR for resistance applies as ∆P = CO x TPR, 2) blood vessels cause resistance like electricity, on account of length and cross-sectional area of the vein (longer = more resistant, wider = less resistance)
Clot created by (2)
1) coagulation factors (proteins) and 2) platelets that minimize blood loss in injury
2 Theories about the molecular basis of reactions
1) collision theory 2) transition state theory
VSEPR steps (3)
1) draw Lewis structure 2) count the number of bonding and non-bonding pairs on the central atom 3) position these as far away as possible (follows certain defined VSEPR shapes)
Steps to drawing a Lewis Structure
1) draw the backbone with the least electronegative atom in the centre; hydrogen (always) and halogens (always) are terminal 2) Count all valence electrons of all atoms (the sum; adjust for charges; -1 or -2 or +1 etc.) = the number that are drawn onto the molecules are lone pairs/bonds 3) draw single bonds from the central to terminal atoms (2 electrons each) 4) fill the valence shells of each atom with lone pairs 5) place remaining ve on the central atom 6) if the central atom does not have an octet, use the lone pairs of the terminal atoms to make double-triple bonds; 7) calculate formal charge to check (should be 0 [or the charge of the molecule])
3 segments of the small intestine
1) duodenum 2) jejunum 3) ileum
Functions of the lymphatic system (3)
1) equalizes fluid distribution, 2) transports biomolecules, 3) houses immunity
What 2 things cause problems for propelling blood upward in the lower extremities?
1) gravity works against, pulling blood down 2) there is less smooth muscle in veins
In ICE concentration calculations, when should you NOT estimate denominator x-1 = 1?
1) if Keq is 1-2 orders of magnitude from 1, 2) if the conc'n of reactant that becomes product is 1-2 orders of magnitude from the initial conc'n, 3) if Keq is large (>1)
2 things that increase diversity of gametes:
1) independent assortment 2) segregation; helps species evolve
3 types of gastric gland cells
1) mucous 2) chief 3) parietal
3 parts of the pharynx
1) nasopharynx, 2) oropharynx, 3) laryngopharynx
Mixed-Order Reactions
1) non-integer order reactions ("Broken Order" usually)(ex: rate = k[A]1/3) OR 2) where rate orders vary over the course of the reaction (these are usually what they actually mean by "Mixed-Order"); e.g., rate = k[C][A]^2/(k2 + k3[A])
4 Things that Affect O2's binding to Hb in RBC
1) pH (H+ is allosteric inhibitor), 2) T, 3) 2,3-BPG 4) CO2
Factors affecting reaction rate (4)
1) reactant conc'n, 2) T, 3) Medium, 4) Catalysts
Nephron part 3 of 4: Distal Convoluted Tubule? reabsorbed? secreted?
1) responds to aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption which WAY increases water reabsorption: urine concentration & volume decreased, 2) secretes HUNK waste
The gastrointestinal tract's non-specific immunity defense (2)
1) secretes acid that kills most pathogens, 2) bacteria that colonize gut are non-pathogenic and outcompete invaders
From the start to the end of the Loop of Henle, these 2 changes occur:
1) the filtrate becomes less dilute 2) the filtrate gains water volume
Galvanic cells have as short lifetime because... (2)
1) the salt bridge will eventually run out, meaning charges cannot be resorted in the half-cells, meaning electrons will eventually stop moving and 2) there will eventually be no more Zn to oxidize or Cu to reduce
Ionic Bonding
1+ atom with LOW IE (metal; easily releases electron) transfers that electron to an atom with high EA (non-metal; gladly accepts electron) both are charged and electrostatically attracted together; lattice structure
Axial Skeleton (4)
1/2 of our skeleton: skull, vertebral column, ribcage and hyoid bone (small anterior neck bone used to swallow); MAKES UP THE BASIC FRAME OF THE BODY
Hydrostatic Pressure
1/2 things that maintains fluid/solute balance in blood; "leaking" fluid pressure; force/area that blood exerts against vessel walls (tied to heart pumping, elasticity of vessels); PUSHES BLOOD THRUGH INTERSTITIUM TO THROUGH CAPILLARY WALLS (LEAKY!) to tissue
Osmotic Pressure
1/2 things that maintains fluid/solute balance in blood; "sucking" fluid pressure; high solute concentrations in blood draws water into blood vessels
Mass of an electron
1/2000 that of a proton
If Reaction A has a Keq = 0.1, then what is the Keq of reaction A's reverse reaction?
10 The reverse Keq is the inverse of the forward Keq 1/0.1 = 10
What is the strength of a hydrogen bond (the stronger IMF) compared to covalent bond?
10% the strength of a covalent bond (overcome with small/moderate energy)! Obviously all other IMF are less
Full Penetrance (genetics)
100% of people with the genotype express the phenotype
Enteric Nervous System
100M neurons that control the gastrointestinal system; present in the walls of the system and cause peristalsis
mmHg O2 in the lungs % Hb saturation
100mmHg, 100% saturated
How long does an RBC circle your body before 'dying'?
120 days; at which point liver/spleen phagocytose senescent ones and recycle their part
What is the weight of 6.02x10^(23) atoms of carbon (12amu)?
12g!
How many liters of 2 M Ba(OH)2 are needed to titrate 4 L solution of 6 M H3PO4?
18 L NV = NV Normality of Ba(OH)2 = 2 OH * 2 M = 4 Normality of H3PO4 = 3 H+ * 6 M = 18 (4L)(18M) = (4L)(x M) -> x = 18L
The kidney Filters _______L of blood per day
180; This is x36 our total volume (5L) = 1 cycle of our whole blood in 40minutes
SA (Sinoatrial) Node
1st node excited in the heart; in wall of right atrium; depolarized and spreads; pumps blood SIMULTANEOUSLY FROM BOTH atria to ventricles; Atrial Systole; generates 60-100 signals/minutes without input
Kidneys
2 bean-shaped organs at the bottom of the ribs that filter blood
Parallel Evolution
2 species evolve in similar ways in response to ANALOGOUS ENVIRONMENT PRESSURES selecting for them, but don't necessarily get the same traits or anything
Convergent Evolution
2 species evolve similar characteristic WITHOUT a recent common ancestor due to similar environmental pressures; e.g., dolphins and fish both breath underwater thanks to aquatic environmental pressure
Combination Reactions
2+ reactants form 1 product; A + B → C (more reactants than products)
Rydberg Unit of Energy (Rh) value
2.18x10^(-18) J/electron; experimentally found OR 13.6eV/electron
What is the partial pressure of O2 in tissues during exercise? Why does this help?
20mmHg; at this, according to the cooperativity curve, 30% of Hb stays bound to O2, meaning 70% was released into tissues to nourish cells!
How many hemoglobin molecules are found in 1 RBC?
250M
The stomach's capacity is __________________L
2L
Maximum number of electrons in a shell (n)
2n^2
Formation/Stability Constant (Kf)
2nd 'Ksp' for a complex ion AFTER the complex ion forms; uses the equation of the metal ion reacting with the new dissolved ligand forming their complex, and Kf is Keq of that reaction
AV (Atrioventricular) Node
2nd node excited in the heart (after SA which pumps atria); sits at the junction of atria and ventricles; DELAY point for the signal to allow ventricles to fill; branches to Bundle of His
Stratum Lucidum (epidermis)? when is it present?
2nd outer layer of skin; ONLY present in thick, hairless skin (e.g., palms, feet) and is ~transparent
Stratum Spinosum (epidermis)? what is found here?
2nd-lowest-layer; where skin cells begin to connect & where Langerhans (macrophages) reside
How many leaflets do the semilunar (to-body/to-lungs) valves have?
3
3 Portal Systems of the Body
3 areas of the body where blood passes through TWO capillary beds before returning to the heart; 1) Hepatic 2) Hypophyseal 3) Renal
Muscle Contraction
3-stage procedure (initiation, shortening sarcomere, relaxation) that uses ATP and Ca2+
Speed of light (used in all E-M radiation questions)
3.0x10^8 m/s
If a gas's ideal pressure is 42atm, but its true pressure is 39atm, then the % deviation is:
3atm/42atm = 7%ish divide the deviation amount by the ideal number
Bundle of His
3rd place excited in the heart; branches of the AV node in heart; runs through interventricular septum; sends signal to Purkinje Fibers
How many oxygens can 1 hemoglobin bind?
4 O2
How many polar covalent/hydrogen/ionic/coordinate covalent bonds does ammonium cation have?
4 polar covalent bonds and 1 coordinate covalent bond NH3 = lewis base and H+ is a lewis acid (and has no electrons to give) and thus N provides all the electrons to make this bond -> this is coordinate covalent
What kinds of bonds are present in NH4+?
4 polar where 1 is coordinate covalent, because NH4+ only forms when the lone pair on N attacks H+, making it the single coordinate covalent bond
Count of leukocytes in blood in #/microliter
4.5k-11k / microliter blood
Avogadro's Number (NA)
6.02x10^(23)
Most human enzymes are activate at a pH of...
7.4; physiological pH
Normal blood pressure values
90/60 to 120/80 mmHg (systolic:diastolic pressure)
A dihybrid heterozygous cross will result in a phenotypic ratio of...
9:3:3:1
What % of blood volume are leukocytes?
<1%
'Weak' acid & base Ka & Kb values are ______ than 1
<1.0
Keq is for the forward reaction; ____________ is for the reverse reaction
= 1/Keq, the inverse
Atomic Number (Z)
= to the number of protons in the element; the key identifier
"Healthy" Oxygen Saturation of hemoglobin in blood
>97%
Entropy (S)
A measure of the distribution of energy in a system at a specific temperature
Compounds vs Molecules
A molecule is a group or cluster of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. A compound is a substance or material which is formed by two or more different types of elements which are combined chemically in a fixed proportion. All molecules are not compounding. All compounds are molecules. In addition, molecules are composed of neutral entities and thus can do covalent bonding BUT NOT IONIC (which are made of CHARGED entities)
Adiabatic Process? equation? graph? what variables are constant? (thermochem)
A process in which no heat is transferred to or from the system by its surroundings. process in a system where Q = 0 (heat flow), thus ∆U = -W, so energy change is the negative of the work done BY the system, T is not constant
The hormones __________________ and __________________ trigger the sensation of thirst when they sense...
ADH and Aldosterone; they sense high solute concentration in the blood/nephron ADH signals the kidneys to recover water from urine, effectively diluting the blood plasma
The hormones ______________ and ______________ affect the quantity of ______________ that the kidney reabsorbs, while maintaining pressure of blood
ADH; aldosterone; water
When are antibodies produced? Why is blood an exception?
AFTER you are exposed to a foreign antigen (e.g., Ebola); BLOOD IS AN EXCEPTION: people will have anti-A and anti-B antigens always, since E. coli has matching antigens to our A-B
When a metal that doesn't really like to dissolve (i.e. Ksp of like 10^(-37) or something) forms a complex ion, it is safe to assume...
ALL of the concentration of it will become the complex ion, since that's SO favourable!
The heartbeat rate AND vasculature is controlled by the _________ nervous system
AUTONOMIC; outside your conscious control; sympathetic and parasympathetic
All _______________ substances are __________________, but not vice versa (amphoteric/amphiprotic)
All amphiprotic substances are amphoteric, but not vice versa
Which of the three acid types has the broadest definition? most narrow?
Arrhenius < B-L < Lewis; the ones on the right GENERALLY include the ones before them on the left, but not always
Real Gases: deviations due to temperature? low T? extremely low T?
As T decreases, molecules slow down, and the inter-molecular attractive forces become increasingly significant. As you approach the condensation T, the inter-molecular attraction eventually cause the gas to condense into a liquid. A smaller real volume than ideal expected volume near that T, but at extremely low T, gases occupy more space than predicted because they cannot condense to 0 volume
Principal Quantum Number Trend
As one moves down the elements of a given group, the principal quantum number increases by one each time. This means that the valence electrons are increasingly separated by the nucleus by a greater number of energy levels. Thus, this reduces electrostatic attraction between valence electrons and the nucleus. The valence are also held less tightly
Real Gases: deviations due to pressure? at moderate pressure? high pressure?
As pressure increases, molecules are closer, and as the condensation pressure for a given temperature is approached, the inter-molecular forces become more significant until the gas condenses into a liquid At moderately high pressure pressure, a gas's volume is less than would be predicted by the ideal gas law due to inter-molecular attraction. At extremely high pressures, the size of the particles becomes relatively large compared to the distance between them and this takes up more volume than predicted by the ideal gas law
T-cells are born in the _____________, and B-cells are born in the ____________
BOTH BONE MARROW!
T-cells carry out (specific/non-specific) immunity, and B-cells carry out (specific/non-specific) immunity
BOTH SPECIFIC!
Shape of RBCs & purpose
Biconcave (indented on both sides): 1) helps travel through tiny capillaries, 2) increases SA for gas exchange
The liver's __________________ link to both the __________________ and the __________________; bile is produced in the __________________, stored in the __________________, and secreted into the __________________
Bile Duct; gallbladder & small intestine; produced in the liver; stored in gall, secreted into small intestine
The MAJOR bile pigment is __________________, a byproduct of the breakdown of __________________; it travels to the liver to be conjugated to a __________________ and then exits via the liver's __________________
Bilirubin; hemoglobin; protein; bile duct
Bond Dissociation Energy? endothermic or exothermic?
Bond dissociation energy is the energy required to break a chemical bond. It is one means of quantifying the strength of a chemical bond ENDOTHERMIC, in kJ/mol of bonds; a situation for Hess's Law using bond enthalpies
What 2 metalloids acts characteristically as metal and non-metal? What's the catch?
Boron acts as a metal, Tellurium acts as a non-metal; BUT this depends on the situation still!
The ΔH of a solution is determined by ______________ and _________________ occurring to get the net enthalpy
Breaking IMF between solute bonds in solvation (endothermic; requires E to break), and forming the solute-solvent bonds (exothermic; incurs stability) -> The difference between these determines ΔH of the reaction
As chyme enters the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter, the presence of it triggers the duodenum to release __________________ enzymes (e.g., __________________, __________________)
Brush-Border Enzymes; disaccharidases, peptidases
The 3 isotopes of carbon
C-12, C-13, and C-14; since carbon has 6 protons, this means each of those has 6, 7, 8 neutrons respectively
Non-polar Covalent Bond
CB in which the electrons are shared equally
Polar Covalent Bond
CB in which the electrons are shared unequally
When pancreatic juice is stimulated to enter the duodenum by __________________, the __________________ in the juice neutralizes the acidic chyme, so that the other digestive enzymes in the juice can operate at their optimal pH of __________________
CCK, bicarbonate, 8.5
Upon release of __________________, the gallbladder contracts and pushes __________________ into the __________________; this merges with the __________________ and empties in the duodenum
CCK; bile; Biliary Tree; Pancreatic Duct
2 exceptions OFTEN TESTED ON MCAT that have odd electron configurations
CHROMIUM (24): [Ar]4s^1,3d^5 and COPPER (29): [Ar]4s^1,3d^10 and their COLUMN/GROUP/FAMILY; both move an electron from s to d, which is energetically unfavourable, but actually more stable to have half- or full-filled d ONLY FOR THE 3RD, 4TH AND 8TH, 9TH POSITIONS OF D ORBITAL -> TAKE OFF FROM S TO GO TO D
Cardiac Output (equation)
CO = HR x SV - the heart rate time the stroke volume (volume umped per beat) the total blood pumped by a ventricle in 1 minute
2 things that can drop blood pH
CO2 (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3) & lactic acid (from exercise)
How is energy often supplied for important non-spontaneous reactions that lack Ea necessary to proceed?
COUPLING Providing energy for non-spontaneous reactions by coupling non-spontaneous reactions to spontaneous ones FOR PIC: In the first reaction, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose, forming a phosphorylated glucose intermediate (glucose-P). This is an energetically favorable (energy-releasing) reaction because ATP is so unstable, i.e., really "wants" to lose its phosphate group. In the second reaction, the glucose-P intermediate reacts with fructose to form sucrose. Because glucose-P is relatively unstable (thanks to its attached phosphate group), this reaction also releases energy and is spontaneous.
During bone building, the ions _____________ and _____________ are absorbed from blood, and when destroying, they're released back into it
Ca, phosphate
Which of the following devices would be the most appropriate to use to measure the heat capacity of a liquid? Thermometer Calorimeter Barometer Volumetric flask
Calorimeter
A reaction has a positive entropy and enthalpy. What can be inferred about the progress of this reaction from this information? Spontaneous Non-spontaneous At equilibrium Cannot be determined
Cannot be determined T is not given and thus progress cannot be determined
If an element has a low reduction potential and is reduced, it is the _____________ (cathode/anode) in _____________ cells. If the element has a high reduction potential and is reduced, it is the _____________ (cathode/anode) in ___________ cells
Cathode, electrolytic Cathode, galvanic
The gallbladder commonly forms __________________ and __________________ stones; these are painful and cause __________________ of the gallbladder; if they dislodge they can block the __________________ or the __________________, the latter of which causes the disorder __________________
Cholesterol/bilirubin stones; inflammation; Biliary Tree or pancreatic duct; pancreatitis
Complex ions
Complex ions are ions with a central metal ion bonded to one or more molecules or ions. They are a type of coordination complex. The central ion is the coordination center, while the molecules or ions bound to it are termed complexing agents or ligands
When taking actinoids and lanthanoids into consideration with periodic trends, what should you remember?
Continue the periodic trend as if the periodic table was super wide and they were just part of it (picture shows ionization energy)
Electrochemical Cells? what kind of reactions happen here?
Convert chemical energy into electrical energy stored in charges systems in which oxidation-reduction reactions occur; 3 types: galvanic (voltaic), electrolytic, concentration cells + othes commercially
When combining H2O and H+, what kind of bond forms?
Coordinate covalent bond This represents the donation of a shared pair of electrons from a lewis base (H2O) to a lewis acid (H+) = coordinate covalent
A reactant in a second-order reaction at a certain temperature is increased by a factor of 4. By how much is the rate of the reaction altered? A. It is unchanged. B. It is increased by a factor of 4. C. It is increased by a factor of 16. D. It cannot be determined from the information given.
D. It cannot be determined from the information given. A second-order reaction can be second-order with respect to one reactant, or first-order with respect to two different reactants. In this case, one reactant was increased by a factor of 4. If the reaction is second-order with respect to this reactant, the rate will increase by a factor of 16. If it is first-order with respect to this reactant (and first-order with respect to another reactant), the rate will increase by a factor of 4. We do not know which of these is this correct rate law and, thus, cannot determine the effect on the rate.
What would increasing the concentration of reactants accomplish in a solution containing a saturated catalyst? A. It would increase the rate constant but not the reaction rate. B. It would decrease the rate constant but increase the reaction rate. C. It would increase the rate constant and increase the reaction rate. D. The reaction rate would be unaffected.
D. The reaction rate would be unaffected. While increasing the concentration of reactants can alter the reaction rate in first--or higher-order reactions, saturated solutions containing a catalyst have a maximum turnover rate that cannot adjust the rate constant or the reaction rate any higher.
Ionic Radius? trend on periodic table?
DEPENDENT ON HOW THE ELEMENT IONIZES BASED ON ITS ELEMENT TYPE AND GROUP NUMBER 1/2 the distance between the centers of 2 IONS of an element next to each other (after an electrons have been gained or lost to make an octet) metals lose electrons and become positive (smaller) and non-metals gain electrons and become negative (larger!); metalloids can do either depending on the side of the staircase they're on; 1) non-metals close to the metalloid line have to gain more electrons and thus their ionic radii are largest or non-metals, 2) metals close to the metalloid line have more electrons to lose and thus their ionic radii are smallest of metals Moving across from left to right, ionic radius decreases, increases, then decreases due to the switch from cationic to anionic species. Ionic radius decreases starting from the +1 to +3, sometimes +4, ion. Progressing to either the -4 or -3 ion, there is an increase in ionic radius since the anions are larger than the cations. Progressing from the -3 to the -1 ion, the radius decreases again.
Neutralization Reaction
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT where acid + base → salt + water can occur invisibly in solution and need an indicator to see
Peristalsis usually travels __________________ the esophagus, but certain things (chemicals, infections, physical stimulation) can cause it to reverse. This is known as: __________________
DOWN; emesis (vomiting)
How does organic vs physical chemistry represent molecules?
DRAWINGS vs FORMULAS (no arrangement vs arrangement)
Modern Synthesis Model (neo-Darwinism)
Darwin's theory of evolution + genetic inheritance knowledge; Differential Reproduction: Mutation or Recombination can result in favourable changes to reproductive success, which increase fitness and are passed on (opposite is true; others have it lowered differentially), those good genes become more frequent in the gene pool
Nephron part 2 of 4: Loop of Henle? reabsorbed? secreted?
Descending LOH (goes cortex to medulla): permeable only to water and not to water; the interstitium increases osmolarity as you go down, forcing water out to 'try and dilute' it Ascending LOH (goes medulla to cortex): permeable only to salts and not to water, while it flows up into decreasing osmolarity interstitium: salt will flow out into the low concentration interstitium!; Diluting Segment has cells active transport salt out, making filtrate finally HYPOTONIC and LESS VOLUME
How to determine whether the equivalent in the GEW equation is H or OH?
Determined by what the compound is: if the compound is an acid, then H+ is the equivalent. If the compound is a base, then OH- is the equivalent because these are the ones being exchanged in acid-base reactions
Long Bones are bones w/ cylindrical shafts called '________________' that swell at each end as '________________', and terminate in '________________'; this is what most Appendicular bones are; outside = ________________, inside = ________________; bone marrow inside the first two, but the latter's spongy-ness distributes _______________ at the joints
Diaphyses; Metaphyses; Epihyses; compact; spongy; force
Alleles
Different forms of a gene
Bohr's Energy of an Electron equation in the nth shell
E = -Rh/n^2; note the n signifies the energy of an electron changes in discrete amounts too Bohr was able to calculate the energy of an electron in the nth energy level
Electron energy released when transitioning between n equation
E = hc/𝜆 = -Rh(1/ni^2 -- 1/nf^2); ni is the initial energy level and nf is the final, so the energy released is the difference in energy between those levels
Energy of a photon of light equation
E = hc/𝜆; combinated of wave equation and Planck's equation
Planck Equation
E = hf; the energy released in a quantum of light = the frequency x Planck's Constant (6.626x10^(-34)Js); note f is sometimes v
Electron Affinity Equation
EA = |ΔH|; the positive of the amount of energy released by adding an electron
Is autoionization of water exo or endothermic? What does this mean as T increases?
ENDO thermic; as T increases, Kw will increase (more H3O and OH in solution) The dissociation of H2O requires energy and thus the forward reaction is endothermic Kw = [H3O +][OH-] = 10^(-14) at 25C
All blood vessels are lined by... (3 functions)
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; 1) maintain blood vessels by releases chemicals for vasoconstriction/dilation & 2) allow WBC to pass through vessel during inflammation & 3) release chemicals when damaged to form clot & repair
At low pressures, a real gas's volume will be _________________ than that predicted by the Ideal Gas Law
EQUAL
How much energy is needed for an electron to jump to the next n?
EXACTLY the difference in energy between them; you cannot put any more
In an oxidation, if H+ is a product to the half reaction and you decrease pH, what happens to Ecell?
Ecell DECREASES the addition of hydrogen ions makes it harder to liberate electrons for some reason; it's oxidation potential decreases, which means it's reduction potential increases, which means Ecell of the whole thing decreases (Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode)
What 2 units can be on the y-axis of a Free Energy Diagram? What does this show?
Either ENTHALPY (which shows exo/endothermic) or GIBBS FREE ENERGY (which shows spontaneity)! They are not exchangeable with each other!
The MHC I pathway (on all nucleated cells) is also called the _____________ Pathway, because...
Endogenous pathway; binds to antigens that come from inside the cell
First Law of Thermodynamics? equation?
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. ∆U = Q - W; U is the energy of the system, Q is heat added, and W is work it does
Bond Formation Energy? endothermic or exothermic?
Energy to form bonds exothermic as it makes molecules more stable
Secretin is a __________________, meaning it's a hormone that slows the __________________ of the digestive tract in order to __________________ properly, especially __________________
Enterogastrone; motility; in order to digest chyme properly, especially fats
On top of Brush-Border enzymes, the duodenum secretes __________________, which activates digestive enzymes from the accessory organs, and __________________ and __________________ into the blood
Enteropeptidase, Cholecytokinin & Secretin into the blood
3 layers of the skin (outer to inner)
Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis (subcutaneous)
T/F: cartilage has blood vessels and nerves
F
Faraday's Constant (electrochemistry)
F = 96,485 C/mol e- (the amount of energy carried by 1 mole of electrons); round to 100,000 to make calculation e z
T/F: it takes the same amount of heat to raise the temperature of a glass of water the same amount as it does to heat up a swimming pool of water because they have the same specific heat
FALSE Although the specific heat (c) is the same, THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MASSES AND BY THE EQUATION q = mc∆T, the heat required is DIFFERENT for each AKA: THEY HAVE DIFFERENT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES (MASS * C)
Molecular polarity: T/f: if the molecule has a dipole, the molecule is always polar.
FALSE It can be polar OR nonpolar, if the molecular geometry has bond dipole moments that cancel each other out (vector sum is 0) -> nonpolar molecule
T/F: The product concentration appears in the rate law in zero-order reactions
FALSE The product concentration NEVER appears in a rate law
Which will fill first, the 5d subshell or the 6s subshell?
For 5d: n=5 and l=2 so 5+2=7 For 6s: n=6 and l=0 so 6+0=6 THUS: 6s has lower energy and will fill first
New cation naming system for elements with 2+ cations?
For elements (usually metals) that can form more than one positive ion, the charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the element Ex: Fe2+ = Iron (II) Fe3+ = Iron (II) Cu+ = Copper (I) Cu2+ = Copper (II)
When comparing 2 oxidizing agent, the stronger one has a _________ (better/worse) ability in ________ (gaining/losing) electrons
GAINS ELECTRONS EASIER e.g., see the 2 configurations below: the one that needs to gain 1 electron for a full orbital is more easily reduced!
______________________, modified versions of ____________________, possess immunosuppressive qualities and can help fight hypersensitivity (autoimmunity, allergies)
Glucocorticoids; cortisol
5 types in 2 classes of leukocytes:
Granulocyte (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) & Agranulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes)
Transition metals (8 things)
Group B (IB to VIIIB)/3-12: low EA, low IE, low E-, high MP, BP, malleable/conductors (loose valence d electrons) many positive oxidation states, form many (hydration, non-metal) complexes of different properties
Alkali Metals (9 things)
Group IA/1: lower densities than metals, lose 1 valence electron (become univalent cations), Zeff low (largest atomic radius) and therefore low IE, EA, and E-, react with non-metals (especially halogens), react violently with water, stored as mineral oil
Alkaline Earth Metals (11 things)
Group IIA/2: mostly like alkali (lower densities than metals, loose 2 valence electrons (become divalent cations), Zeff low (largest atomic radius) and therefore low IE, EA, and E-, react with non-metals, react violently with water); slightly higher Zeff and slightly smaller atomic radii than alkali
chalcogens (7 things)
Group VIA/16; mix of non-metals and metalloids, not as reactive as halogens, used in biological function, 6 valence electrons (large ionic radii), small atomic radii, 3 very useful ones, toxic at high concentrations (even the useful ones)
Halogens (5 things)
Group VIIA/7: highly reactive (7 VE), variable physical properties (gas, to liquid (Br2) to solid (I2)), uniform reactivities (high E-, high EA), reactive with the active metals, exist as halides OR diatomic molecules (due to reactivity)
Noble Gases (5 things)
Group VIIIA/18: inert gases (filled valence shells), high IE (don't lost electrons), first 3 (He, Ne, Ar) have no electronegativity, low BP (are gases), make up lighting sources (do not react)
Platelet counts in blood
HIGH! 150k-400k /microliter blood
When the atrium senses _______ blood pressure, it releases the hormone atrial natriuretic hormone
HIGH; ANP lower blood pressure by increasing salt excretion from nephron to pee out, thus water follows
The 7 Diatomic Molecules? Electronegativity difference for (mostly) non-polar covalent bonds?
HOFBrINCl; note: only perfect non-polar bond with equal electron sharing 0 ≤ ΔEN ≤ 0.5
The abdominal portion of the digestive tract drains its blood into the __________________, which is connected to the __________________. Since it comes from the digestive system, this blood is __________________-rich, dropping those off in the __________________ to be dealt with before returning to the heart via the __________________
Hepatic Portal Vein; liver; nutrient-rich (carbs, etc.); liver; inferior vena cava
If you increase the concentration of a weak acid (BUFFERING) and its conjugate base, what happens to buffering capacity? pH of the system?
IT INCREASES! pH doesn't change from this addition; Adding small amount of acid/base doesn't change pH as much
If ΔG < 0, the solution is ___________ and if ΔG > 0 then the solution is ____________ (soluble vs insoluble)
IT'S THERMODYNAMICS: ΔG < 0 = soluble, but > 0 = insoluble
What type of antibodies are ABO antigens?
IgM; they cannot cross the placenta (does not make a mismatch and hemolysis for a fetus)
Inclusive Fitness
Inclusive fitness, theory in evolutionary biology in which an organism's genetic success is believed to be derived from cooperation and altruistic behaviour. the fitness of an individual based on (number of offspring) + (organism's success in pop'n based on that number) + (success in supporting offspring) + (ability of offspring to support THEIRS) includes things like Altruism as fitness (supporting your relative's offspring that ALSO carry your genes and thus is technically fitness)
Normality (N)
It is a measure of concentration Molarity = Normality/N (N is the number of protons/hydroxide/electrons/ions per molecule) e.g., 1N HCl is 1mol/L H+ 2N is 2mol/L BUT 1N H2CO3 is 0.5mol/L but H+ is 1mol/L!
Base Dissociation Constant (Kb)
Kb = [OH][B+]/[BOH], the bigger Kb, the stronger the base; for weak bases
Reaction Quotient
Keq but when the reaction is NOT at equilibrium yet (same calculation) Qc = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b "timer" for when the reaction will hit equilibrium; means different things depending if Qc is above/below/equal Kc
Kw-Ka-Kb Equation
Kw = KaKb FOR A CONJUGATE PAIR!!!!! Note that adding the chemical equations of the 2 dissociations will come out to autoionization of water
In the reaction: A(aq) + 2B (g) <-> C(g) + heat If temperature is increased, which direction will it be shifted to?
LEFT
Side of the heart where oxygenated blood returns
LEFT side; returns from lungs
As the genetic similarity of a species decreases, we know its been a (shorter/longer) amount of time since they split from their common ancestor
LONGER
In reaction control, at what T/energy transfer is the kinetic product formed?
LOW
Group I and II electron affinity
LOW; do not want to gain electrons, want to give them up
Athletes have heart rates _______ than the normal than the 60-100bpm
LOWER
Fats entering villi in the small intestine enter _________________, lymphatic vessels which transport them, and are packaged as _________________ by _________________; _________________ is the name for the lymphatic fluid that carries lots of fats, appearing milky-white
Lacteals; Chylomicrons; Intestinal Mucosal Cells; Chyle
During strenuous exercise when not enough O2 can make it to muscles, _______ acid is produced. When finished, this molecule converts to _______, but this process requires _______. The amount required is called _______.
Lactic Acid; pyruvate; oxygen; Oxygen Debt
The side of the stomach that's sort of the inside where it curves a little is called the __________________ and the outer side that's longer is called the __________________
Lesser Curvature; Greater Curvature
The strong bases
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
VSEPR: 2 regions of electron density; shape/angle/example
Linear/180˚/BeCl2
When fats travel in the blood, they are packaged as...
Lipoproteins; soluble in water
What intermolecular force causes noble gases to liquify in cold temperature?
London Dispersion Forces the NGs simply don't posses dipoles or hydrogen bonds that would otherwise hold them together!
The 'vertical' portions of the nephron (______________ and ______________) focus on the ______________/______________ of what passes through the nephron
Loop of Henle, Collecting Duct; osmolarity/volume; THEY WANT TO CONSERVE WATER & CONCENTRATE URINE
Stratum Granulosum (epidermis)? what happens here?
MIDDLE layer; keratinocytes die here and lose their nuclei
All systems tend toward ____________ energy, thus atoms on the MCAT will generally exist in ___________ state unless _____________
MINIMAL GROUND Unless subjected to high temps or irradiation they get AHED: Absorb light Higher potential Excited Distant from nucleus
When forming a complex ion, we must use...; this means in regards to the Ksp value...
MIXTURES of solutions; there is a Ksp of the ORIGINAL solution, AND A Ksp (Kf) for the complex ion after it binds to its ligands
An electron falling from a higher n back to ground state at n = 1 releases _______(more/less) energy at __________(higher/lower) frequency
MORE energy; higher frequency
According to Avogadro's Principle (n/V = k; n1/V1 = n2/V2), the volume of the mols of any gas at the same T & P is __________ compared to each gas
MUST BE THE SAME! Does not matter about the identity of the gas
How to determine Rate Law for a reaction
MUST LOOK AT EXPERIMENTAL DATA; for all forward reversible reaction, rate is proportional to the concentrations of the reactants raised to some exponent; aA + bB → cC + dD, Rate Law: rate = k[A]^(x)[B]^(y) (k is the rate constant), where x and y (and z etc. if needed) are the rates of the reaction with respect to A, B, etc. (integer or fraction), and overall order is the sum of the exponents TO DETERMINE RATE LAW: look at the charts and use (effect on reaction rate: double, triple) = (factor increased reactant)^x, and logically determine what x is, once you have all the exponents, plug in everything (conc'n, rates, exponents) and solve for k! If NO increases by 2 and the rate increases by 4, then what is x in the equation: 2^x = 4 -> x=2 -> the reactant is in the second order
Basophils are closely related to __________ cells, as both release ___________. The main differences (2) between the 2 are...
Mast Cells; Histamine; 1) mast cell granules are smaller, 2) mast cells are in tissues, not in blood
In the stomach, gastric glands have 3 cell types: __________________, __________________, and __________________. The first type secretes __________________-rich mucous to protect the stomach, the second and third produce a fluid called __________________, while the second produces __________________, and the third produce __________________
Mucous, Chief, Parietal; bicarbonate, Gastric Juice; pepsinogen, HCl
Thick & Thin filaments of the sarcomere (skeletal muscle)
Myosin vs Actin (+ Troponin & Tropomyosin)
The esophagus does not initiate __________________ digestion, but continues the digestion which began in the mouth
NEW digestion (no enzymes/mechanical stuff of its own)
Which of the following bases is the weakest? KOH NH3 CH3NH2 Ca(OH)2
NH3 Since Group 1 and heavy group 2 elements are strong bases, KOH and Ca(OH)2 are out Since methylamine has a methyl group which is electron donating, the amine has a higher electron density and is a stronger Lewis base (electron donor) -> NH3 is weakest
Do capillaries contain smooth muscle like arteries/veins do?
NO! Arteries have a lot, veins have a little only epithelial
If a reaction occurs spontaneously (ΔG > 0), does this mean it will happen fast?
NO! There is no connection between spontaneity and speed e.g., biological reactions are spontaneous, but slow without enzymes
Does atomic mass = atomic weight?
NO! atomic mass ≠ atomic weight; easy to mix up on MCAT
Can mature RBCs divide?
NO! they lack nuclei
Is 'k' in the rate law a constant?
NO; depends per reaction on the Ea and T; only constant under those 2 variables
Does the "atmospheric pressure" exerted on a barometer have to be the atmosphere?
NO; it can be something like blood force from a patient
Is the enteric nervous system dependent on the brain/spinal cord?
NO; it can fully function independently
Are B-cells which produce antibodies producing them constantly? Why?
NO; it's energetically expensive especially when you don't have an infection
Do arteries or capillaries contain valves?
NO; only veins do to prevent backflow
In a certain equilibrium process, the activation energy of the forward reaction (ΔG) is greater than the activation energy of the reverse reaction (ΔG). This reaction is: Endothermic Exothermic Spontaneous Non-spontaneous
NON-SPONTANEOUS The overall energy of the system is higher at the end than it was in the beginning. The net free energy change is positive and thus indicating a endergonic non-spontaneous reaction. While free energy change does depend on enthalpy (ΔH), it also depends on entropy (ΔS) and there is not enough information int the question to reliably determine the sign of the entropy change in the reaction
Is atrial natriuretic hormone enough to counter high-salt diets and lower blood pressure?
NOO!!! The human body has weak/low ways to lower pressure, although a lot to raise it
Are the stoichiometric coefficients equal to the rate law exponents?
NOOOOOO
Does evolution mean natural selection?
NOT ENTIRELY; it's just one mode (on top of recombination, mutation, gene flow, etc.); THE MCAT LOVES TO TEST THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!
How can you change the speed of a zero-order reaction rate?
NOT by changing reactant conc'n, their exponents in rate law are 0 and it would do nothing but changing the rate of reaction can be done by 1) T, 2) catalyst
Titration Equation
NaVa = NbVb; the normalities x volumes of acid base (units must be the same, but don't have to be litres)
Muscle Contraction 1/3: Initiation
Neuromuscular Junction (junction where nerves communicate with muscle via Motor (Efferent) Neurons) receives & sends signal down neuron to Nerve Terminal (synapse) aka Motor End Plate and releases Acetylcholine; binds to sarcolemma and depolarizes, action potential spreads via T-Tubes, Ca2+ released from SR, Ca2+ binds to regulatory unit in Troponin, and Tropomyosin changes conformationally, exposing Myosin-Binding Sites on the thin actin filament
Which has a greater energy density: Ni-Cd vs Pb-Acid batteries?
Ni-Cd is higher (better)
Ni-Cd batteries have been replaced by ___________ batteries, because...
NiMH (Nickel-Metal-Hydride) batteries; higher energy density, cost effective, less toxic; metal hydride anode
Is the body's measures against starting autoimmunity perfect?
No
In a energy diagram with a reaction coordinate, how would one determine if a reaction was moving fast or not? would it be endergonic or exergonic? (assuming all other conditions are equal)
No influence of exergonic vs endergonic; as long as the reaction can reach its activation energy the fastest (assuming all conditions are equal)
For a spontaneous reaction, do they necessarily START spontaneously? what is needed to start? What's the limiting factor?
No; Activation energy is usually high (e.g., match - not spontaneous to start, but will burn spontaneously once Ea is achieved)
Group with the highest IE (ionization energy)
Noble Gases; they are already stable and REALLLLLLLLYYYYYYYYYYYY DONT want to get rid of their electrons
"Universal Donor" of blood
O- blood type; they have no antigens and will not trigger hemolysis with anyone's blood
Nephron part 4 of 4: Collecting Duct? reabsorbed? secreted?
ONCE AND FOR ALL decides concentration of urine; almost ALWAYS reabsorbs water (just variably) Responds to ADH and aldosterone: they will increase permeability to water to give urine in final conc'n
A B-cell can make (one/many) type/s of antibody(ies)
ONE Each B cell produces a single species of antibody, each with a unique antigen-binding site.
What are the type(s) of intermolecular force(s) present in noble gases?
ONLY LONDON DISPERSION FORCES (weakest)
A 2L sample at 100C and 20atm contains 5 moles of a gas. If an additional 25 moles of gas at the same pressure and temperature are added, what is the final volume of the gas?
OR USE PV = nRT
What is the density of CO2 gas at 2 atm and 273C?
OR USE THE PV = nRT EQUATION IT IS EASIER JUST REMEMBER TO CONVERT N (MOLES) TO GRAMS
What is the difference between Bohr's orbits and quantum mechanic orbitals?
ORBITS are where electrons circle the nucleus in in a set path/distance, and ORBITALS define electrons as being localized in regions of space
Despite galvanic cells' anode being 'negative' and electrolytic cells' anode being 'positive', what is the same between both? (2)
OXIDATION occurs at both their anodes AND current always flows cathode to anode (electrons opp.)
How many capillary beds does most blood pass through when cycling the systemic circuit?
One! Exception are the 3 portal systems (pass through 2 capillary beds)
"Determine how many valance e- come from each subshell in the following atoms:" P in PO43- O in PO43-
P = 10 electrons O = 8 electrons PO43- is covalently bonded and therefore shares electrons. The P has 5 bonds as you said (3 single bonds attached to O-, and one double bond attached to O), which means that P has 10 electrons, while all outer O have a complete octet of 8 electrons. From here you have your answer for the number of valence electrons and hopefully can deduce the correct answer. As for the breakdown of each atomic orbital I think they are just assuming that s orbitals can only contain 2 electrons (s=2), p orbitals can only contain 6 electrons (p=6), d orbitals - 10 electrons (d=10), and f orbitals - 14 electrons (f=14). Since you only have 10 electrons from P, you can only fill up to s=2, p=6, d=2, and f=0 for a total of 10 electrons. The same goes for O where since you only have 8 electrons you can only fill up s=2, p=6, d=0, and f=0
Combined Gas Law equation
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 can measure the changes in a gas, assuming moles are constant (n1 = n2 in ideal gas law)
Analogous to electricity, capillary beds are __________ circuits, with the exception of the __________
PARALLEL circuits; 3 portal systems; adding capillary beds decreases resistance & increases cardiac output
Solution Concentration: Percent Mass
PM = (mass solute)/(mass solution) x 100%; used for solutions, alloys, etc.
Is evaporation exothermic or endothermic? enthalpy + or -?
POSITIVE H = endothermic energy is stored/added to the gas essentially
The cooperativity of hemoglobin can be considered __________ feedback
POSITIVE; as O2 unbinds, it becomes easier to bind; as O2 unbinds, it becomes easier to unbind
The pancreatic fat enzyme __________________ is responsible for breaking down fats into...
Pancreatic Lipase; glycerol + FAs
P Generation
Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross
Macrophages and dendritic cells have receptors called _____________ (_____), which allow for...
Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR); allow for production of correct cytokines to recruit the right immune cells for the specific type of invader (fungi, virus)
Write the cell diagram for the discharging state of a lead acid battery.
Pb (s) I H2SO4 (4M) II H2SO4 (4M) I PbO2 (s)
Quantum Theory
Planck; energy emitted as electromagnetic radiation from matter comes in discrete packets called quanta
The 4 variables that define gases
Pressure, Temperature, Volume, Moles
Monohybrid Cross
Punnett square studying ONE trait
___________ types of solids have very exact, defined melting/freezing points, whereas ___________ types of solids have a wide range of T at which melting/freezing occurs
Pure crystalline solid VS amorphous solids (glass, plastic, chocolate)
Endothermic? Q value? absorbs or releases heat?
Q > 0; system absorbs heart
Q > Keq? ΔG of this?
Q is too big, meaning numerator is big, meaning too many products REV REACTION HAS NOT YET REACHED EQUILIBRIUM; REV RATE IS INCREASED TO RESTORE EQUILIBRIUM G IS POSITIVE
Q < Keq? ΔG of this?
Q is too small, meaning denominator too big, meaning too many reactants: FORWARD REACTION HAS NOT YET REACHED EQUILIBRIUM; FORWARD RATE WILL INCREASE TO GET THERE G IS NEGATIVE
Le Châtelier's Principle: Changes in conc'n
Q ≠ Keq, and the system will try to restore whatever change was done i.e. reactants removed, tries to replenish by shifting left; often used to drive industrial reactions pH is the same just imagine the change in H+
In ∆Grxn = ∆G⁰rxn + RTlnQ = RTln(Q/Keq), how does the ratio of Keq affect spontaneity? AKA: Q<Keq -> ____________ Q>Keq -> ____________ Q = Keq -> ____________
Q<Keq means the ln is negative, thus all negative, thus is spontaneous Q>Keq means ln is positive and thus not spontaneous (reaction will not proceed when products are too high) when Q = Keq, then ln(1) = 0, so G is 0, so nothing is happening
Gibbs Free Energy Graph (Qc vs G)
Qc vs G graph in the shape of a "valley between hills": all systems move towards the lowest energy position Qc = Keq
Max Planck's Theory
Quantum Theory; energy emitted as electromagnetic radiation from matter comes in discrete packets called quanta AKA Can emit/absorb energy only in terms of integral multiple of a quantum/photon E = hf
In the reaction: A(aq) + 2B (g) <-> C(g) + heat If volume is reduced, which direction will it be shifted to?
RIGHT
In the reaction: 2 C (s) + O2 (g) <-> 2CO2 (g) If pressure is decreased, which direction will it be shifted to?
RIGHT favors the side with more GAS
What direction does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shift when exercising (more CO2/H+ in blood)?
RIGHT; decreased affinity for O2 so it's easier to drop off in tissue
4 Excitable circuit of the heart, in order of their excitation in a heartbeat
SA (Sinoatrial Node), AV (Atrioventricular Node), AV Bundle, Purkinje Fibers
The order of depolarization as myogenic cardiac muscle contract is...
SA Node ➝ AV Node ➝ Bundle of His ➝ Purkinje Fibers (spreads via intercalated discs' gap junctions rapidly depolarizing the adjacent cell)
Mastication helps increase the __________________ of food so that __________________ can act more efficiently
SA; digestive enzymes
Neutralization: strong acid + weak base -> what forms? pH?
SALT but no water (weak base usually has no hydroxide to form it) the cation in the salt is a weak acid (stronger than the conj base) that will hydrolyze/react to reform the weak base a lil bit, e.g.: HCl + NH3 → NH4Cl; NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+; pH slightly below 7
Thiocyanate
SCN-
Out of the primary (plasma cell) & secondary (memory cell) responses to infection, the ______________ response is faster
SECONDARY
At moderately high pressures, a real gas's volume will be _________________ than that predicted by the Ideal Gas Law, because...
SMALLER than predicted; because inter-molecular attraction occurs pulling them closer
The _______ tightly controls the amount of Ca2+ released in myocytes to regulate when to contract and when not
SR
Entropy is a _________ function (state/process)
STATE; does not matter how something gets to a certain entropy, the entropy change is always the same
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) vs standard conditions? what is STP used for?
STP: T = 0C, P = 1atm used for ideal gas situations Standard: 25C (298K), 1M, 1atm
Weak acids/bases have conjugate pairs that are _____________ __________ (strong/weak)(acids/bases)
STRONG OR WEAK!; weak conjugate pairs makes them good buffers
Oxidation number rules: sum of oxidation numbers in a molecule Ex: N in NO3-
SUM MUST = 0, unless the molecule is charged (e.g., SO4 2-), then the sum MUST EQUAL = -2 Ex: N in NO3- = +5
Self-Tolerance (T-cells)
SUPRESSOR T-cells kill self-reactive immune cells
When the baroreceptors sense low blood pressure, they will activate the ___________ nervous system, ___________ the blood vessels
SYMPATHETIC, constricting
Pure sodium metal spontaneously combusts upon contact with room temperature. What is true about the equilibrium constant of this combustion reaction at 25C? Keq < 0 0 < Keq < 1 Keq = 1 Keq > 1
Since ln(1) = 0, the ln of any number greater than 1 is positive and the ln of any number less than 1 is negative In order for lnKeq to be a positive number and have a more negative spontaneous reaction (G = -RTlnKeq), Keq must be greater than 1
In an galvanic cell, select anode or cathode: Site of oxidation: Electrons flow towards it: Current flows towards it: Has (-) designation Attracts cations
Site of oxidation: anode Electrons flow towards it: cathode Current flows towards it: anode Has (-) designation: anode Attracts cations: cathode
In an electrolytic cell, select anode or cathode: Site of oxidation: Electrons flow towards it: Current flows towards it: Has (-) designation Attracts cations
Site of oxidation: anode Electrons flow towards it: cathode Current flows towards it: anode Has (-) designation: cathode Attracts cations: cathode
What are the quantum numbers describing the highest angular momentum number, spin-up electron in a neutral, unexcited chlorine atom's highest-energy orbital?
So, n=3, l=1, ml=+1, m=+1/2
Nitrate salts (NO3-) are _______________ soluble/insoluble)
Soluble
Weak Electrolytes (+examples)
Solvates incompletely in solution; only some dissociate into the ions Ex: Hg2I2, acetic acid, ammonia, weak acids, weak bases
In the Gas-Liquid Equilibrium, why are not all particles in the same state at the same time? what causes evaporation/vaporization?
Some liquid may have enough kinetic energy to vaporize into gas (an endothermic process). Causes a change in pressure, WHILE some gases may condense into liquid as they slow down When a liquid such as water or alcohol is exposed to air in an open container, the liquid evaporates. This happens because the distribution of speeds (and hence kinetic energies) among molecules in a liquid. At any given instant a small fraction of the molecules in the liquid phase will be moving quite fast. If one of these is close to the surface and is traveling upward, it can escape the attraction of its fellow molecules entirely and pass into the gas phase. As the higher energy molecules depart, the average energy of the molecules in the liquid decreases and the temperature of the liquid falls. Heat energy will be absorbed from the surroundings, an effect which you can feel if you let water or alcohol evaporate from your skin. Absorption of heat maintains the average molecular speed in the liquid, so that, given enough time, all the liquid can evaporate. The heat absorbed during the entire process corresponds to the enthalpy of vaporization.
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Spin orientations are given values of +1/2 (up) and -1/2 (down), and 2 electrons in the same orbital ("PAIRED") must have opposing pins ("PARALLEL SPINS")
Modes of Natural Selection (graphs)(3)
Stabilizing, Directional, Disruptive
If IP > Ksp, is the solution saturated, unsaturated, or super-saturated?
Super-saturated (Precipitation occurs)
Atomic representation (like the squares on a periodic table; what does each mean)
Symbol listed; mass number superscript on the left, atomic number subscript on the left
Which phase of heart contraction has higher pressure, systole or diastole? Why?
Systole; this is when the ventricles contract, diastole is when they relax and fill
Each time a liquid loses a high-energy particle (it becomes gas), the liquid's ________________ decreases
TEMPERATURE The particle takes some of the energy/heat away THIS IS HOW SWEATING WORKS
Ksp is dependent on_______________
TEMPERATURE, like and Keqs
The only thing that can change Keq/Ksp/Kw etc. is...
TEMPERATURE; the MCAT LOVES to test this!
What can give away the oxidation state of a transition metal with many oxidation states?
THE COLOUR OF A SOLUTION WITH IT DISSOLVED; the same element in its different states absorbs different wavelengths of light
How much blood flows through the left and right ventricles comparatively?
THE SAME; they're connected in a circuit lol
Muscle Contraction 2/3: Shortening the Sarcomere
THE SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL: Globular myosin heads of myosin bind to the thin actin filament; Myosin can now pull actin thin filaments to the M-line, shortening the sarcomere; ADP + Π bound to the myosin RELEASES and that act in itself provides energy to slide the actin filament over the myosin, ATP rebinds to myosin, which releases it from actin, ATP hydrolyzes, "Re-cocking" the myosin head to do it again, & then continuously sliding more & more and shortening the sarcomere
What is the Kf equation for the chemical reaction: H2O (g) + C (s) <-> H2 (g) + CO (g)
THE SOLID IS NOT IN THE EQUATION BECAUSE IT DOESN'T GET DISSOLVED/ABSORBED SO THE CONCENTRATION OF THE H2O (GAS) IS WHAT DRIVES IT
T/F: Environmentally, the proper working of an electrochemical cell is based temperature
TRUE
T/F: The oral cavity does mechanical & chemical digestion
TRUE; chewing (teeth, tongue, lips) & enzymes like amylase
The 2 types of Helper T-cells are _______________, which releases interfuron gamma (IFN-y) which activates/amplifies ability of macrophages and _______________, which helps activate B-cells, usually when a parasite has infected
Th1; Th2
One of the most common genetic drift situations is...
The Founder Effect, the reduced genetic diversity which results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors. Happens after a Genetic Bottleneck Effect (leaving them in genetic/geographical isolation from others of their species) can lead to homozygosity/loss of diversity that leaves small populations vulnerable to disease
Electronegativity? trend on a periodic table?
The closer an atom is to achieving a full octet, the greater its ability to attract electrons Electronegativity increases across a period because the number of charges on the nucleus increases. That attracts the bonding pair of electrons more strongly. As you go down a group, electronegativity decreases because the bonding pair of electrons is increasingly distant from the attraction of the nucleus
If activation energy decreases and temperature increases, what happens to rate constant k in the Arrhenius Equation?
The exponent becomes less negative in magnitude and thus increases the rate constant k
'Saturated' solution
The maximum amount of solute has been added to solution, and now the PRECIPITATED stuff undissolved is in dynamic equilibrium with the dissolved stuff
Which electrons have more energy: those closest to the nucleus or those farthest?
The outer energy levels have higher energy than the the inner energy levels or shells . The electrons want to be closer to the nucleus because opposite charges attract each other .The outer electrons have more potential energy than the inner electrons and when these jump from higher to lower energy level some of the the potential energy is converted to light energy in the form of photons and some into kinetic energy .
In a multistep reaction kinetics where there is a slow and a fast step, how would the rate law be determined?
The rate determining step is the slowest step of a chemical reaction that determines the speed (rate) at which the overall reaction proceeds.
Chemical Kinetics
The study of reaction rates and the factors that affect them
Electron Affinity? trend on periodic table?
The value of ΔH (which is (-) when exothermic) made positive The closer an atom is to achieving an octet, the more stable it will become when an electron is added. The resulting increase in stability causes a release of energy. stronger pulled electrons & closer to the nucleus have higher electron affinity (easier to add them), thus EA increases up and right (more energy released because they like the electron more) The values are smaller for the nonmetals in Period II, i.e. O and F, because the repulsion between the electron being added and the electrons already present is greatest. Upon adding an electron to the neutral atom, the repulsion is more greatly felt due to their small size, and hence less energy is released.
What's more muscular, the atria or the ventricles? Why?
The ventricles; they shoot blood to the entire body, as opposed to atria just sending blood to ventricles!
What is the second thing Atomic Weight on the periodic table represents?
The weight of 1mol of the substance!
Transition Metal complex formation? how does this influence their properties?
These complex transition ions tend to associate in solution either with molecules of water (hydration complexes) or with nonmetals. The ability to form different complexes contributes to transition metals' variable solubility
Which has a greater BP: acetone or isopropyl alcohol?
They both involve dipole-dipole forces, however, isopropyl alcohol can also participate in hydrogen bonding and thus is a stronger molecule and thus has a greater BP
Using ___________, a myocyte's sarcolemma (cell membrane) can transmit action potentials to all surrounding cells
Transverse (T-) Tubules
VSEPR: 5 regions of electron density; shape/angle/example
Trigonal bipyramidal/90˚, 120˚, 180˚/PCl5
Oxidation number rules: hydrogen Ex: H+ Ex: H+ in HCl Ex: H in NaH
USUALLY +1, but -1 with less electronegative atoms (like metals) Ex: H+ = +1 Ex: H+ in HCl = +1 Ex: H in NaH = -1
Overall, how SPECIFIC are the energy and wavelengths of atomic emissions?
VERY SPECIFIC; only a certain amount of energy is absorbed and released by an excited electron, and the wavelength is obviously a very specific function of that
The __________________ nerve is the nerve that is activated at the sight/taste/smell of food; it activates the __________________ nervous system which acts on the __________________ glands
Vagus Nerve; Parasympathetic NS; acts on the gastric glands
Van der Waals Force? aka? 2 types?
Van der Waals forces' is a general term used to define the attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules. There are two kinds of Van der Waals forces: weak London Dispersion Forces and stronger dipole-dipole forces
What is the Keq equation for the chemical reaction: BF3 (g) + H2O (l) <-> 3HF (aq) + H3BO3 (aq)
WATER (AKA LIQUIDS) IS NOT INCLUDED BECAUSE IT IS A SOLVENT AND ITS CONCENTRATION IS HARD TO FIND AND OFTEN DOESN'T MATTER IN THE PROBLEM
Leukocytes
WBCs; less than 1% of blood volume (4.5k-11k / microliter blood) but can increase during infection; defend against all materials not known as OURSELF; 5 types in 2 classes: Granulocyte (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) & Agranulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes)
Strong acids have conjugate pairs that are ____________ ____________ (strong/weak)(acids/bases)
WEAK BASES the larger the Ka, the smaller the Kb since KaKb = Kw; this means a strong acid's conjugate base is a weak base!!!
_________ must usually be done to concentrate energy (negative entropy)
WORK; consumes energy
Molecular Orbital
When 2 atoms bond to form a compound, the atomic orbitals interact to form a molecular orbital that describes the probability of finding an electron Molecular orbitals are obtained by combining the wave functions of the atomic orbitals Can create bonding or antibonding orbitals
Polyatomic Oxyanion Naming (Anions with oxygen): NO2- NO3- SO32- SO42-
When an element forms 2 oxyanions, the name of the one with lesser O ends in -ite and the one with more O ends in -ate Ex: NO2- = Nitrite NO3- = Nitrate SO32- = Sulfite SO42- = Sulfate
_______ Muscle Fibers (aka _______ twitch) have less mitochondria and rely on glycolysis/fermentation for energy instead; under these conditions, oxyhemoglobin curve shifts _______ due to the increase in CO2/H+ (pH drop), allowing O2 to more easily dissociate
White; Fast; right
Antibody structure
Y-shaped; 2 identical heavy chains + 2 identical light chains disulfide + non-covalent bonds like the heavy to light chains; have Antigen-Binding Region w/ "Variable Region (Domain)" at the end at the tips of the Y here a variable peptide lies that binds to 1 specific antigen & Constant Region (Domain) where other immune cells have receptors for
What is the rate law for the problem: A - > products [A] Initial Rate 1.0 0.01M/s 2.0 0.01M/s what are the units for K? what is the order of the reaction
ZERO ORDER
∆H⁰f of a compound entering standard state
ZERO; i.e. to form O2 into O2 its 0J
If Keq = 1, the E˚cell = ...
ZERO; there is equilibrium and no voltage in the cell; no net ionic equation
What is the electron configuration of Fe3+
[Ar]3d5 Electrons are first removed from high n subshell, then 3d subshell.
Vapor Pressure equation (henrys law)
[a] = kH x Pa OR [a]1/P1 = [a]2/P2 = kH [A] is the conc'n of A in solution, kH is Henry's Constant (varies with the identity of the gas), Pa is the partial pressure of A; pressure is directly related to solubility; P1 and P2 are atmospheric Ps
2) Calculate ∆S using the table provided: 4HCN(l) + 5O2(g) -> 2H2O(g) + 4CO2(g) + 2N2(g) Compound__S˚_________∆Hf kJ/mol HCN (l) ______94.1 ______151.0 O2 (g) ________205.0 ____0 H2O (g) _____189.0 ____-242.0 CO2 (g) ______214 ____-393.5 N2 (g) ________192 ______0
[products] - [reactants] -> [2(189) + 4(214) + 2(192)] - [4(94.1) + 5(205)] -> 1618 - 1401.4 = +216.6 J /mol*K
Oxyacid nomenclature rules HNO3 = _______________ HNO2 = _______________ H3PO4 ____________
______ic acid add hypo, ous, or per- based on number of Os Hypo- = 1 O -ous = 1-2 O -ic = 3-4 O per- = 4 O EXCEPTIONS: PHOSPHORUS AND SULFUR
Monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils and erythrocytes are all preceded by...
a "PROGENITOR" cell that corresponds to their name; all of which are preceded by a "Myeloid Stem Cell"
A-B titration usually involves 1 component that is a ______________ (strong/weak)(acid/base)
a STRONG acid/base; 2 weak things will titrate badly, they will not have sharp pH change that indicates endpoint
Mutation
a change in a DNA sequence from the wild-type
A chemical reaction is in dynamic equilibrium when 1) entropy is ____________ 2) Gibbs free energy is ____________
a chemical reaction is in dynamic equilibrium when 1) entropy is max 2) GFE is min
The Lymphatic System
a circulatory system of one-way vessels that carry lymph
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)
a clot in the deep veins of the leg; can be dislodged and go to lungs, causing Pulmonary Embolus (life-threatening)
Complete Blood Count
a count of ALL THE DIFFERENT BLOOD CELL TYPES
Coordinate Covalent Bond
a covalent bond where BOTH of the electrons come from the same atom Each of the covalent bonds that we have looked at so far has involved each of the atoms that are bonding contributing one of the electrons to the shared pair. There is an alternate type of covalent bond in which one of the atoms provided both of the electrons in a shared pair. At this point, a double bond has formed between the two atoms, with each atom providing one of the electrons to each bond. The oxygen atom now has a stable octet of electrons, but the carbon atom only has six electrons and is unstable. This situation is resolved if the oxygen atom contributes one of its lone pairs in order to make a third bond with the carbon atom -> the third bond is a coordinate covalent bond Between a lewis acid and a lewis base
Renal Hilum
a deep slip in the centre of the medial surface of each kidney that houses the renal artery, vein and renal pelvis
Pepsin
a digestive enzyme that cleaves peptide bonds at aromatic AAs (protein to small bits); the pepsinogen zymogen is secreted by the Chief cells of gastric glands
Quanta
a discrete amount of E-M energy released by matter
Appendix
a finger-like projection off the cecum of the large intestine
Daniell Cell? what elements are involved in the solution and anode/cathode? what does the salt bridge do?
a galvanic cell where the anode/cathode are made of the same ion as are floating around in the electrolyte solution; anode = Zn (ZnSO4 solution), cathode = Cu (CuSo4 solution); Zn oxidized, Cu reduced; ELECTRONS FLOW FROM ZN IN THE ANODE TO CU IN THE CATHODE while salt bridge balanced the charge
What atom did Bohr use to come up with the idea of electron energy and orbits?
a hydrogen atom
How do coordinate covalent bonds form?
a lone pair attacks the empty, unhybridized p-orbital of another atom, forming the bond
Enzymes & complex ions
a lot of enzymes use them in active sites of proteins/enzymes! Bind metals to allow them to do a process (e.g., hemoglobin, which has ligands of O2 or CO2!)
The human body has ______ ways to raise blood pressure, ________ ways to lower it
a lot of; few
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
a non-specific lymphocytes that detect downregulation of MHC (an evolutionary tactic by some invading viruses) & induce apoptosis in those infected cells; also work on cancer (cus cancer downregulates MHC)
Isothermal Process? what variables are constant? equation? (thermochem)
a process in a system where T is constant, therefore U (total energy) is constant); - ∆U = Q - W becomes Q = W
Isovolumetic (Isochoric) Process? what variables are constant? equation? graph? (thermochem)
a process in a system where V is constant; this means no work is performed, so ∆U = Q - W becomes ∆U = Q
Intermediate (rxn mech)
a product that does not appear in the overall reaction; it is created in 1 step, and used up in the next; difficult to detect as they are consumed almost immediately
Potentiometric Titration
a redox titration where NO indicator is used, just measuring the voltage as it changes
Line (Emission) Spectrum
a spectrum composed of lines that indicate light emitting from an excited electron at different frequencies AKA: Emission Line. An emission line will appear in a spectrum if the source emits specific wavelengths of radiation. This emission occurs when an atom, element or molecule in an excited state returns to a configuration of lower energy.
Aldosterone & the Excretory System (FULL story)? RAAS?
a steroid hormone (adrenal cortex) that responds to DECREASED BLOOD PRESSURE ; when decreased pressure sensed ➝ renin releases from juxtaglomerular cells in kidney ➝ renin cleave angiotensinogen (liver) to angiotensin I ➝ angiotensin-converting enzyme (located mainly in the capillaries of the lungs but can also be found in endothelial and kidney epithelial cells) cleaves angiotensin I to II ➝ angiotensin II causes release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex ➝ d. c. tubule & collecting duct made to reabsorb sodium so water follows and increases blood pressure (no change in blood osmolarity)
Appendicitis
a surgical emergency where the appendix inflames dangerously
Portal System (renal)
a system of the body where blood has to pass through TWO capillary beds in series before returning to the heart (usually it's just 1)
Diluting Segment (Loop of Henle)? cells surrounding this?
a thicker segment of the LOH at the transition from inner to outer medulla; the CELLS lining the tube are larger and have MORE MITOCHONDRIA to absorb Na+/Cl- by active transport
Dipole Moment? units?
a vector of the dipole that forms in a polar covalent bond; p-> = qd->; p is the dipole moment, q is the magnitude of the charge, and d is the displacement vector that separates the 2 partial charges units Debye (coulomb-meter)
Potentiometer
a voltmeter that draws no current from an electrochemical cell, thus giving an accurate reading
How vaccines work
a weak virus OR an antigenic protein (with the same recognizable stuff as the virus) is added to the body, and the immune system reacts to it creating memory cells
What is the reaction rate for aA + bB → cC + dD?
aA + bB → cC + dD: rate = -Δ[A]/aΔt = -Δ[B]/bΔt = Δ[C]/cΔt = Δ[D]/dΔt (A and B are negative as they are used up) (coefficients are used as scaled to make all reaction rates 'equal')
On top of the detrusor muscle, ______________ muscles increases pressure in the ______________ ______________ to increase flow rate of peeing
abdominal; abdominal cavity
The main role of the colon (middle third of L. intestine) is to absorb __________________ & __________________, but it's not actually THAT much. The main purpose is to concentrate the drier materials into...
absorb water & salt; feces
Carbohydrates + Amino Acid pathway into blood
absorbed by capillaries in small intestine → hepatic portal circulation → systemic circulation
Fats pathway into blood
absorbed in lacteals in small intestine → packaged as water-soluble lipoproteins → bypass hepatic portal → enter systemic circulation via thoracic duct
The ideal gas law is a good approximation of the behavior of real gases, but all real gases deviates from ideal gas behavior to some extent, especially under _________________ and _________________ conditions
accurate; high P (low V) or low T
Vitamins & complex ions
act as cofactors to complex ions with transition metals; allows then to bind to their ligands/transfers electrons
Transition State (chem)? symbol? how to achieve this? energy?
activated complex; greater energy than reactants and products symbol ‡; reactants need to collide with Ea to achieve it; once here, it will form products or revert to reactants without any input; fleeting existence at the peak of energy (never isolatable like intermediates)
How do you balance a chemical equation?
add stoichiometric coefficients until the # of atoms of each element on both sides are the same; start with the least repeated to most repeated element
How to determine overall order of a reaction
add up the exponents in the rate law! i.e. rate = k[A]^(x)[B]^(y)[C]^(z); add x+y+z
Freezing Point Depression? equation? why?
added solutes interferes with the formation of a frozen solvent lattice, thus more energy must be removed to freeze it ΔTf = iKf*m (ΔT is the change, I is vant hoff/number of particles of solute, Kf is a constant, m is MOLALITY)
How are atoms put into the excited state?
adding ENERGY; E-M radiation/light
Prior to ________________, the epiphyseal plates are filled with ________________ cells that make it growth; during ________________, they close and stop vertical growth
adulthood; mitotic cells; puberty
3 Consequences of Mutations (types of consequences)
advantageous, neutral, or deleterious
When blood pressure is low and vasoconstriction occurs, which will cause less blood to go through the ______________ arterioles of the kidney and reach the ______________ and the adjacent ______________ cells; less blood means less pressure which means the juxtaglomerular cells will be activated and will release ______________ to ultimately cause ______________ to restore blood pressure
afferent arterioles; glomeruli; juxtaglomerular cells; renin; aldosterone
The ______________ arterioles of the kidney filter blood through Glomeruli to Bowman's Capsule, and anything that doesn't get pushed in goes to ______________ arterioles to the ______________
afferent; efferent; Vasa Recta
Lymphocytes
agrunular leukocytes; T-cells and B-cells
Helper T-cells (Th)
aka CD4+ (MHC II); coordinate immune system by releasing Lymphokines, molecules that recruit other immune cells and increase their activity
White Fibers (skeletal muscle)
aka Fast-Twitch Fibers; less myoglobin, less iron (lighter red colour than red fibers)
Antibodies (in general)
aka Immunoglobulins (Ig); are present on cell surfaces/free in blood, bind to antigens, and launch location-specific response
Double-Displacement Reactions? aka?
aka Metathesis Reaction 2 parts of 2 different compounds swap places will occur when 1) 1 product is removed as a precipitate or gas or 2) when 2 species combine to form a weak electrolyte (undissociated in solution): Zn(NO3)2 + (NH4)2S → ZnS + NH4NO3 AKA: Metathesis Reaction
Red Fibers (skeletal muscle)
aka Slow-Twitch Fibers; high myoglobin and get energy aerobically & many mitochondria
Cytotoxic T-cells (Tc)
aka cytotoxic T lymphocytes, aka CD8+ (MHC I); directly kill infected body cells by injecting toxic chemicals that induce apoptosis
Groups
aka families; columns on the periodic table that have the same electronic configuration of valence shell and thus similar properties
Ionization Energy (IE)
aka ionization potential; the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous element via input of heat (endothermic) As you move across a period, the atomic radius decreases, that is, the atom is smaller. The outer electrons are closer to the nucleus and more strongly attracted to the center. Thus more ionization energy to remove. Down a group, electrons are further from the nucleus and thus easier to remove the outermost one."SHIELDING" - Inner electrons at lower energy levels essentially block the protons' force of attraction toward the nucleus. It therefore becomes easier to remove the outer electron
B Elements
aka non-representative elements; include transition elements (s and d valence electrons) and lanthanide/actinides (s and f valence electrons), include the unexpected chromium and copper configurations
A Elements
aka representative elements; Groups IA through VIIIA (8A); valence electrons are in s or p shells: e.g., VA means 5 valence electrons between s & p: s2p3
Principle Quantum Number (n)
aka shell; theoretically takes on any value, same as BOHR'S model; higher n = higher energy and radius
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
aka the electrostatic attraction between valence electrons and nucleus MEASURING NET POSITIVE CHARGE THEY EXPERIENCE: as protons increase, positivity increases, pulling on the electrons harder (closer & tighter bind to nucleus), disrupted by non-valence electrons in-between. It is the attractive + charge of nuclear protons acting on valence electrons
Bond Order? rank by strength?
aka the number of shared electron pairs between 2 atoms; aka single, double, triple bond (order of 1, 2, 3)
Platelets
aka thrombocytes; cell fragments from bone marrow cells called Megakaryocytes; perform BLOOD CLOTTING; high conc'n (150k-400k/microliter blood)
Blood Vessels
aka vasculature of the body; arteries, capillaries, veins
______________ and ______________ inhibit ADH, thus high osmolarity of blood will NOT result in water reabsorption, and therefore...
alcohol and caffeine; you will pee dilute urine often!
"Cooperativity" of Hemoglobin
allosteric regulation; when 1 O2 binds, it causes conformational shift in the other 3 hemes; as the other O2s bind, the affinity for the each heme to oxygen increases!; same pattern holds in reverse (removing an O2s decreases affinity of all hemes for O2); positive feedback
Which groups have negative oxidation states?
almost all of them; notably 14-17 (non-metals) oxidation states of all the atoms in an ion is equal to the charge on the ion
Our body produces ______________ as a by-product from nitrogenous compounds, which can alter the _______ of blood; thus the liver converts it into ______________ that is secreted into the ______________ for excretion
ammonia; pH; urea; nephron
The hydroxides from the bases formed with Al, Zn, Pb, Cr are______________ (amphoteric/amphiprotic)
amphoteric (but not amphiprotic because they cannot give H's)
In terms of acid-base chemistry, zwitterionic amino acids are considered ___________________(amphoteric/amphiprotic)
amphoteric; can act as acid or base
Bone Matrix
an Organic (collagen glycoprotein, peptide) + Inorganic (Ca, PO43-, OH- & later stores Na+, Mg2+, K+) mixture Harden to form Hydroxyapatite Crystals MAKES COMPACT BONE HARD
Anion
an atom that has gained electrons and become negatively charged
Cation
an atom that has lost electrons and become positively charged
Quantum Numbers
an electron of an atom can be completely described by 4 numbers: n, l, ml, ms, increasingly specific
Hydrogen Bonds
an unusually strong d-d interaction; can occur inter- or intra-molecularly occurs when hydrogen (𝛿+) is BONDED to 1 of 3 highly EN atoms (𝛿-): nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine H has very little electron density and acts as a + proton (VERY positive), and N, O, F are VERY negative; then H (𝛿+) and N, O, F (𝛿-) on nearby molecules can strongly d-d interact in a "hydrogen bond" MOSTLY INTERMOLECULARLY (BETWEEN DIFFERENT MOLECULES)
When do homologous chromosomes separate to go to different gametes?
anaphase I of meiosis (reductional division)
In ALL electrochemical cells, electrons move from __________ to _______________ (anode/cathode)
anode (-) to cathode (+)
Lead-Acid Battery: discharging
anode attracts the anion HSO4- which comes and oxidizes Pb to PbSO4 + 2e-, and the porous PbO2 cathode has H2SO4 leak and solvate it into Pb+ and O- anion, H+ reacts with O- to form water, and Pb + Sulfate form
Pairs of muscles often work _____________ to each other; e.g.....
antagonistically; e.g., bicep vs triceps: one contracts, but the other must relax
Lymphocytes, in general, are responsible for...
antibody production, immune system modulation, and targeting infected cells
At the tips of the Y on an antibody, we find the ___________ and ___________
antigen-binding region & Variable Region/Domain
Lymphatic Systems: housing immunity
antigen-presenting cells show antigens to B-cells, activating them (proliferate, mature) in "Germinal Centres" of the lymph node
ABO Antigens
antigens on blood; A (IA allele) and B (IB allele) are codominant and O (i allele) means there's no antigen and this is recessive; basic mendelian genetics
NKs, macrophages, monocytes, eosinophils all contain receptors for ________________, which allow them to follow _________________ bacteria
antigens; opsonized
The __________________ and __________________ of the stomach contain mostly pyloric glands
antrum and pylorus
Law of Constant Composition (Chem)
any pure sample of a given compound contains the same elements in identical mass ratio e.g., in H2O, 2 hydrogen : 1 oxygen & 1g H : 8g O
How can you decompose a molecule?
apply heating, high-frequency radiation (e.g., silver chloride in light), or electrolysis
Both the axial and appendicular skeletons____________
are COVERED by other material (muscle, connective tissue, vasculature)
Although a lot of muscle pairs are antagonistic, some...
are SYNERGETIC and the pair works together to do something
3 Major vasculatures of the body
arteries, veins, capillaries; differ in size
____________ can contract to reduce the amount of blood reaching a capillary bed
arterioles
Myoglobin (as a muscle energy reserve)
as O2 runs out in cells, myoglobin reserves store O2 and can keep aerobic respiration going
As energy (temperature) increases, the number of microstates matter exists in ______________ (thermochem)
as energy (temperature) increases, the number of microstates matter exists in increases i.e. molecules of solid will gain E, gain microstates and move freely - i.e. move around more!
What is the energy trend of subshells (l)?
as subshell increases (e.g., l = 0 to l = 3, s to f) energy increases; BUT some overlap and do out of order ACCORDING TO THE PERIODIC TABLE... e.g., 3d > 4s energy
Which has more entropy: gases or solids?
as you go towards solid it's less entropic (less disordered energy), but as you move to gas it's more
Serial Ionization Energies Trend
as you remove electrons, the species becomes more positive, so each subsequent ionization of an electron takes more and more energy; e.g. Mg's 1st and 2nd = 700 and 1400 The plateaus in the data correspond to the transition metals and the inner transition metals. The exceptions to the trend or the small dips correspond to half-filled and fully-filled orbitals. Between Li and Ne, there are two dips which correspond to B and O.
Failure of the epiglottis leads to...
aspiration, aka choking
In general, innate immune cells are located...
at ENTRY POINTS into the body, always at the ready
London Dispersion Forces
at any given moment (even in non-polar molecules), electron density can be momentarily uneven in a molecule, creating rapid polarization-depolarize and a brief dipole moment the brief dipoles attract or repel electrons in a neighboring molecule, inducing a brief dipole in it (temporary positive & negative dipoles), and domino effects; only effective in close proximity of molecules
Charles's Law (Gas)? what are the variables? what is constant?
at constant P & n (isobaric) the V of gas is proportional to T: V/T = k V1/T1 = V2/T2
Boyle's Law (Gas)? what are the variables? what is constant?
at constant T & n (isothermal), volume of the gas is inverse to pressure: PV = k; P1V1 = P2V2
How hemoglobin binds oxygen
at the central iron atom (it can undergo changes in oxidation state; oxidation-reduction reaction)
Where are the AV nodes?
at the junction between atria and ventricles
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
atmospheric pressure remains the same, temperature measured as reaction progresses, insulated so no heat is lost and math skewed (e.g., coffee cup/Styrofoam); TEMPERATURE CHANGE OF CONTENTS MEASURED
The Octet Rule
atoms bond with other atoms in a way that somehow gets it 8 valence electrons (noble gas configuration); however, there are exceptions
Stable Octets
atoms gain or lose electrons to gain noble (inert) gas configurations (aka Group VIIIA or 18) with 8ve; "Octet Rule" (although there are exceptions) Elements tend to be most stable with 8 electrons in their valence shell
Oxidation state by periodic table groups?
atoms in the same group form ions of the same charge Unless exceptions say otherwise
Oxidation state of alkali metals? alkali earth metals?
atoms in the same group form ions of the same charge e.g., alkali metals = +1
Isotopes
atoms with same atomic number but different number of neutrons (and thus weight)
Atria-to-Ventricle Blood Flow
atria will contract to send blood they receive to ventricle; ventricles will fill and contract
Each side of the heart has an ________ and a _________
atrium (atria) and ventricle
Inheritance pattern of the Rh factor
autosomal DOMINANT
Cartilage
avascular and non-innervated firm-elastic matrix of 'Chondrin' secreted from Chondrocytes; softer/more flexible than bone Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components.
The 5 types of infectious pathogens
bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites (protozoa, worms, insects), & prions
The small & large intestines are home to many __________________, most of which are __________________
bacteria; anaerobic
Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldridge & Gould)
based on the fossil record, species undergo little evolution occur long periods of time, and then EXPLOSIONS of evolution (non-uniformly)
Why is passive immunization transient?
because it's just the transfer of antibodies to an individual; person is not able to produce the antibodies themselves
Why is the anode in electrochemical/galvanic cells designated as the 'NEGATIVE' place where oxidation occurs?
because oxidation releases electrons, making it negative
Why are Rh antibodies from the mother a risk to an Rh+ fetus, but not a mismatch of ABO antigens?
because the ABO antigens are IgM, which do not cross the placenta barrier
Why are solid ionic compounds bad conductors of electricity?
because the charged particles are held in place by the lattice
Once a reaction begins, why do standard state conditions (1M, 25C, etc.) not apply? (gibbs free energy)
because the concentrations will definitely change! NO LONGER 1M THUS this equation is used: ∆Grxn = ∆G⁰rxn + RTlnQ = RTln(Q/Keq)
Why do isotopes exhibit the same chemical properties as the others of their species?
because their p and e- numbers are still the same= the chemical definers
Why can many hybrid species not reproduce?
because they have an odd number of chromosomes that do not pair properly and thus do not form gametes (e.g., 64 chromo horse + 62 chromo donkey; 32 + 31 from each gamete = 63)
Why are sex-linked recessive disorders more common in males?
because they're hemizygous and only need 1 copy
Why must a chemical equation be balanced?
because this represents the laws of conservations of MASS and CHARGE mass reactants = mass products
Lead-Acid Battery: charging
becomes part of electrolytic circuit; the cathode and anode designation reverse, and the H2SO4 concentrates
Between what kind of atoms do ionic bonds form?
between those with very different electronegativities AND low IE + high EA; e.g., metal + non-metal
The most important job (for the digestive system) of the liver is the production of __________________
bile
Bilirubin (pigment from hemoglobin that's in bile) will increase in the blood if the __________________ duct is blocked, the __________________ cells lyse, or the __________________ fails; this is because...
bile duct; RBCs lyse; liver fails; ultimately, it cannot make its way into the stomach otherwise, all 3 of these things prevent it from making it there
Hepatic Portal System
blood goes capillaries of gut → hepatic portal vein → liver capillaries; "portal system" = blood passes through 2 capillary beds before returning to the heart (instead of usual 1)
Hypophyseal Portal System
blood goes capillaries of hypothalamus → capillaries of anterior pituitary (paracrine release!); "portal system" = blood passes through 2 capillary beds before returning to the heart (instead of usual 1)
Renal Portal System
blood goes glomerulus → efferent arteriole → nephron of vasa recta; "portal system" = blood passes through 2 capillary beds before returning to the heart (instead of usual 1)
Excretory System: Osmoregulation
blood osmolarity is maintained at 290 milliosmoles (mOsm/L); the kidneys will reabsorb water and excrete solutes if it's too high, and the opposite if it's low
Blood Pressure importance
blood pressure must be kept high enough for the blood to serve its function and move around; hypertension = too high = damages vessels;
Functions of the excretory system (4)
blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, removing nitrogenous waste (kidneys!)
Blood circulation through body (full thing, including valves, starting in right atrium)
blood returns from body to right atrium (vena cavae) deoxygenated → through tricuspid → right ventricle pushes blood → pulmonary valve → pulmonary arteries to lungs (capillaries of alveoli) → oxygenated blood returns in pulmonary veins to left atrium → bicuspid valve → oxygenated blood pumped to the systemic circuit via left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta → body → BACK!
Why do we not have to think about platelet antigens when transfusing blood?
blood we transfuse has no platelets, it's packed red blood
What composes the blood we transfuse? What does this imply?
blood we transfuse is packed red blood cells; IT HAS NO PLATELETS, thus we do not have to account for their antigens
2 substances that make up the skeleton
bone and cartilage
Lacunae
bone lacuna a small cavity within the bone matrix, containing an osteocyte, and from which slender canaliculi radiate and penetrate the adjacent lamellae to anastomose with the canaliculi of neighboring lacunae, thus forming a system of cavities interconnected by minute canals. exchange nutrients/waste between Volkmann & Haversian canal
The _________________ produces leukocytes (WBCs) through a process call ___________
bone marrow; hematopoiesis
Long Bone Components (external)? external layer?
bones covered in periosteum; made up w/ cylindrical shafts 'Diaphyses' that swell at each end as 'Metaphyses', and terminate in 'Epiphyses' this is what most Appendicular bones are; outside = compact, inside = spongy; bone marrow inside the dia/metaphyses; epiphyses spongy-ness distributes force at the joints
Cardiovascular System + Respiratory System & both relation to pH
both related to pH!: if you hyperventilate, you blow off excess CO2, therefore decreasing protons in blood, raising pH (alkalosis), and the kidney can return bicarbonate to blood to restore
Balancing redox reactions Ex: Write the balanced equation for: Cl2 -> ClO3- in a basic solution
both the NUMBER OF ATOMS and the NET CHARGE on either side must be the same; usually you write out the oxidation & reduction HALF-REACTIONS, balance then, and combine them write out the 2 half-reactions, balance atoms except O and H, if it's acidic add H2O and H+ to balance those, if basic use H2O and OH-, straight-up ADD ELECTRONS to balance charge, MULTIPLY SO BOTH HALF REACTIONS GIVE/USE THE SAME NUMBER OF ELECTRONS, add both reactions together into the final thing, with no electrons appearing; confirm that atoms/charges are balanced on either side
Are bacteria intra or extracellular pathogens?
both!
Arterioles
branches of the arteries; lead to capillaries throughout tissue
Outbreeding/Outcrossing
breeding with non-relative; increases variation in a gene pool + fitness
Non-metal Physical Properties:
brittle when solid, no luster: all due to inability to give up electrons
To determine the mass & density of a gas, we fill a ________________ with the gas, then measure the total ________________, then ________________ it and measure the ________________, finally subtracting to find the mass of the gas
bulb; mass; evacuate the gas; measure the mass of the bulb alone... subtract m(bulb+gas) - m(bulb) = m(gas); then use the volume of the bulb to get the density
How is the composition of a fluid usually studied?
by centrifuging it (spin at a rapid rate) that forces the parts apart by density
Nernst Equation
calculates Ecell under NON-STANDARD conditions (the voltage can be higher/lower); Ecell = E˚cell - RT/nF • lnQ = 0.0593/n logQ The second equation is used assuming standard conditions where T = 298K where Q is the reaction quotient for the entire redox reaction for the electrochemical cell; Q you need to take from the full O-R equation
Gibbs Free Energy Diagrams: endergonic or exergonic
can be endergonic or exergonic, which are non-spontaneous and spontaneous, respectively
During hypermutation of their antibodies, the only B-cells that can live are those that_________________which is called ____________ _____________
can bind with high affinity to the antigen; Clonal Selection
Open System (thermochem)
can exchange energy and matter with surroundings (e.g., boiling water)
Stretch ability of veins
can stretch, but not a lot
Closed System (thermochem)
cannot exchange matter with surrounding, but only energy (e.g., radiator)
__________________ and __________________ have their digestion initiated in the mouth
carbs & lipids
The pancreas produces 3 types of enzymes: ones that digest __________________, __________________, and __________________
carbs, lipids, proteins
Oxygen Transport in blood
carried by hemoglobin; 4 cooperative subunits each with prosthetic heme groups to bind to an O2 at the central iron atom (it can undergo changes in oxidation state; oxidation-reduction reaction)
In ALL SYSTEMS (all electrochemical cells etc.), cations flow to the ________ and anions flow to the ________
cathode; anode
Atrial Systole
causes Atrial Kick that is 5-30% of each cardiac output Atrial systole occurs toward the end of ventricular diastole, completing the filling of the ventricles. In an ECG, atrial systole is associated with atrial depolarization, or the P wave deflection
3 parts of the large intestine from small intestine to anus:
cecum, colon, rectum
The __________________, unlike most of the digestive system, is home to __________________ bacteria
cecum; aerobic
Osteoblasts
cell that builds bone
Cytotoxic Immunity
cell-mediated immunity by the T-cells, killing already-infected cells
T-cells carry out ____________-mediated immunity, whereas B-cells carry out ____________ immunity
cell-mediated; humoral
The T-cells mount the _______________ adaptive response, whereas B-cells mount the _______________ adaptive response
cell-mediated; humoral
Melanocytes? location in skin?
cells of the stratum basale (epidermis) that produce MELANIN (the pigment that protects skin from DNA damage from UV) produced by melanocytes and sent to keratinocytes
Nonsense (Point) Mutation
change in AA to STOP codon
Missense (Point) Mutation
change in nucleotide changes AA
Things catalysts DON'T DO
change non-spontaneous to spontaneous, just speed up rxns
Le Châtelier's Principle: Changes in T
changes Keq itself, thus Q ≠ Keq and the reaction shifts direction sent depends on ENTHALPY OF REACTION, and system will move in the direction to counteract the change in temperature according to what side adjusts the T; it is a good idea to put energy IN THE REACTION as a "species" (e.g., exothermic, energy released on the right, if T is increased, reaction will want to decrease energy, and will shift left)
Evolution
changes in allele frequencies of the gene pool
Canaliculi
channels between Lacunae in the bony matrix that exchange nutrients/waste between Volkmann & Haversian canals and osteocytes
Law of Conservation of Charge
charge can never be created nor destroyed; just passed along (e.g., redox)
Mastication
chewing
Bile salts are derived from...
cholesterol
Once inside intestinal cells, triglycerides, and esterified cholesterol are repackaged into __________________, and then enter the __________________.
chylomicrons, lacteal/lymphatic circulation
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by intestinal cells and dissolve into __________________ (with other __________________!)
chylomicrons; other fats
Sphincters
circular smooth muscles throughout the alimentary
The middle third of the large intestine is the __________________, which itself is split into 4 parts: __________________, __________________, __________________, and __________________ colons
colon; ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
common deleterious mutation type defects in genes used for metabolism that can cause dangerous build-ups of metabolites & require early intervention (e.g., PKU, phenylalanine hydrolase defective and phenylalanine will toxically accumulate and cause seizures etc.; need to discover EARLY to get it out of diet and pills to metabolize)
Bile
complex fluid of bile salts (derived from cholesterol), pigment and cholesterol
Yellow Bone Marrow
composed mostly fat & inactive
In the intestinal capillaries, since fresh blood is always carrying carb-y/amino acid-y blood away, this creates a __________________ __________________ (blood has a __________________ concentration of these substances) so that the substances simply diffuse from the __________________ into the __________________
concentration gradient; low; intestinal epithelial cells, intestinal capillaries
The ultimate thing controlling diffusion/nutrient/everything exchange at capillaries:
concentration gradients; this is how the nutrients and waste get in/out, they go to where there least of them is
Lamellae
concentric circles of Bony Matrix (within the osteons: subunit of bony matrix)
Is atomic weight constant or variable?
constant Takes into account all isotopes
A coffee-cup calorimeter is a ___________ calorimeter
constant-pressure
A Bomb calorimeter is a ____________ calorimeter
constant-volume
In a person with low parasympathetic activity, are we likely to see diarrhea or constipation? Why?
constipation; the whole digestive system is slowed so they're not pooping
Eosinophils
contain bright red-orange granules; primarily involved in allergic reactions: release histamine (inflammatory mediator) that vasodilates/increases leakiness of blood vessels to pour immune cells in
Salt Bridge (electrochemical cells)? what compounds does it contain?
contain inert salts of KCl/NH4NO3: these ions do not react with the anode/cathode solutions; as electrons flow in the cell, the cation in the bridge flows to balance the negative charge flowing into the cathode (Cu2+ to Cu reduction), and the anion flows to balance the positive charge building as oxidation happens to the metal into the anode (Zn to Zn2+); the ions precipitate onto the cathode/anode!
Basophils
contain large purple granules; involved in allergic reactions; least populous leukocyte in blood; very similar to mast cells, which have smaller granules and exists in tissue (mucosa, epithelia), not blood; both release histamine
Collagen role in clotting
contains Tissue Factor protein, when platelets come into contact with it because the connective tissue is now expose, they realize tissue is damaged
Between the 3 categories of muscle, all share the ability to ___________ using ___________ ions, all muscle has ___________ input
contract; calcium; nerve
Steps in stoichiometric problems
convert everything to moles, use moles to find the quantity of whatever you need, convert back to moles
Major arteries (4) & their function
coronary, carotid, subclavian, renal: they DISTRIBUTE BLOOD FROM THE AORTA in their own directions to peripheral tissue
The part of the kidney with the lowest concentrations of solutes is the...
cortex
2 parts of the kidney
cortex (outside) and medulla (inside)
Hershey & Chase's Confirmation of DNA as the genetic material for viruses (Bacteriophages)
created bacteriophages with 1) radiolabelled protein (sulfur) but not DNA, and 2) radiolabeled DNA (phosphorus) but not protein; infected non-labelled bacteria, and when centrifuged, none of the bacteria had radiolabelled protein inside (it remains outside), only DNA which builds viruses!
Hydroxyapatite Crystals? forms what?
crystals made from Ca, PO43-, OH- (& later stores Na+, Mg2+, K+) that hardens; this joins organic material of the bone matrix to make compact bone
Memory T-cells are derived during the production of _______________ T-cells
cytotoxic
What orbital shapes are not needed to be known for the MCAT?
d and f; they are complex
As T increases, Ksp of a dissolved gas ___________, and as P increases, it ___________
decreases; increases
The skin produces ____________, antimicrobial enzymes that act as a first line of defense
defensins
The low pH of the stomach __________________ proteins (food) , and breaks __________________ bonds
denatures; intramolecular
Ligaments
dense connective tissue that connects BONE TO BONE @ JOINTS
Tendons
dense connective tissue that connects MUSCLE TO BONE
Metalloid Physical Properties: Density Melting point Boiling point Conduction of heat
density, MP, BP range WIDELY and can be both metal and non-metal like, good semiconductors because partially conductive to heat and elec. (e.g. element Si is Si lustrous but poor conductor)
Cycle of blood through body (sides)
deoxygenated blood returns from body on right, right side pumps to lungs, left side returns oxygenated blood to heart, left side pump oxygenated blood to body
Genetic Maps (how to draw)? unit?
depict relative distance between genes using unit Map Unit or Centimorgan (cM), that unit is = recombination frequency of the genes
Punnett Squares
diagrams to determine genotype (& phenotype) frequencies of offspring; list all possible gametes as their own column/row along the top and side (top = 1 parent, side = another)
Resonance Structures
different Lewis structures arranging electrons differently for a molecule; drawn with double-headed arrow b/t and the formal charges written on the atoms; the actual electron distribution and bond strengths are a weighted hybrid of all possible resonance structures
Plasma Cells
differentiated B-cells that produces lots of antibodies once that progenitor B-cell is activated
Short-chain fatty acids will __________________ into intestinal capillaries because they're...
diffuse; non-polar (easily pass membrane out)
Graham's Law of Diffusion-Effusion (Kinetic Molecular Theory)? effusion?
diffusion is the movement of molecules from high to low conc'n, WITH HEAVIER GAS MOLECULES DOING IT MORE SLOWLY DUE TO HIGHER MOLECULAR WEIGHT at the same Ek (u(rms) = √(3RT/M) & effusion is the flow of gas under pressure from one compartment to another via a small opening, and if 2 gases are at same T, the rate is proportional to average speed
Isomaltase
digest isomaltose to 2 sugars
The digestive system has 2 specialized sections each with a function: 1) __________________ or 2) __________________
digestion, absorption
Maltase
digests maltose to 2 glucose
Sucrase
digests sucrose into glucose and fructose
As you add solute to a solution, thermodynamics dictates the rate of dissolution is high when solution is ___________; the rate decreases as you approach the ___________ point; the rate of ___________ follows the opposite trend, increasing as the solution saturates; at the saturation points, the 2 rates are ___________
dilute; saturation point; precipitation; EQUAL (equilibrium reached)
Strong Acid/Base Definition
dissociate completely in aqueous e.g., 1M NaOH produces 1M Na and 1M OH, SINGLE-DIRECTION ARROW!; we assume any OH from autoionization of water is negligible and don't calculate with it if this substance gives MORE than 10^(-7), but if it's close then we'd need to calculate with it
Patterns of Evolution (3)
divergent, parallel, convergent
IUPAC Periodic Table
does not use Roman Numerals and Letters, only numbers the groups 1-18
Orbital Diagrams
draw 'blanks' ___ with arrows within representing electrons, left to right in order of filling (energy) OR in order of the alpha-numeric subshell (both are correct)
Lewis Structure (/dot-diagram)
draw covalent bonds of atoms to visualize bonded and non-bonded electrons of atoms/electrons; list the symbol(s) and draw dotted s and p electrons; bonds drawn as straight lines
How to determine which molecule (in a list) has the largest dipole moment
draw the VSEPR structure and add up the dipole vectors e.g., HCN has a large dipole moment that H2O because when you add the vectors, its dipole moment is longer!
Monatomic anion naming system: H-, F-, O2-, S2-, N3-, P3-
drop the ending and add -ide when it gains electrons Ex: H- = hydride F- = fluoride O2- = Oxide S2- = Sulfide N3- = Nitride P3- = Phosphide
The pancreatic juices are released into the duodenum via a __________________ system that runs through the __________________ of the pancreas
duct system; middle
All exocrine cells secrete their products into __________________
ducts
P orbital shape
dumbbells; on the x y and z axes
The 3 segments (from stomach to large intestine) of the small intestine are: the __________________, the __________________, and the __________________
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Enteropeptidase, release by the __________________, is the 'on-off' switch for __________________ from the pancreas; this enzyme can then...
duodenum; trypsin (cut from trypsinogen); it then activates OTHER 4 pancreatic peptidases
Although WBC count is low, when can they increase?
during infection
Exact charge of a proton
e = 1.6*10^(-19) C; aka +1e or +1
Heating Curves & how changing states works
e.g., you heat up a compound according to q = mc∆T until it reaches the phase change temp, then IT STOPS CHANGING T although HEAT IS ADDED to overcome intermolecular forces (not increase kinetic energy) until all of the solid form is gone, then heat increase T again; the phase-change energy is Heat of Fusion/Vaporization This can be found by the equation: q = mL
From the list of ionization energies, how do you conclude the identity/location of an element?
each subsequent loss of an electron costs more energy, but if it costs MUCH more, then that means you're taking it our of a stable octet... e.g., Mg: 1st = 700, 2nd = 1400, 3rd = 8000 (it was stable after 2 loses!); you could conclude this was a group 2 element
Oxygen Saturation
easy way to measure O2 in blood (finger prick); the percent of hemoglobin bound to O2; healthy = >97%
A negative E˚cell indicates a _________ cell (galvanic/electrolytic)
electrolytic cell; non spontaneous; O-R is occurring in the OPPOSITE direction of reduction potentials as it would naturally
What does an electron energy of 0 mean?
electron is separated from nucleus, no attraction
Covalent Bonding
electron pairs are shared between 2 atoms to achieve 8 electrons each usually non-metals of similar electronegativity
Which periodic trend determines whether a bond is polar or non-polar?
electronegativity
Synovial Capsule
enclose the movable joint cavity (articular cavity); filled with fluid for lubrication
How does CO2 become bicarbonate to transport in blood?
encounters Carbonic Anhydrase in RBCs, combines CO2 + H2O to H2CO3 (carbonic acid), and this weak acid dissociates to bicarbonate; this REVERSE in the lungs
2 functions of the pancreas:
endocrine (hormones) and exocrine (digestion)
The accessory organs of digestion all originate as outgrowths of the __________________
endoderm
Process of forming a clot
endothelium of blood vessel damaged, exposed to underlying connective tissue → collagen of connective tissue contains Tissue Factor protein → when platelets come into contact with it, they realize tissue is damaged → Platelets aggregate → the platelet-matrix attachment activate Quiescent Integrin 𝛼IIb𝛽3 that allows adhering to proteins (like fibrin) → Coagulation Factors from the liver also activate complex cascade (beyond MCAT) → Last step, Prothrombin activated to Thrombin (via thromboplastin) → Thrombin converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin → fibrin forms weave like a net to catch RBCs and platelets, stabilizing the clot → scab is the surface of the clot → clot borken down later via Plasmin
When the new solute-solvent IMF are weaker than the old solute-solute in solvation, the process is___________________ (endo/exothermic) and favored at __________ temp
endothermic & favoured at high T; note this means heat must be applied to make it happen
First Ionization Energy? Second Ionization Energy?
energy required to remove the 1st electron energy required to remove the 2nd electron... this naming trend continues
Second Law of Thermodynamics
energy spontaneously disperses from localized to spread out if it is not stopped from doing so; ENTROPY LIKES TO INCREASE; ΔS(universe) = ΔS(system) + ΔS(surroundings) > 0
The intestinal enzyme __________________ activates __________________ to its active form __________________, and __________________ _________/_________ to their active forms
enteropeptidase; trypsinogen; trypsin; procarboxypeptidases A/B
Standard Enthalpy (∆H⁰)
enthalpy change when a reaction occurs under "standard conditions"; "zero point"
In terms of temperature/enthalpy, _____________ depends on the amount of substance, whereas ______________ does not
enthalpy does, temperature does not
Is enthalpy a process or state function? Is heat?
enthalpy is, heat is not
Standard Entropy (∆S⁰)
entropy change when a reaction occurs under "standard conditions" "zero point"
The stomach uses __________________ and __________________ to digest food
enzymes & HCl(aq)
Brush-Border Enzymes
enzymes present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum; breakdown dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers
Disaccharidases
enzymes that break down 2-unit sugars to one (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, sucrose)
Peptidases
enzymes that break down peptides (e.g., dipeptidase)
Bile salts are not __________________ and thus do not perform __________________ digestion, but they are important for __________________ digestion, especially for __________________
enzymes, chemical digestion, mechanical digestion, fats
___________ contain red-orange granules, whereas ___________ contain purple ones
eosinophils; basophils
_____________ are leukocytes that release granules of histamine in an allergic reactions, which causes _____________ (vasodilation, leakiness of blood vessels) in order to_____________
eosinophils; inflammation; increase the number of immune cells in the area
Kp (chemical equilibrium)? Kc?
equilibrium constant for gases w/ pressures; aka Keq Since normal Keq is based on concentrations and is also called Kc **NOTICE IN PIC HOW THE EQUATION IS USED WHEN EVERY SUBSTANCE IS A GAS (G)
Gas-Solid Equilibrium: what processes occur here?
equilibrium of sublimation & deposition
Titration: Strong Acid w/ Strong Base curve? pH?
equivalence point @ pH = 7 (midpoint of curve);
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
estimates pH OR pOH of a buffer system pH = pKa + log(A-/HA) or pOH = pKb + log (B+/BOH) for bases when [A-] = [HA], the log = 0, then the pH = pKa or [B+] = [BOH] then pOH = pKb EQUIVALENCE POINT; rearrangement of Ka or Kb
Divergent Evolution
evolution of dissimilarities (2 new species) from a common ancestor; e.g., cats and seals
What is 1 amu defined as?
exactly 1/12 of the weight of a carbon-12 atom; 1.66x10^(-24)g; aka 1 amu is approximately the weight of a proton or neutron
Exact charge of an electron
exactly OPPOSITE of a proton; -1e or -e
Edema
excessive fluid in interstitium (outside blood vessels); means Starling Forces (the balances of hydrostatic (water out) vs osmotic pressure (water in) in blood) is off and hydrostatic pressure is pushing too much fluid out of blood vessels OR lymph nodes are not absorbing interstitial fluid
At the END of the nephron, anything that has not been reabsorbed is ______________
excreted
The liver detoxifies both __________________ compounds & __________________ ones, those definitions mean...
exogenous (made outside the body) & endogenous (made inside our body)
The 2 types of skeleton
exoskeleton and endoskeleton
When the new solute-solvent IMF are stronger than the old solute-solute in solvation, the process is________________ (endo/exothermic) and is favored at a _________________ temp
exothermic & favoured at low T
Solvation of gases into liquids is a ______________ (endo/exothermic) process because_________________
exothermic; you only need to break water's IMF; not much energy needed; favoured in low T
Kinetic Molecular Theory
explains the behaviour of gases (doesn't just describe it) & explains how real gases deviate from the ideal gas law, and how to correct it in calculation: all based on the motion of individual molecules
Melanocytes increase activity in response to...
exposure to sun (to protect you!)
Inflammation works best against (intra/extracellular) parasites
extracellular
What other subshells (other than d) can promote electrons for stability? Which can't?
f can! P WILL NEVER DO THIS; stability outweighing the cost of moving the electron is not there
Lower Limb Bones (6)
femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Red Bone Marrow
filled with hematopoietic stem cells that regenerate our blood
Cecum
first 1/3 of the large intestine; outpocket that takes fluid from the small intestine through ileocecal valve; appendix is attached to it
What change in T doubles reaction rate in biological systems?
for biological systems, an increase of 10˚C doubles reaction rate, but if T is too high, catalyst/enzyme denatures
What makes metals good conductors?
for conductivity to occur the substances must posses electrons that are free to move; metals contain delocalized electrons and are excellent conductors AKA: Because the valence electrons of all metals are loosely held to their atoms, they are free to move around and thus good conductors of heat and electricity
Blood pressure measure
force per unit area on the wall of the blood vessels; measured via Sphygmomanometer gauge pressure in the systemic circuit
Difference between formal charge and oxidation number
formal charge is an underestimate of the effect of electronegativity differences VS oxidation overestimates the effect of electronegativity differences (assuming the more electronegative atoms have 100% share of electrons) the actual sharing of electrons is BETWEEN THESE EXTREMES
Intramembranous Ossification
formation of bone via undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue ('Mesenchymal Tissue') that is transformed into bone; OCCURS IN THE SKULL
Fibrin role in clotting
forms weave like a net to catch RBCs and platelets, stabilizing the clot
If Q < Keq, then the reaction is moving ________________ and the sign of Ecell is...
forward; positive
Neutrons
found in the nucleus of the atom; 0 charge (neutral); n-/1,0n symbol
Mole Fraction-Partial Pressure relation in a gas mixture
fraction & pp DIRECTLY related Pa = XaPt (multiply the total pressure by the mol fraction of the gas, and it's perfectly proportional to the partial pressure!)
Standard Free Energy Change (∆G⁰)
free energy change when a reaction occurs under "standard conditions" "zero point"
ml value range
from -l to +l including 0
Combustion Reactions
fuel (hydrocarbon) + oxidant (oxygen) → CO2 + H2O; can also use sulfurous stuff/sugar as fuel AND can have other things on top of CO2 and H2O CO2 and H2O ALWAYS MADE
The __________________ and the __________________ of the stomach contain mostly gastric glands
fundus, body
Pyloric Glands
glands that contain G-Cells which secrete Gastrin, a peptide hormones
Most commonly, our kidneys reabsorb... (3)
glucose, amino acids, and vitamins that were secreted into the nephron
The liver can release __________________ from glycogen via __________________ or __________________; it can also release fats as __________________
glucose; glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis; lipoproteins
The liver takes excess sugar and creates __________________, fats and creates __________________
glycogen, triglycerides
What is the energy source for a RBC?
glycolysis w/ lactic acid, as they have no mito!
What is electron energy analogous to on earth?
gravitational potential energy, except is has discrete stairs you can exist on
Active Metals (where on periodic table)? how well do they bond with others?
groups 1 and 2; they have low ionization energies and few electrons to lose for octet, so they can react really e z with things and are never found in elemental form (ionic compounds, minerals, ores)
Antibiotics can also reduce ____________________, which causes a problem because...
gut bacteria; problematic as it allows pathogenic bacteria to compete
Planck's Constant
h = 6.626x10^(-34)Js
What value determines the stability and abundance of different isotopes of an atom?
half-life; the longer it is, the more stable, and the longer it is for certain isotopes, the more abundant they are
Group with highest electron affinity
halogens; all they need is 1 electron to be stable
Most of the bones in the body originally come from...
hardening cartilage INTO bone via Endochondral Ossification
According to Graham's Law of Diffusion-Effusion, _________________(heavy/light) gas particles diffuse/effuse more slowly. Because we know that the _________________ for gases at the same T are the same, thus according to equation _________________, speed must be slower for it to be possible
heaver particles we know Ek (kinetic energy) is the same for all gases @ at T equation u(rms) = √(3RT/M)
Th2 Cells? triggered by presence of? activates what?
helps activate B-cells, usually when a parasite has infected
The granulocytes and agranulocytes both come from a common blood cell precursor called...
hematopoietic stem cells
Incomplete Dominance
heterozygote expressed MIXED version of 2 genes (e.g., red flower x white flower = pink flower)
Oxyhemoglobin Binding Curve & 2,3-BPG
high 2,3-BPG = decreased affinity for O2
Properties of ionic compounds
high MP and BP (strong electrostatic attraction), dissolve in polar solvents, conduct electricity when molten or aqueous, form crystalline lattice when solid
Properties of polar species w/ dipole-dipole interactions
high MP, BP (compared to similar weight species)
Which P and T values favor condensation?
high P, low T
In general, solids exist at ______ P and _______ T
high and low
'Concentrated' solution
high-ish [C] of solute compared to solvent
How much free energy is added in reaction control for the thermodynamic product?
higher free energy (e.g., if you need to overcome a lot of steric hindrance or something)
Stomach
highly muscular organ with a 2L capacity
Solutions (chem)
homogeneous mixtures of 2+ substances in 1 phase (usually liquid); the solutes swims around and intermolecularly interacts note this can also be gases in liquids, liquids in liquids, or solids in solids (alloys)
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
hormone from specialized atrial cells that causes loss of salt in the nephron, thus water follows, thus lowers blood pressure
Thrombopoietin
hormone secreted by the liver/kidney that stimulates mainly platelet development
Erythropoietin
hormones secreted by the kidney that stimulates mainly RBC development
What can trigger hematopoiesis (production of blood cells and platelets)?
hormones, growth factors, cytokines
What determines how strong London Dispersion Forces are? how does this relate to molecule size?
how EASILY the molecule can be polarized (shift electrons) Large molecules are more easily polarizable than smaller molecules. Thus have greater dispersion forces
What determines the different bonding behaviour/properties of ionic compounds?
how different their electronegativities are; ΔEN = 1.7 vs 2.3 vs 3.1 etc. the more different, the stronger their electrostatic attraction is
Upper Limb Bones (6)
humerus, radius ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
Acid/base nomenclature: anions Ex: HF HCl HBr
hydro__________ic acid; e.g., hydrofluoric acid
The 7 strong acids
hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, sulfuric, nitric, perchloric, chloric
Which atoms are terminal (on the sides) in Lewis Structures?
hydrogen (always) and halogens (always) are terminal
Element that breaches the "metal = cations, non-metals = anions" rule
hydrogen; can be a proton (H+) or hydride (H-) and is a non-metal
Salivary Lipase
hydrolyzes lipids
Salivary Amylase
hydrolyzes starch into small sugars (maltose & dextrins)
Bile salts have a __________________ and __________________ region; they __________________ fats and cholesterol into __________________ of the bile salts, much like __________________
hydrophobic, hydrophilic, emulsify, micelles, soap
What is larger at the capillaries, hydrostatic or osmotic pressure?
hydrostatic; this means that more fluid is pushed out (osmotic pulls fluid in); net water out, hydrostatic pressure drops, osmotic pressure stays the same
Isothermal Process P-V Graph? equation?
hyperbolic P-V graph, W under the curve TEMP IS CONSTANT
As opposed to the innate immune system, the adaptive system can...
identify SPECIFIC invaders and respond specifically to them
Hardy-Weinberg Principle (5 criteria)? meaning?
if 5 criteria are met: 1) the population is large (no drift), 2) there is no mutation rate, 3) mating is completely random (no sexual selection), 4) there is no migration in/out, 5) genes are all equally successful in reproduction (NO EVOLUTION AT ALL) THEN AND ONLY THEN p^2 + 2pq + q^ = 1 AND p + q = 1 (i.e. frequency of both alleles must be 100%) where p is the frequency of the dominant allele, and q the recessive, p^2 is the frequency of homozygous dom, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygous, and q^2 is the frequency of homo recc, and p^2 + 2pq is the frequency OF THE DOMINANT PHENOTYPE
What is an easy rule for tetrahedral molecule polarity cancelling each other?
if the 4 substituents are the same, the vectors cancel and the molecule is non-polar (CCl4, CH4)
Le Châtelier's Principle: H2O
if you remove H2O(l), the reaction shifts in that direction
The __________________ valve takes __________________ from the small intestine to the large intestine's __________________
ileocecal valve; fluid; cecum
Dendritic Cells
immune cells in the skin that are activated by MHC II action
Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT) & the 4 types
immune tissue near the digestive system that protect it from pathogens: 1) Tonsils 2) Adenoids 3) Peyer's Patch (small intestine) 4) Appendix
If the moles of gas decrease across a reaction from reactants to products, does entropy increase or decrease? Ex: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
in a chemical reaction, e.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g), since the number of mols of gas decreases, entropy decreases - system is more ordered
Density of gas from ideal gas law? units?
in g/L, 𝜌 = PM/RT = m/V M is the molar mass
Juxtaglomerular Cells
in kidney; senses low blood pressure, activates renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and aldosterone causes salt (and thus water) to reabsorb from nephron
Excretory System: Blood Pressure Regulation? 2 hormones?
in response to aldosterone & ADH, it will adjust the permeability of the d. c. tubule & collecting duct in order to absorb more water (aldosterone = maintains osmolarity = d.c. tubule & collecting duct open up to SALT and thus water) (ADH = constantly regulates and balances the amount of water in your blood by increasing WATER permeability)
Formal Charge vs Stability of a resonance structure (3)
in terms of STABILITY: LEAST FORMAL CHARGES small formal charges > large ones less separation b/t charges > more separation negative formal charge on a more EN atom > negative formal charge on a less EN atom
Where does blood pressure drop sharply in the body? Why?
in the arterioles; the capillaries they become cannot withstand high pressure
Chemoreceptors for Osmolarity
in walls of blood vessels; if high (high solutes), dehydrated, so ADH release to keep water from nephron from post. Pituitary
The formation of complex ions for the metal in a salt will ___________ its solubility
increase; Ksp is VERY high The formation of complex ions can substantially increase the solubility of sparingly soluble salts if the complex ion has a large Kf. A complex ion is a species formed between a central metal ion and one or more surrounding ligands, molecules or ions that contain at least one lone pair of electrons In pure water, the metal will dissolve to an extent, but by adding the salt, this has a higher solubility and will take the place of the water and want to react with the metal and thus decreasing the metal concentrations -> shift equation to the right -> more original compound dissolves
At a constant T and P, entropy ΔS _____________ upon dissolution
increases
On top of increasing the permeability of the d. c. tubule and collecting duct to salt (and thus water), aldosterone also...
increases EXCRETION of K+/H+
Muscle Class: Extension
increases angle in a joint (e.g., flex tricep & your arm elongates)
Epinephrine increases contraction of the heart muscle by...
increasing intracellular Ca
When 2+ gases do not react are in a vessel, each interact __________________ (as if __________________ ); THE PRESSURE IT EXERTS IN THAT VOLUME IS AS IF __________________ ; Each of these = a "__________________ ", the total pressure of all the gasses is the __________________ of all of these
independently; as if it's the only gas in there; as it if was alone; "Partial Pressure"; the sum
Venae Cavae
inferior & superior; return deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium
In general, the granulocytes are involved in creating...
inflammation!
In general, the ___________ division of the immune system comprises organ functions that also function in totally separate organ systems/tasks
innate immune system
Stratum Basale (epidermis)? produce? contains what cells?
innermost layer; contains stem cells that proliferate into Keratinocytes, the main cells of the skin that produce KERATIN cells of the stratum basale (epidermis) that produce MELANIN (the pigment that protects skin from DNA damage from UV) (Melanocytes) produced by melanocytes and sent to keratinocytes
The endocrine function of the pancreas is the release of __________________, __________________ and __________________, which all participate in maintaining proper levels of __________________ in the blood
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin; sugar
Metalloid Atomic Properties
intermediate E- and IE between metals and non-metals, good semiconductors because partially conductive to heat and elec
Ideal gases are characterized by having molecules with no ________________ and no ________________, & real gases almost follow this, but deviate from 'ideal behaviour' at ________________ and ________________
intermolecular forces; volume; high P (low V) and low T
Structure of the urethra? types of muscles involved?
internal (smooth muscle), normally contracted and inactive + external (skeletal muscle) sphincters
Endoskeletons
internal skeletons (don't really protect soft flesh); easy to accommodate organism growth
The 2 sphincters of the anus are the __________________ and __________________ ones; the former is controlled __________________ and the latter __________________
internal, external; autonomically, somatically (voluntarily)
Spectator Ions Ex: Which are the spectator ions for: AgNO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) -> BaNO3 (aq) + AgCl2 (s)
ions that are on both sides of a complete ionic equation; they don't actually react; usually polyatomic ions
When T increases, Ksp increases for dissolved ___________ and decreases for dissolved ___________ (meaning the 1st dissolve better, 2nd dissolve worse)
ions; gases
If the 2 things being mixed in a solution are the same phases (ex: solution with two liquids), the 'solvent' is the one that is in __________ (amounts) but if they are in equal proportions, the solvent is)_____________
is in larger amounts that is more commonly used as a solvent is the solvent (e.g., water)
The main point of 'dissolving' fats via bile salts is...
it allows Pancreatic Lipase to get to them, which is a water-soluble enzyme that is needed to breakdown the fats; increases rate of breakdown
Despite occasionally using antibodies, the Complement System is not considered 'specific' because...
it cannot be changed to target a specific organism
The 'non-specific' (innate) immune system is named as such because...
it cannot target specific infections and such, only generally recognizes foreigners
When fluid is Filtered into the kidney, its composition is the same as that of blood except that...? AKA: what cannot pass into the bowman's space and become filtrate?
it contains no PROTEINS nor RB CELLS; these are larger than glomerular pores
Why is water a poor (but not a non-) conductor?
it has mostly H2O, but few H3O+ and OH- from the autodissociation of water
"2 pumps" of the heart
it is actually 2 pumps; the one that pumps blood to systemic circuit, and other to pulmonary
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
it is impossible to simultaneously determine, with perfect accuracy, the MOMENTUM AANNDD POSITION of an electron; if we assess its position, it needs to stop (and lose momentum), and it we want to assess its momentum, it has to move (and change positions)
Why is mass 'lost' in an atom?
it is lost to binding energy Mass Defect is the amount of matter converted to energy on formation of an atomic nucleus. Cause is to achieve a more stable nuclear configuration
What is the point of ionic compounds forming a crystal lattice?
it maximizes the attractive force between the ions, and minimizes the repulsive forces
When 2 states in equilibrium (e.g., a puddle with vapour above it), if there is constant external energy input on the water, what will happen to the water? energy of the liquid molecules?
it will evaporate completely given enough energy and external energy keeps increasing the energy of the liquid molecules
𝛼IIb𝛽3 Role in Clotting
it's an integrin; activated when platelets attach to exposed matrix (tissue factor in collagen); causes proteins to bind to each other (e.g., fibrin that form the clot 'net')
Blood column pressure of the inferior vena cava
it's effectively a column of blood with LOTS of gravity pulling down on it & blood at bottom veins in legs = 120-200mmHg, MORE THAN SYSTOLIC HEART PRESSURE!; have valves to prevent backflow
Ion Product (IP)
it's simply the value of Q for Ksp (Q is used with Keq); the conc'ns used in IP are the concentrations at the current point in time obviously, if IP < Ksp, then unsaturated, and if IP > Ksp, supersaturated, if IP = Ksp then it's saturated
What does an RBC lose when it matures? Why?
its nuclei (cannot divide), mito (glycolysis energy only), and organelles; makes space for hemoglobin!
Most of the absorption in the small intestine occurs in the __________________ and __________________
jejunum, ileum
Movable Joints?
joints that do: 1) Hinges (elbow, knee), 2) Ball-Socket Joints (shoulder, hip), etc.: bones allow the shift. Strengthened by LIGAMENTS Synovial Capsule (enclose the joint/articular cavity) & Synovium (soft tissue) secretes Synovial Fluid to lubricate the movable joints Articular Capsule coats the articular surfaces of bone so impact is on lubricated cartilage, not on bone
Immovable Joints
joints w/ bones fused into Suture (or fibre); mostly in the head to anchor the skull
Relationship of variables in Arrhenius Equation
k = Ae^(-Ea/RT); note that exponent is negative, so it's actually k = A(1/e)^(Ea/RT), so you need to analyze accordingly!!; as T increases, the exponent decreases, which means (1/e) is raised to a smaller power, which means the rate is HIGHER!
Arrhenius Equation? what is A in the equation?
k = Ae^(-Ea/RT); part of collision theory k is the rate of reaction, A if the frequency factor (/attempt frequency; how often the molecules collide /s; increases as # molecules increases), Ea is the activation energy, R is the ideal gas constant, T is T in kelvin
What is the relationship between rate law 'k' and equilibrium constant 'Keq'?
k/k(-1) = Keq; the rate law for the forward reaction divided by the rate law for the reverse reaction is equal to the equilibrium constant
Organ that plays a massive role in excretory system
kidney
Parts of the excretory system (4 parts)
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
When a reaction has been going on for a short time, major of the product is the _____________ (thermodynamic/kinetic) product, and later on, majority of the product is the ______________ (thermodynamic/kinetic) product, and eventually ___________ will be reached
kinetic (forms quick); thermodynamic (forms slow but has lower Gibbs Free Energy is stable); equilibrium will be reached
Hemizygous
label given when you only have ONE copy of a certain gene; basically ONLY with X chromosome in males
In the middle of a villus in the small intestine is a __________________, a __________________ channel that takes up fats to transport
lacteal; lymphatic
Structures that absorb fats in small intestine
lacteals
The final part of the gastrointestinal tract is the...
large intestine
Vasodilation via skin
large quantities of blood come to skin to give off heat, especially giving it to sweat to evaporate
Chromosomal Mutation: Deletion
large segment of DNA deleted
Chromosomal Mutations
large-scale mutations that affect segments of the chromosome
The large intestine has a larger __________________ but smaller __________________ than the small intestine
larger diameter, smaller length
Aorta
largest artery; provides blood to systemic circuit from left ventricle
Arteries
largest vasculature; largest one is the aorta; MOVE BLOOD AWAY FROM THE HEART (usually oxygenated, only the pulmonary arteries are not)
The problem with a genetic bottleneck event is that...
leaves individuals in genetic/geographical isolation from others of their species; can lead to homozygosity/loss of diversity that leaves small populations vulnerable to disease
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
less dense bone that's in a lattice structure w/ Trabeculae (bony points) & cavities filled with Bone Marrow (red or yellow)
What is the stability of the kinetic product in reaction control?
less stable as it has more free energy (lesser ΔG)
Movable joints are strengthened by:
ligaments
5 most common geometric VSEPR configurations
linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, octahedral
The sarcomere is split into different ___________, ___________ and ___________
lines, zones and bands
Electron Configuration
listing of the subshells, number of electrons in an atom used spectroscopic (letter) notation; e.g., 2p^4 means the 2nd p subshell has 4 electrons and that levels lower than it have been filled
Some drugs require the __________________ to activate them, whereas some are deactivated by it, thus they cannot be taken orally (because the __________________ system will pass it to the organ)
liver; digestive system
Liver
located in upper-right quadrant of abdomen; Bile Ducts and Hepatic Portal Vein connect to the digestive system
The response that an antibody launches is __________-specific
location-specific
For all the electrochemical cells equations that involve log, remember these relative values: log (greater than 1) = ___ log (0-1) = ___
log(number greater than 1) is +, log(0 to 1) is negative
Relationship b/t bond length & energy
longer bond, less bond energy, easier to break (e.g., SINGLE); shorter bong, more bond energy, harder to break (e.g., TRIPLE)
'Dilute' solution
low [C] of solute compared to solvent
In general, gases exist at ______ P and _______ T
low and high
Metal Atomic Properties Levels: Effective nuclear charge Electronegativity Electropositivity Atomic radius size Ionic radius size Ionization energy Electron affinity
low effective nuclear charge, low E-, high electropostivity large atomic radius, small ionic radius low ionization energy low electron affinity
Pepsin is UNIEQUELY (human-wise) active at __________________ pH, because...
low pH, because H+ activates/cleaves the zymogen and turns it into its active form A low pH (1.5 to 2) activates pepsin. Parietal cells within the stomach lining secrete hydrochloric acid that lower the pH of the stomach and activate pepsin.
Reticular Layer (dermis)
lower layer; denser layer of connective tissue
Where is waste (H+, ammonia) taken to in the body?
lungs, liver, kidneys
Metal Physical Properties
lustrous (shiny), solid (except mercury, L under standard), high BP, high density (exceptions: litium d = 1/2 of water), Malleability (deform without breaking), Ductility (drawn into strings), conductive of heat/elec (electrons loosely held to atom/free to move)
Thoracic Duct relation to lymphatic system
lymph is returned to circulatory system via channel called the thoracic duct
Lymphatic System: transporting biomolecules
lymphatic system transports FATS from digestive system via Lacteals (small lymphatic vessels in the centre of villi in the small intestine)
Excess interstitial fluid can be taken up by the ____________ system
lymphatic system; lymph is returned to circulatory system via channel called the thoracic duct; if lymph nodes blocked it can cause edema (excessive fluid in interstitium via hydrostatic pressure pushing too much fluid out of blood vessels)
B-Cells (in general)
lymphocytes (Agranulocytes) generate antibodies
T-Cells (in general)
lymphocytes (Agranulocytes) kill virally infected cells, activate immune cells
The Agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes; no visible chemical toxin granules in cytoplasm; important to specific immune response: lymphocytes can be primary or memory responders against certain infections (learn and protect against repeated exposure)
The mucous membranes around the eye and oral cavity (tears/saliva) produce _____________, a non-specific antibacterial enzyme that destroys cell walls
lysozyme
Example of our body's response to an extracellular bacterial infection:
macrophage engulfs invader and present in MHC II ➝ macrophage releases stuff for inflammation ➝ cytokines released attract inflammatory cells (neutrophils etc.) ➝ Mast Cells degranulate histamine ➝ immune cells can easily leave bloodstream ➝ dendritic cells take antigens and present to B-cells in the lymph nodes ➝ B-cells that match that antigen proliferate to make plasma + memory cells ➝ antibodies travel to the location and tag the invaders for destruction➝ dendritic cells present antigens to T-cells, activating Helper T cells Th1 and Th2 cells➝ memory cells stored
When monocytes enter tissue (from the blood), they become known as...
macrophages
Langerhans Cells? location in skin?
macrophages found in the Stratum Spinosum layer of the epidermis; present antigens to T-cells
Microglia
macrophages of the CNS
Osteoblasts
macrophages of the bone
Langerhans Cells
macrophages of the skin
The duct system that connects pancreas to duodenum finally empties into the duodenum via that __________________ and the __________________
majr & minor duodenal papillae
Gram Equivalent Weight? how many grams does it take to get 1 equivalent of H+ in H2SO4? Na in NaOH?
mass of a compound that produces 1 equivalent e.g., H2SO4 has MM = 98g/mol; to get 1 equivalent of H+, you only need 0.5mol H2SO4: thus the GEW = 49g, since this is the weight of 1/2 of the 1mol that produces 1mol H+
Osteocytes? stored where?
mature bone cells; stored in Lacunae of the bony matrix
When a T-cell leaves the thymus, we consider it _______________ yet '_______________'
mature; 'naïve'
"Myogenic" activity of the heart
means the heart contracts without neurological input; SA node beats at about 60-100 per min; neurology only makes it FASTER/SLOWER, but doesn't start it (can work with all input cut!)
Hematocrit Count
measure of how much of a blood sample consists of RBCs as a %; normally 41-53% for males and 36-46% for females
Hemoglobin Count
measure of the amount of hemoglobin in blood in GRAMS PER DECILITER; normally 13.5-17.5g/dL for males and 12-16 for females
Penetrance (genetics)
measure of the proportion of individuals that have a certain genotype and ACTUALLY EXPRESS the phenotype
2 types of digestion:
mechanical & chemical
When fats are dissolved into micelles of bile salts, it is effectively __________________ digestion; the __________________ of the fats increases, allowing the enzyme called __________________ to hydrolyze the __________________ bonds
mechanical digestion, surface area, Pancreatic Lipase, ester
When salt is added to icy roads to prevent freezing, the rate of melting vs the rate of freezing are_________________, describe the energy change going on
melting is unchanged; the salt does not interact with melting frozen water freezing rate is decreased, When added to ice, salt first dissolves in the film of liquid water that is always present on the surface, thereby lowering its freezing point below the ices temperature. Ice in contact with salty water therefore melts, creating more liquid water, which dissolves more salt, thereby causing more ice to melt, and so on. THE SOLUTION IS COLDER BUT STILL MELTS! Salt prevents the water molecules from solidifying into ice crystals at 32 F, instead staying slushy at that temperature, before eventually freezing around 15 F
Electron Affinity vs Element Graph
memorize the trend
Bone in the body derives from the embryonic germ layer ______________
mesoderm
3 categories of elements on the periodic table
metals, metalloids, non-metals
Brønsted-Lowry Acid/Base Definitions
mid-sized definition; Brønsted-Lowry Acid = donates H+ Brønsted-Lowry Base = accepts H+; NON-AQUEOUS!! stuff that don't give OH but can accept H (F-, NH3) included; H2O is an acid because it can donate H, but not 'EXCESS' all of these also considered Arrhenius, but not the other way around; most common category on MCAT
Electrodeposition Equation (electrolytic cells)
mol M = I•t/nF mol M is the moles of metal ions deposited on an electrode, I is the current, t is time, n is the number of electron equivalents needed for that ion (+1 is 1, 2+ is 2); also can be used for gas coming from electrolysis
Molality vs Molarity
molality - affected by changes in temp & pressure molarity - NOT affected by changes in temp or pressure
Antibonding Orbital
molecular orbital where the wave signs of the orbitals that formed it were different
Bonding Orbital
molecular orbital where the wave signs of the orbitals that formed it were the same
Odd-Number Octet Electrons (1 notable example)
molecules that distribute their valence electrons so each atom has 8 although the valence electrons of the molecule are odd-numbered: e.g., nitric oxide (NO) with 11ve but 8 per atom
Whereas carbs must be broken down into __________________ to be absorbed by intestine into blood, peptides may be broken down into __________________ or __________________!
monomers (monosaccharides); dimers & trimers!
What is the stability of the thermodynamic product in reaction control?
more stable, as it ends up with less free energy (larger ΔG), (e.g., if you need to overcome a lot of steric hindrance or something, but then you end up with a less substituted double bond, which is stable)
How does most blood enter the ventricles? What is the other way?
most of PASSIVE filling from the atria; some is pumped there when the SA Node excited, contracting both atria at the same times
Carbs begin digestion in the __________________ by the enzyme __________________; the __________________ then secretes a different __________________ to digest them; the __________________ of the small intestine then produces the __________________ to release __________________
mouth, amylase; pancreas, amylase; duodenum; Brush-Border disaccharidases, monosaccharides
Fats (triglycerides) begin digestion in the __________________ by the enzyme __________________; the __________________ then secretes a different __________________ to digest them; the liver then produces __________________ that forms __________________ around the pieces; the 2 products are __________________ and __________________
mouth, lipase; pancreas, lipase; bile salts, micelles; 2-monoacylglycerols, fatty acids
Muscle Class: Abductor
moves a part of your body AWAY from the midline
Since the stomach's environment is so harsh, the __________________ of it is thick to prevent __________________
mucosa; autodigestion
Dermis? layers? originates what?
multi-layered middle layer of skin Papillary and Reticular layers; originates sweat glands, blood vessels, hair follicles, and sensory receptors
Creatine Phosphate
muscle energy reserve; Creatine + ATP ⇌ Creatine Phosphate + ADP, a phosphate is added; stored and can be reversed to use quickly to get some ATP AKA: INCREASES THE AVAILABILITY OF ATP BEGINNING OF WORKOUT
Many myofibrils in parallel form _________
muscle fiber
Smooth Muscle
muscle for involuntary movement (digestive system, vasoconstriction/dilation, respiratory tree, bladder, uterus, blood vessels, etc.); autonomic nervous system
Skeletal Muscle
muscle that supports the body and allows you to move; somatic nervous system
General structure of arteries
muscular and elastic
Transfusions & blood type
must MATCH blood type or hemolysis will engage as immune system reacts with antibodies matching A or B types (to unrecognized antigens) (e.g., if You are IA IA alleles, if someone with IB allele blood donates, you could die); use your head to figure it out
New genes are introduced through...
mutation or genetic leakage
What is the equation for the energy level of a subshell? What does this dictate?
n + l; the lower the number the lower the energy, and this determines the order of the electron configuration
What is the only variable in Bohr's Electron Angular Momentum? What does this mean?
n; therefore the angular momentum varies directly and discretely only with principle QN; IT IS QUANTIZED!!!
Arrhenius Acid/Base Definitions
narrowest definition; Arrhenius Acid = dissociates EXCESS H+ in solution, Arrhenius Base = dissociates EXCESS OH- in AQUEOUS!! solution
Directional Selection
natural selection favouring ONE EXTREME of the phenotypes which eventually leads to a NEW STANDARD PHENOTYPE (e.g., bacteria with the STRONGER antibiotic defenses survive over WEAKER, and mosquitoes resistant to DDT)
Disruptive Selection
natural selection favours BOTH EXTREMES (the extremes of polymorphism) and not the average phenotype (e.g., Darwin's finches had really big or really small beaks, probably because the big ones ate the BIG seeds and little ones ate the little, leaving nothing well-adapted for the intermediate)
Stabilizing Selection
natural selection favours the AVERAGE phenotype (e.g., human weight kept intermediate and too little or too much is bad for health, also keeps babies small and not resource-sucking)
How hormones exactly enter the blood system
near or in the organ of production, EXOCYTOSIS of hormones into capillaries (some with proteins, some under specific conditions), activate receptor or diffuse into cell
Heat required to go from solid to gas (equation)
need enough energy to change T AND to change phase: (q to get to melting point) + (heat of fusion) + (q to get to boiling point) + (heat of vaporization)
First-Order Reaction [A] vs t Plot
negative curved line
Zero-Order Reaction [A] vs t Plot
negative linear where k = -slope
Deleterious Mutations
negative outcome; e.g., xeroderma pigmentosum is a defect in nucleotide excision repair, meaning UV damage cannot be repaired and cancer is common
How the body prevents autoimmunity
negative selection against T-cells that self-react & same to B-cells (in thymus/bone marrow)
For electrochemical redox with Keq < 1 (favours reactants), the E˚cell is...
negative, according to nFE˚cell = RTln(Keq); note that this value means non-spontaneous thus electrolytic; the opposite, Keq>1, would mean galvanic
The functional subunit of the kidney is the...
nephron
Melanocytes (melanin-producing cells of the stratum basale) derive from the _______________ cells
neural crest
The most numerous leukocyte in the blood is ___________, and the least is ___________
neutrophils; basophils
When ∆H is + and ∆S is -, reaction is ______________ (spontaneous/nonspontaneous)
never spontaneous
Pauli Exclusion Principle: principle quantum numbers
no 2 electrons in an atom can have all 4 of the same quantum numbers (they are exclusive) 4 numbers: n, l, ml, ms, increasingly specific
Silent (Point) Mutation
no change to AA; usually occurs when wobble base is swapped (degenerate genetic code perk)
Are ionic compounds 'molecules'?
no, they do not share electrons in covalent bonds, but transfer and then are attracted to each other in huge 3D arrays
Is H+ ever found in solution?
no; it's unstable and must be bound to electrons on another molecule (e.g., H2O and H3O+)
Do liquids/solids appear in the Law of Mass Action? Why?
no; their "activities" in the equation are considered = 1 and have constant concentrations since low entropy (unlike gases) (yes, the equation doesn't measure conc'n technically but "activity")
What kinds of atoms usually form covalent bonds?
non-metals of similar electronegativity H = nonmetal
Carbon Dioxide Transport (2) ways)
nonpolar & low solubility (less dissolves in plasma); 1) Binds to hemoglobin (but low affinity, thus not great), 2) most dissolves as Bicarbonate (HCO3-); POLAR!
Do all atoms of a substance have the same mass?
nope, isotopes with diff # neutrons exist
Amount of chemical digestion that actually occurs in the mouth
not a lot
Synonyms for coordinate covalent bond formation
nucleophile-electrophile attack, Lewis acid-base reaction, complexation reaction
Frameshift Mutations
nucleotide inserted/deleted, messing up reading frame of the codons; USUALLY TRUNCATES PROTEINS due to premature stop
Oxidation Numbers
numbers assigned to keep track of relative distribution of electrons
Keq for multi-step reactions
numerator = multiply all k(forwards) denominator = multiply all k(rev) Keq = k1k2k3/k(-1)k(-2)k(-3)
What does a large Keq mean?
numerator is big i.e. the reaction is at equilibrium waaay to the right and products are favored
Electrical Conduction of the Heart
occurs through 4 electrically excitable circuits: SA Node then AV Node the AV Bundle, Purkinje Fibers
If albumin (a blood protein) is low, then ___________ pressure decreases, meaning (less/more) fluid is drawn back in at the venous end of the capillaries; this fluid that stays outside of the blood vessels is returned to them via _________________
oncotic pressure; less; lymphatic vessels
Titration: Polyprotic Acid/Base
ones that can give up/gain many Hs flat part of curve indicates Buffer Regions where the form of the polyprotic species with 1 less and 1 more H are in equilibrium Half-Equivalence Point is the point at the first buffer where 1/2 the species are protonated, 1/2 not, then comes the First Equivalence Point where all species are protonated once, then the buffer next regions after that introduced additional protonations Second Equivalence Point is where all species doubly protonated; THERE IS 1 EQUIVALENCE POINT PER PROTON THAT CAN BE ADDED, PLUS A SAME NUMBER OF BUFFERING POINTS WHERE THE SPECIES TRANSITION TO PROTONATION; can have 3 equivalence points, e.g. AAs with acidic/basic side chains
Le Châtelier's Principle: Changes in gas pressure-volume
only affects gases in reaction as l/s incompressible; Qp ≠ Kp; Inc in pressure will shift reaction to side with LEAST moles (least sum of coefficient) to decrease pressure
How fast is a reaction overall, in reference to its mechanism?
only as fast as the SLOWEST (rate-determining) step
Under what circumstance are the exponents in the rate law equal to the stoichiometric coefficients?
only if the reaction has ONE STEP in its reaction mechanism (and that is the whole process) OR the rate-determining coefficients are given and THOSE ARE THE ACTUAL RATE LAW EXPONENTS
Which type of blood cells contain nuclei? Which do not?
only leukocytes do; RBCs and platelets not
Properties of covalent compounds
operate in discrete units (not a lattice like ionic), weak intermolecular interaction (low BP, low MP), poor conductors as liquids or aqueous, do not break down
The digestive tract begins with the __________________, then the __________________ (which is a shared path from both __________________ and __________________), food then goes to the __________________, which takes it to the __________________; food then goes to the __________________, then the __________________, and then waste enters the __________________ for storage until it is appropriate to release it
oral cavity (mouth); pharynx (shared for FOOD and AIR); esophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine; rectum
Digestion begins in the __________________ and ends in the __________________
oral cavity; duodenum (1st part of the small intestine)
Accessory Organs of Digestion
organs that release enzymes into the digestive tract; pancreas, liver, gall bladder
The muscles of the __________________ initiate swallowing at the __________________ sphincter
oropharynx; Upper Esophageal Sphincter
Undigested polysaccharides increase concentration of solutes causing __________________ pressure which will... ...causing the symptom of __________________. A common example is __________________ intolerance.
osmotic pressure; which will draw water into the stool; symptom of diarrhea; lactose intolerance
Intracellular Digestion
our METABOLISM; oxidizing glucose/fatty acids for energy
Extracellular Digestion
our digestion outside of the body in the alimentary canal
Neutralization: weak acid + weak base -> what forms? pH?
outcome TOTALLY depends on their relative strengths if the acid is stronger then the solution ends up slightly acidic as the conjugate acid is stronger will make hydroniums H3O+; opposite for basic
Stratum Corneum? what cell type is found here?
outermost layer of skin; made up of flattened layers of keratinocytes that form a barrier & prevent fluid loss
Epidermis? layers?
outermost layer of skin; subdivided into STRATA layers ('Strata... Come, Let's Get Sun Burned'): Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale
Oxidation number vs formal charge
oxidation number assumes complete transfer of electrons to more electronegative atom, whereas formal charge assumes equal sharing: THE TRUTH IS BETWEEN THESE 2 EXTREMES
What does blood do in the capillaries?
oxygen and nutrients into tissue, waste out (H+, urea, ammonia)
Myoglobin
oxygen carrier using Fe to bind O2; coloured red
Dipole Moment Equation? units?
p -> = qd->; p is the dipole moment, q is the magnitude of the charge, and d is the displacement vector that separates the 2 partial charges units Debye (coulomb-meter)
pH-pOH Equation How to find pOH from pH?
pH + pOH = 14 AS 1 INCREASES, THE OTHER DECREASES BY THE SAME AMOUNT!!!
Titration: Weak Base w/ Strong Acid curve? pH?
pH < 7 inversed curve from weak acid w/ strong base; not-too-basic pH to start, light slope down in pH, light drop at equivalence point, and equivalence point in acidic pH because of the weak conjugate acid that forms
pH Equation based on H+ concentrations
pH = -log[H+] = log(1/[H+])
Which of the following is the closest to the pH of a solution containing mM H2SO4? 1 2 3 4
pH = 2 First convert it to 5 * 10^-3 M -> since it is a strong acid, we can assume majority of H+ dissociate -> there are 2 H+ -> 2 * 5 * 10^-3 -> 10^-2 -> plug into log -> pH = 2
What are the concentrations needed for the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation that go into the log? (pH)
pH = pKa + log(A-/HA) CONJUGATE BASE ON TOP AND CONJUGATE WEAK ACID ON BOTTOM (THE PRODUCTS) NOT REACTANTS
Titration: Weak Acid w/ Strong Base curve? pH?
pH > 7 less acidic to begin with, adding base makes bigger changes, causing slope up to equivalence point, which will shoot up lightly; equivalence point in basic region because of the weak conjugate base that forms at the equivalence point
pH & the Oxyhemoglobin binding curve
pH acts allosterically on heme (e.g., high CO2 forms more bicarbonate + H+, dropping pH) and the H+ bind to reduce affinity for O2
pOH Equation based on OH- concentrations
pOH = -log[OH-] = log(1/[OH-])
What are the concentrations needed for the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation that go into the log? (pOH)
pOH = pKb + log (B+/BOH) CONJUGATE ACID ON TOP AND WEAK BASE ON BOTTOM
2 layers of the dermis
papillary and reticular layers
Electrons
particles that are in orbitals around the nucleus; (-) charge; have varying levels of energy; e-/-1,0e symbol
Aminopeptidases
peptidase secreted by the glands in duodenum; removes N-term amino acid from the protein
Secretin
peptide hormone that causes (1) inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid from the parietal cells of the stomach and (2) stimulating the production of bicarbonate from the ductal cells of the pancreas.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a __________________ hormones secrete in response to __________________ (specifically the __________________ and __________________ in it) in the duodenum; stimulates release of __________________ and __________________, and acts on the __________________ to produce the sensation of __________________
peptide; chyme; amino acids; fats; bile; pancreatic juice; brain; satiety
The __________________ hormone __________________ is what causes (1) inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid from the parietal cells of the stomach and (2) stimulating the production of bicarbonate from the ductal cells of the pancreas.
peptide; secretin
Surge Currents
periods of large current (ampere) discharge early in the discharge cycle of a battery; e.g., remotes respond more quickly A surge current is a quick and short lived large current flow an electrical system that is not designed to handle such amplitudes might experience. Surges usually occur as short pulses that has very high rates of change and amplitudes (slow varying current or voltage is not considered as a surge). Depending on the type and design of the system, the surge may or may not cause damages. If the surge amplitude is within the pulse current capability of the device, then it might not cause any harm. If it is otherwise, catastrophic failure can happen. Surge current may occur due to two reasons : sudden increase in voltage or sudden increase in load, the latter is usually unlikely. Surge protectors or surge suppressors can be used to minimize the effect or completely suppress current surges.
The nerves in the walls of the digestive system trigger __________________
peristalsis; rhythmic contractions of gut tube to move materials
Transverse (T-) Tubules are oriented ___________ to myofibrils inside a myocyte's SR
perpendicular
Monocytes
phagocytic cells in the blood stream that becomes 'macrophages' when the enter tissue, granting them a specific name
Colligative Properties (solubility)? examples?
physical properties that depend on the CONCENTRATION of dissolved particles, but not their IDENTITIES: vapour pressure depression, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure
Electron Configuration Abbreviation e.g., Li is________
place the nearest previous Nobel gas in square brackets, list the electron configuration past that e.g., Li is [He]2s^1
The only parts in adults that are made of cartilage are...
places that need to be hard-ish like bone, but a little more flexible (nose, trachea, joints)
Out of the 2 cells B-cells differentiate into, _______________ cells eventually die, but _______________ cells can last the lifetime of the organism
plasma; memory
Nucleotide-level Mutations (4)
point, silent, missense, nonsense
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
polar molecules orient so their 𝛿+ attracts to 𝛿- in the adjacent molecule (energetically favourable arrangement; no repulsion)
2 substances debated as metalloids
polonium and astatine; they usually count though
Osteoclasts
polynucleated macrophage of bone; resorbs (destroys) bone
Polyvalent Acids & Equivalents
polyvalent acids have more than 1 H (polyprotic B-L), thus you need less acid for 1 equivalent (1 mol) of H+ Common polyvalent acids include H2SO4, H3PO4, and H2CO3 polyvalent = protons AKA: Polyprotic acids are specific acids that are capable of losing more than a single proton per molecule in acid-base reactions. (In other words, acids that have more than one ionizable H+ atom per molecule). Protons are lost through several stages (one at each stage), with the first proton being the fastest and most easily lost.
Penetrance of a gene is a ________________ measure, but expressivity is more related to ________________
population; individuals
Advantageous Mutations
positive outcome; e.g., sickle cell, WHEN HETEROZYGOUS, will protect against malaria (short blood cell lifespan in which plasmodium cannot replicate)
Conventional current in electrochemical cells flows from ________ to ________ electric potential
positive to negative
Physical stimulation of the __________________ can stimulate emesis (_________________)
posterior pharynx; vomiting
Hybrid Breakdown
postzygotic reproductive isolation Post-zygotic barriers mean the animals mated but no offspring occurred after they did so. It can also mean the offspring is a hybrid and is not viable, sterile or both.
MHC I
present on all nucleated cells; displays the cell's proteins and allows immune cells to monitor health; can present an non-familiar antigen and launch immune system if intracellularly infected
MHC II
presented by ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (e.g., macrophages) & activates both INANTE and ADAPTIVE immune system this way
Pressure across the circulatory system
pressure gradually drops, but SHARPLY drops from arterioles to venules INSERT PICTURE
Titration? how does it work? what is it used to find?
procedure to determine concentrations of a known reactant in solution; acid-base, oxidation-reduction, complexometric (metal/complex ion) add small amounts of Titrant to the Titrand until you reach the EQUIVALENCE POINT
On top of ingesting/digesting/presenting foreign antigens, macrophages also...
produce Cytokines; substances that stimulate inflammation & recruit immune cells to an area
Mucous Cells (gastric glands)
produce bicarbonate-rich mucous that protects the stomach wall from acidity (pH = 2) and proteolytic activity
Average Molecular Speed of a gas is proportional to ___________ (Kinetic Molecular Theory)? equation?
proportional to absolute T Ek = 1/2 mv^2 = 3/2 kbT; kb is the Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10^(-23)J/K)
The Complement System
proteins in the blood that act as non-specific defense to bacteria by punching holes in cell walls to make them osmotically unstable; can be activated through 2 pathways: 1) Classical (binding of antigen to antibody) or 2) Alternative (no antibodies) AKA: The complement system, also known as complement cascade, is a part of the immune system that enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen's cell membrane.
Self-Antigens
proteins/carbs on the surface of every cell of our body; typically immune to our immune cells and are not attacked
In addition to nutrient-storing, detoxification, and bile production, the liver produces important __________________, the most notable 2 being __________________ (maintains blood plasma oncotic pressure, carries drugs and hormones) & __________________ (coagulation)
proteins; Albumin, Clotting Factors
Heart
pump for the cardiovascular system; 4 muscular chambers
Right Ventricles
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Left Ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood to the body
Food leaves the stomach through the __________________ sphincter
pyloric sphincter
VSEPR: 3 regions of electron density and 1 Lone pair; shape/angle/example
pyramidal (electron geometry = tetrahedral though!)/<109.5˚/NH3
Heat change equation (heat absorbed or released during a temperature change)
q = mc∆T (m is mass, c is specific heat, delta T is change in T)
Biometric Techniques (Genetics)
quantitative techniques to analyze biological data (Punnett squares, recombination frequency, Hardy-Weinberg)
What is the classic example of a first-order reaction?
radioactive decay; rate = -ΔA/Δt = k[A]
Shivering
rapid contractions of skeletal muscle using ATP; ATP use gives off heat energy
"Traps" of determining rate laws (4)
rate = k[A]^(x)[B]^(y)[C]^(z); 1) the exponents are USUALLY NOT THE STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS (it must be determined experimentally) only if the reaction has ONE STEP in its reaction mechanism OR the rate-determining coefficients are given and THOSE ARE THE ACTUAL RATE LAW EXPONENTS; 2) the equilibrium constant expression has nothing to do with rate law (it is the eqb'm conc'ns and it has [X] for all substances), 3) k is not actually a CONSTANT, but depends per reaction on the Ea and T, 4) equilibrium principles only apply at the end of reaction (when it's at eqb'm), but reaction rate applies at any time, but is usually measured at the beginning
Mixed-Order Reaction Example
rate = k[C][A]^2/(k2 + k3[A]), C is a catalyst, YOU DON'T NEED TO KNOW HOW TO DERIVE/MUCH ABOUT THIS, but know the relationships: A is large at the beginning, so k3[A] >> k2 making reaction appear first-order (as you make the top [A]^1), and at the end when A is diminished, k2 >> k3[A] so the reactant appears second-order (as the denominator [A] is negligible) ex: Just math. When k3[A] is significantly smaller than k2, you can essentially ignore it. So the only [A] term is the squared term in the numerator, making it second order. When k3[A] is much larger than k2, we can ignore k2, and therefore there is a squared [A] in the numerator and an [A] term in the denominator, giving us an [A] in the numerator, which is first order.
First-Order Reaction
rate law exponents = 1, there is only 1 reactant that matters in increasing rate; has units /s; USUALLY IMPLIES 1 MOLECULE UNDERGOES CHEMICAL CHANGE BY ITSELF WITHOUT ANY CHEMICAL/PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH ANOTHER MOLECULE [A] vs t plot is is a negative curve, ln[A] vs t plot is negative linear with k = -slope classic example is radioactive decay rate = -ΔA/Δt = k[A]
Second-Order Reaction
rate law is proportional to 1 reactant squared or 2 reactants to the power of 1 k has units /(M•s) USUALLY IMPLIES COLLISION BETWEEN 2 MOLECULES [A] vs t plot is negative curved; 1/[A] vs t is linear positive with slope = k
Since our body secretes so much fluid into the gastrointestinal tract (~7L), the body must compensate by __________________ via __________________
reabsorbing; osmosis
Q = Keq? ΔG of this?
reaction is in dynamic equilibrium; conc'ns of species are at equilibrium value AKA: forward and reverse rates are equal
Irreversible Reactions? completion?
reaction proceeds in 1 direction only to completion; max product; no equilibrium
Reaction rate: temperature
reaction rate increase as T increases (measures average kinetic energy, which means reactants can surpass Ea) for ALL REACTIONS (including nuclear) up to an OPTIMUM for biological systems, an increase of 10˚C doubles reaction rate, optima between 35-40˚C
Reversible Reactions? completion?
reactions proceed forward (right) or reverse (left) do not go to completion as products react to reform reactants AKA: THE REACTION DID NOT GO ALL THE WAY
Right Atrium
receives de-oxygenated blood from the body
Left Atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
Baroreceptors
receptors in the walls of blood vessels that regulate pressure; specialized neurons sense the pressure; stimulate sympathetic NS when pressure is low (vasoconstriction), or prevent them when pressure is high
Adrenergic Receptor in the heart (ALPHA)
receptors that bind to norepinephrine (sympathetic neuron neurotransmitter) or epinephrine (adrenal medulla) for sympathetic action; increased heart rate
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries? combines which type electrochemical cell types? compounds involved as cathode and anode? reactions involved?
rechargeable battery (galvanic + electrolytic); 2 half-cells = Solid Cadmium (anode) + Nicke(III) Oxide-Hydroxide (cathode), connected by conductive KOH these are AA and AAA batteries with electrodes wrapped in cylinders!; Cadmium oxidized to Cd(OH2) + 2e-, NiO(OH) reduced to Ni(OH)2 & the electrodes are plated with these products; when charging, anode and cathode reverses, and hydrogen/oxygen gas vented out; high surge current
Lead-Acid Battery (storage battery)? charges?
rechargeable battery (galvanic + electrolytic); When charged: contains a Pb anode & PbO2 cathode connected by conductive 4M H2SO4; When discharged: both electrodes are coated with lead sulfate
The last 1/3 of the large intestine is the __________________, the storage site for __________________ (indigestible materials), __________________, and __________________ that are not reabsorbed
rectum; feces, bacteria, and digestive enzymes
Muscle that contracts SLOWLY and sustains LONG activity is made of ___________ fiber, and QUICKLY and FAST fatigue is made of ___________ fiber
red (more myoglobin/mito); white (less myoglobin/mito)
Reduction Potential (electrochemical cells)
reduction potential relative to Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) which = 0; the species that will be reduced in the cell ("cathode") is the one with HIGHER reduction potential AKA: Since the standard electrode potentials are given in their ability to be reduced, the bigger the standard reduction potentials, the easier they are to be reduced; in other words, they are simply better oxidizing agents. For example, F2 has a potential of 2.87 V and Li+ has a potential of -3.05 V. F2 reduces easily and is therefore a good oxidizing agent
Standard Reduction Potential (E˚red)
reduction potential under standard conditions (25˚C, 1atm, 1M)
H-Zone (Sarcomere)
region with only thick filaments
I-Band (Sarcomere)
region with only thin filaments
Troponin & Tropomyosin (Sarcomere)
regulate the myosin & actin interactions IN THE THIN (ACTIN) FILAMENT
Parathyroid Hormone & bone
released when calcium (sometimes phosphate) is too low in blood, and promotes resorption (destruction) of bone to get it
Th1 Cells? releases what? affects what?
releases interferon gamma (IFN-y) which activates/amplifies ability of macrophages
Net Ionic Equation Ex: Write the net ionic equation for: AgNO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) -> BaNO3 (aq) + AgCl2 (s)
removing the spectator ions that don't react from net ionic equations
Bloodflow through the kidney (dry memorize)
renal artery enters, passes through medulla, branches into the cortex (afferent arterioles) ➝ form many 'Glomeruli" (capillary tufts) around Bowman's Capsule ➝ efferent arterioles to the 2nd capillary bed 'Vasa Recta' that surrounds the loop of Henle
The 3 things contained in the renal hilum (slit/tube of the kidney)
renal artery, renal vein, renal pelvis
As the filtrate leaves the nephron @ the collecting duct, it goes to...
renal pelvis ➝ ureters ➝ bladder
All nephrons of the kidney empty into the._______which becomes the______
renal pelvis; ureter
Henry Moseley (chem)
reorganized the periodic table to atomic number( # of protons or electrons), not atomic weight, and found that all elements and their properties could be predicted
What 4 things do macrophages do when they find an invader in innate immunity?
resident population of innate immune cells in tissue; activated when an invader arrives and does 3 things: 1) Phagocytoses the invader 2) Digests it with enzymes 3) presents little pieces (antigen peptides) in MHC on cell surface to be recognized, 4) They release Cytokines (chemical substances that stimulate inflammation & recruit immune cells to an area)
Purpose of keratin in skin
resists damage, and protects against injury, water, and pathogens
What are molecules with same connectivity but different electron arrangement called?
resonance structures!
Single Muscle Twitch? different periods?
response of a single muscle fibre to a brief stimulus at/above threshold = Latent Period (time b/t signal & actually contracting, action potential spread and Ca release), Contraction Period, Relaxation Period (Ca cleared) In summary, a muscle twitch is a single contraction resulting from a threshold stimulus, where a threshold stimulus is the smallest stimulus strength that actually results in a contraction. The latent period is the delay between the stimulation and the physical contraction
If Q > Keq, then the reaction is moving ________________ and the sign of Ecell is...
rev; negative
Chromosomal Mutation: Inversion
reversed frame of bases
Rh Factor
rhesus-monkey factor; a series of antigen alleles (usually D) that are present on blood on top of the ABO antigens; Rh+ means you have the D allele, Rh- means no; DOMINANT
"Side" of the body that carries oxygenated vs deoxygenated
right = deoxygenated, left = oxygenated
Muscle Class: Medial Rotation
rotates the axis of your limb TOWARDS the midline
Periods
rows on the periodic table
In the oral cavity, enzymes in __________________ comes from the #__________________ pairs of __________________ glands
saliva; 3 pairs of salivary glands
The __________________ version of amylase and the __________________ version of amylase have the same function but are located in different places
salivary & pancreatic (mouth vs small intestine)
The __________________, the __________________, the __________________ and the __________________ produce enzymes & lubrication for the digestive system
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
Neutralization: weak acid + strong base -> what forms? pH?
salt + water because of the hydroxide pH slightly basic because the initial pH of the solution at the beginning of the titration is approximately that of the weak acid in water. At the equivalence point, all of the weak acid is neutralized and converted to its STRONG conjugate base (the number of moles of H+ = added number of moles of OH-). However, the pH at the equivalence point does not equal 7. This is due to the production of conjugate base during the titration. The resulting solution is slightly basic. The endpoint and the equivalence point are not exactly the same: the equivalence point is determined by the stoichiometry of the reaction, while the endpoint is just the color change from the indicator.
Neutralization: strong acid + strong base -> what forms? pH?
salt + water formed, pH = 7, goes to completion, the ions are inert
Pectoral Girdle is composed of __________ and ______________
scapula and clavicle
Parietal Cells (gastric glands)
secrete HCl into the stomach (frees into H+); H+ activates pepsinogen to pepsin & Intrinsic Factor, a glycoprotein that absorbs vitamin B12
Chief Cells (gastric glands)
secrete pepsinogen, the inactive zymogen of pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme
Gastrin
secreted by pyloric glands; hormone that induces stomach to secrete more HCl and to contract to mix
Cholecystokinin (CCK)(3)
secreted in respond to chyme (the amino acids + fats in it) in the duodenum; peptide hormone that stimulates release of BILE + PANCREATIC JUICE + acts on the brain to produce satiety
Most of the water in chyme comes from...
secretions from our body
Chyme
semifluid acidic mixture of food in the stomach from mixing; large surface area thanks to mechanical/chemical digestion
Merkel Cells (Discs)? location? sense what?
sensation of deep pressure/texture; present at the junction of epidermis-dermis
Free Nerve Endings (in dermis) sense what?
sense pain & Temp
Pacinian Corpuscles (dermis) sense what?
sensory receptors that respond to deep pressure & vibration
Meissner's Corpuscles (dermis)? location? sense what?
sensory receptors that respond to light touch
Large fats, glycerol, and cholesterol will move __________________ into intestinal cells, but then reform __________________, and the cholesterol is __________________
separately; triglycerides; esterified
Azimuthal (Angular Momentum) Quantum Number (l)
shape and number of subshells within a shell n; determines bond angles
Cell Diagram (electrochemical cell)
shorthand that represents reaction in an electrochemical cell: Anode | Anode Solution [C] || Cathode Solution [C] | Cathode (1 line for phase change, 2 lines for boundary); e.g., Daniell cell: Zn | Zn2+ (1M) || Cu2+ (1M) | Cu
Rutherford's Experiment
showed that an atom has a dense, positive nucleus that is a small portion of its volume
Volume vs Pressure Gas Graph
shows Boyle's Law P1V1 = P2V2
Temperature vs Volume Gas Graph (Charles Law)
shows Charles's Law; when T = 0, V = 0
Free Energy Diagram? exogonic vs endogonic?
shows how the energy changes in a reaction ΔGrxn is the difference in energy between products and reactants (< 0: exergonic, > 0: endergonic); transition state at peak, Ea is energy from reactants to transition state (or from products to peak for reverse!)
Electron Configuration for Anions and Cations
simply add enough electrons to fill the highest energy subshell! Cations: remove electrons from the HIGHEST n THEN n Electrons are first removed from high n subshell, then 3d subshell.
Since hydrostatic pressure is larger than osmotic at the start of a capillary, and thus water leaks out, how is pressure restored on the other side?
since hydrostatic pressure causes fluid to leak out, hydrostatic pressure drops, and is now below osmotic pressure; thus osmotic pressure draws water in at the venules and influxes water to restore pressure
Using equation ∆G = ∆H - T∆S, explain the spontaneity of water boiling
since ∆H is + (gaining energy) and ∆S is + (entropy increasing) to turn water into a gas, this means for ∆G to be negative the - term needs to outweigh the ∆H, so its spontaneous at high H, which happens to be after 100C ( = 0 @ 100C), also vapour pressure equal ambient
Decomposition Reactions
single reactant breaks down into many products (reverse of combination); usually heating, high-frequency radiation, or electrolysis
Mastication helps reduce the __________________ of food, which protects against the risk of __________________ of the alimentary canal
size; obstruction
___________ muscle, in rapid contractions, generates heat to keep you warm (shivering)
skeletal
The top third of the esophagus is composed of __________________ muscle, the bottom third is __________________ muscle, and the middle third is __________________; this means the top half is under __________________ control and the bottom is __________________ control
skeletal; smooth; mixed in-between; top = somatic (you); bottom = autonomic
Skin & osmolarity/hydration of the body
skin is impermeable to water preventing 1) entrance of water and 2) loss of water; therefore loss of skin may dehydrate tissues!
Because the parasympathetic system is active during digestion, this is why we feel __________________ after eating!
sleepy
Mass of a neutrons
slightly higher than a proton; about 1amu
The speed of adaptive immunity is _________, but it is _________ when the infection returns again
slow; fast
Solving unknown x concentrations with a SMALL Keq changes?
small Keq allows us to label the reacted materials as negligible e.g., A ⇌ B + C where [A] starts at 1M and the rest at 0 and Keq = 10^(-12); Keq = [C][B]/[A], so equilibrium conc and amount of A lost (with coefficient 1) is Keq = x^2/1-x, but since so little reacted just say denominator = 1, so Keq = x^2/1
Absorption of nutrients occurs primarily in the __________________ intestine, primarily in the __________________ 2 parts called the __________________ and __________________
small intestine; latter 2 parts; jejunum & ileum
Chromosomal Mutation: Insertion
small piece of 1 chromo moved from one to another
Does the small intestine or large intestine absorb more water?
small!
Lymph Nodes
small, bean-shaped structure along lymphatic vessels; contain 1) Lymphatic vessel 2) Artery 3) Vein; SITE WHERE IMMUNE CELLS ARE EXPOSED TO PATHOGEN ANTIGENS
Both ___________ and ___________ muscle have MYOGENIC ACTIVITY, the MCAT loves to test this
smooth & cardiac; both have nerve in them and will respond but do not require input to actually contract ever
Purpose of creating chyme in the stomach before sending to small intestine
so that there is a huge surface area for the small intestine to absorb
How small to arteries get, in terms of RBCs?
so thin only a single-file line of RBC may pass
Buffer Solution? 2 BIG buffers on the MCAT
solution with mixture of WEAK ACID + ITS SALT (conjugate base + a cation) OR the same set-up but w/ a WEAK BASE; they RESIST pH change when a small amount of acid/base is added e.g., when a base is added to an acidic solution, OH reacts with H3O to neutralize, BUT the weak acid in (CH3COOH) the solution can restore H3O+, and its conjugate base (CH3COO-) will not make that much OH; likewise, if acid is added, the H+ from it simply reforms CH3COOH and will not change pH; KEEPS H/OH CON'N + PH CONSTANT acetic acid (CH3COOH; conjugate base CH3COO-) & ammonia (NH3, conjugate acid NH4+)
Mixed gases are not called 'solutions' because...
solutions imply they interact with each other, but that's not the case here
Aqueous (aq) Solutions
solutions where the solvent is water
Hydration (chem)
solvation (dissolution) where water is the solvent
If fluid flows from the Bowman's Capsule into Glomerulus...
something is wrong; blood filters the opposite way! E.g., if a kidney stone blocks the kidneys up, pressure will build in Bowman's Capsule and hydrostatic pressure will push backwards!
Cardiac Muscle
special muscle that maintains the heart rhythm without nervous input; characteristic of both smooth and skeletal; involuntary, autonomic NS nerves
Concentration Cells (electrochemistry)? spontaneity? electrodes? what drives this? when does it stop?
special type of galvanic cell; spontaneous reaction with 2 half-cells and conductive material connecting, creating current and giving energy; HOWEVER, electrodes are CHEMICALLY IDENTICAL, and current comes from CONCENTRATION GRADIENT OF SOLUTION instead, causing potential difference and driving redox; stops at equilibrium conc'n (voltage = 0); Voltage calculated via Nernst Equation; prototypical: a neuron cell membrane!
Niche
specific environment (habitat, resource use, predators active) that a species fits/is adapted to
Disproportionation (Dismutation) Reaction
specific type of redox an element is OXIDIZED and REDUCED to produce the products e.g., breakdowns of H2O2 to H2O and O2 produced two types of O: the one with H2O is reduced, and the one in O2 is oxidized; USUALLY ACCOMPLISHED BY ENZYMES (using Cu and Zn as reducing agents) e.g., catalase (does the H2O2), superoxide dismutase
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
specifies the ORBITAL within a subshell where the electron is most likely to be found; each holds 2 electrons
In kinetic molecular theory (of gases), the _________________ of individual gas molecules are impossible to define because _______________ therefore, we simply define this value as_____________
speed because they constantly change (hit a particle, hit a wall) define speed as AVERAGE molecular speed, using equation Ek = 1/2 mv^2 = 3/2 kbT (using T to measure Ek, and then solving for the v this would correspond to)
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Curve (Kinetic Molecular Theory)
speed vs # molecules; shows the distribution of gas particle speeds @ a certain T; bell-shaped curve that shows at higher Ts, more molecules are at higher speeds
Neurological input isn't needed to start heartbeat, but it does ...
speed/slow the heart rate
S orbital shape
sphere; increasing with the further out the orbital is
The alimentary canal (mouth to anus) is sectioned off with __________________
sphincters
B-cell can be activated in the _________ or the ____________
spleen; lymph nodes
The ___________ is the organ that stores and activates B-cells, which differentiate into _____________ which produce ____________
spleen; plasma cells; antibodies
Complete Ionic Equation Ex: Write the complete ionic equation for: AgNO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) -> BaNO3 (aq) + AgCl2 (s)
splitting the ionic species in a reaction into their ions; any AQEUOUS salts should be split, but SOLID ones left
When ∆H is - and ∆S is +, reaction is ______________ (spontaneous/nonspontaneous)
spontaneous at all T
When ∆H is + and ∆S is +, reaction is ______________ (spontaneous/nonspontaneous)
spontaneous at high T
when ∆H is - and ∆S is -, reaction is ______________ (spontaneous/nonspontaneous)
spontaneous at low T
Galvanic & concentration cells have _______________(spontaneous/non-spontaneous) reactions, whereas electrolytic has _______________ (spontaneous/non-spontaneous) reactions
spontaneous; non-spontaneous
Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells? spontaneity? energy absorbed or released? describe the setup?
spontaneously release energy to power things; ΔG = (-), Ecell = (+); 2 half-cells (the 2 electrodes, anode and cathode, placed in separate compartments), connected by conductive material (copper wire); Electrolyte solution w/ cations/anions surrounds each cell; 2 solutions connected by 'salt bridge' (INERT salt); redox will occur when 2 cells connect (reduction in 1 cell, oxidation in the other!), converting chemical potential to electric potential energy; things to power are placed b/t the cells along the wire
Incomplete Octet Elements (5)
stable with <8ve; Hydrogen (2), Helium (2), Lithium (2), Beryllium (4), Boron (6), Aluminum (6)
Expanded Octet Elements (3 notable ones)
stable with >8ve period 3 and greater: phosphorus (10), sulfur (12), chlorine (14), silicon (12), others
Metalloids (on table)
stair-step separation of the metals from the non-metals; aka Semimetals (alternate name for metalloids as they share some metal (and non-metal) properties) **ALUMINUM IS A METAL, NOT METALLOID
Tetanus
state in which muscles are unable to react at all; results in muscle fatigue; note that the disease tetanus has this but it can also occur under normal circumstances
Law of Mass Action? units?
states that for the reversible reaction aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD at equilibrium and at constant T, Keq = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b FOR REVERSIBLE REACTIONS CONCENTRATIONS IS IN MOLARITY (MOLES/L)
Le Châtelier's Principle
states that if a stress/change is applied to a chemical reaction at equilibrium, it will shift to undo that change the system is out of equilibrium or the equilibrium point has changed intrinsically (due to change in T) the reaction no longer has max entropy / min GFE
Aufbau Principle
states that in electron configuration, electrons COMPLETELY fill lower-to-higher subshells (THIS ORDER FOLLOWS THE PERIODIC TABLE)
Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics? rate equation?
states the rate of a reaction is proportional to the NUMBER OF COLLISIONS per second between the reacting molecules not ALL collisions cause the reaction, only if they occur with the right ENERGY (activation energy/Ea/energy barrier) to break/make bonds and right ORIENTATION AKA: The collision theory focuses on the energy and orientation of reactants, and considers each potential reaction to be "all or nothing" (either there is enough energy to form the products or there isnt) rate = Z • f (Z if the # collisions, f is the # that are effective) & Arrhenius Equation k = Ae^(-Ea/RT)
Proteins begin digestion in the __________________ by the enzyme __________________; the __________________ then releases 4 enzymes: __________________, __________________ and __________________ that continue, and then the __________________ of the small intestine releases __________________ and __________________ to result in the products of...
stomach, pepsin; pancreas, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases A & B; Brush-Border, dipeptidases, aminopeptidases; amino acids, di/tripeptides
Bone remodelling can occur in response to _____________, i.e...
stress; you can hit/break a bone and it will remodel to accommodate
Chemical Bonds
strong attractive forces between valence electrons of atoms that form molecules
Intercalated Discs
structures with gap junctions that connect to cytoplasm of next cells; signalled by Purkinje Fibers to contract the ventricular muscles and make their neighbors contract too
Griffith's Discovery of Transformation:
studied S. pneumonia's 2 strains: virulent and non-virulent, and if he heat-killed the virulent and mixed them with the non-virulent, mice would die via injection even though they wouldn't have previously killed! Discovered "Transformation Principle" Term given to the substance that could be transferred from non living cells to living cells, causing the living cell to show characteristics of the non living cell.
Reaction rate: catalysts
substances speed up reaction without being used up and always LOWER Ea, thus speeding f&rev reaction by same factor! interact by ADSORPTION, through formation of INTERMEDIATES, or STABILIZE INTERMEDIATES to reduce Ea, or INCREASE COLLISIONS, or ORIENT REACTANTS, or DONATE ELECTRON DENSITY, or REDUCE INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS e.g., enzymes; can chemically react, but always return to their original state when the products are ready; do not affect equilibrium of rxn (conc'n, Keq); cannot change non-spontaneous to spontaneous, just speed up rxns
Zero-Order Reaction
sum of the rate law exponents is 0 rate of product formation is independent of changes in reactant concentration rate law = k (since the exponents of the other things are 0, making them 1) in M/s; the only way to change the rate of reaction is 1) T, 2) catalyst; linear negative [A] vs t plot
If a molecule liquifies at a VERY low T, how stronger are its London Forces?
super weak; not very polarizable
Blood Antigens
surface proteins on blood cells (typically "something immune system reacts to")
Point Mutation
swapping 1 nucleotide for another (can make silent, missense, nonsense mutations)
Chromosomal Mutation: Translocation
swapping of DNA from one chromo with that of another
All glands of the body except the __________________ glands are innervated by parasympathetic nerves
sweat glands
Edema
swelling due to fluid collection in tissues, usually because lymphatic vessels are blocked (which normally return excess fluid from tissues into bloodstream)
Although beneficial, interferons produce our ___________, such as...
symptoms; flu-like stuff: malaise, tiredness, soreness, fever
Oxidation number rules: transition metals
take on MANY oxidation numbers, just depends on their charge
Acid-Base ICE Chart
take rows for INITIAL, CHANGE (+x? -x? +2x?), EQUILIBRIUM concentrations of each, and plug Equilibrium into the expression for Ka/Kb and you can find equilibrium concentrations note the (2 + x) in the denominator or whatever is OKAY to approximate x = 0 since usually dissociation is small
Isoelectric Focusing (electrochemistry)? what type of molecule is being seperated?
technique to separate amino acids based on isoelectric point (pI)(pH at which the net charge of the protein is zero) positive amino acids go to the cathode, negative ones to the anode
When ∆H and ∆S have the same sign, the sign of ∆G is dependent on ___________
temperature-dependent
At temperatures around the _________________ of a gas, it will act unideally and have _________________ volume than predicted by the ideal gas law, because_______________and at extremely low temperatures, the gas will have _________________ volume than predicted, because___________
temperatures around the condensing/boiling point; smaller volume than predicted because it condenses into liquid; larger volume, because it cannot condense to 0 volume
The structures of the musculoskeletal system are held together by dense connectives tissues known as...
tendons & ligaments
VSEPR: 4 regions of electron density; shape/angle/example
tetrahedral/109.5˚/CH4
What did classical mechanics say about objects revolving in a circle (like an electron)? Were they correct for the atom?
that it may assume infinite radii and velocities; therefore angular momentum (L = mvr) and kinetic energy (Ek = 1/2mv^2) can take on any value; incorrect for the atom Bohr corrected
Percent Composition
the % composition BY MASS of an element that makes up a compound; PC = (mass of the element in the compound)/(molar mass) x 100%
The 2 agranulocytes
the 'cytes': lymphocytes (B/T cells), monocytes (macrophages)
Electrolytic Cells? spontaneity? absorb or release energy? describe structure?
the 'opposite' of galvanic (other than anode oxidation, cathode reduction, electron & conventional current flow); NON-SPONTANEOUS, REQUIRE ELECTRICAL E INPUT TO DO O-R; performs 'Electrolysis O-R Reaction' where external energy decomposes something that is SUPER unfavourable/spontaneous; does not need to be separate compartments; BIGGEST EXAMPLES: H2O to the 2 gases, molten NaCl to Cl- and Na+, Na+ goes to cathode and is reduced to Na, Cl- goes to anode is is oxidized to Cl2; less dense molten Na floats on top to remove
The 3 granulocytes
the 'phils': neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Only arteries that are not oxygenated
the 1) PULMONARY ones (send blood to heart for oxygen) & 2) UMBILICAL ones (send blood to mother for O2)
Why are 2 cells of an electrochemical cell not connected?
the 2 ions would just react and perform no work
If an antibody on a B-cell's surface binds to an antigen...
the B cell is activated, proliferating into 1) Plasma and 2) Memory cells
Where do all the cellular components of blood originate?
the BONE MARROW; makes RBCs, WBCs, platelets
What vasculature of the body actually interacts with tissue?
the CAPILLARIES; thin walls to diffuse O2 and CO2, nutrients (glucose), waste (ammonia, urea) hormones
Oxidation number rules: monoatomic ions ex: Na+ ex: Cu2+ ex: Fe3+ ex: Cl-
the CHARGE of the ion ex: Na+ = +1 ex: Cu2+ = +2 ex: Fe3+ = +3 ex: Cl- = -1
If Fe3+ forms a complex ion with water, and CN- is added, then...
the CN- will displace water as the ligands of the complex ion, creating huge dipoles, increasing the solubility of Fe3+
Standard Electromotive Force (E˚cell)? what does it depend on?
the DIFFERENCE between the cathode (higher) and anode (lower) reduction potentials; E˚cell = E˚red,cathode - E˚red,anode; DO NOT DEPND ON AMOUNTS (MOLES) OF MATERIAL, JUST THE IDENTITY. This is identity-specific.; note that E˚red,cathode - E˚red,anod apply to the REDUCTION HALF-EQUATIONS OF THOSE SPECIES
The ONLY part of the nephron that can actually DILUTE urine past isotonic with blood (to hypotonic) is...
the Diluting Segment; it is the only place that ACTIVELY TRANSPORTS NaCl out which can dilute blood; this is the only thing that can be used when we are over-hydrated
Molecular Formula
the EXACT number of atoms in a compound (not reduced at al) a multiple if the empirical formula (e.g., Benzene: CH vs C6H6); identical for some substances (e.g., Water, ALL IONIC COMPOUNDS)
WHEN MUSCLE CONTRACTS, the ___________ and ___________ become smaller, the distance between ___________ and ___________ become smaller, but the ___________ remains constant
the I-band and H-zone become smaller, the distance between Z-lines and M-lines become smaller, but the A-band remains constant
The rate-limiting step of complex ion formation is... (2 reasons)
the INITIAL dissolution of the metal ion, 1) because Ksp is low and it needs to dissolve to be available) AND 2) Le Châtelier's will drive more metal to be dissolved after it's eaten up by forming complex ions, thus that process is faster
Which side of the heart is more muscular? Why?
the LEFT; it has that left ventricle which pumps oxygenated blood from the heart to the body; the right lung cannot be as muscular to pump to the lungs as this would damage them
In a covalent compound, where do valence electrons add to?
the NEXT subshell in the (n) of the other valence electrons; Sulfur in Sulfate has 3s^2,3p^4 filled already, and it gains 6 from the oxygens (looking at the molecule) that make it 3s^2,3p^6,3d^4
Critical Point (Phase Diagram)? what occurs past here?
the P and T (ending of the liquid-gas line) at which it's impossible to distinguish between the 3 phases; it becomes a Supercritical Fluid
The __________________ division of the ANS stimulates digestion (secretions from exocrine glands, peristalsis, etc.)
the PARASYMPATHETIC ("rest and digest")
1st line of non-specific immune defense
the SKIN (integument); physical barrier & produces Defensins (antibacterial enzymes) on skin & sweat
What variable can change whether a reaction is spontaneous or not?
the TEMPERATURE according to ∆G being proportional to ∆H and ∆S
What is the difference between dipole-dipole and London Forces?
the TIME they act; d-d is a property of the molecule and they acts permanently, but London Forces are brief, although BOTH ARE IMF OF THE SAME MECHANISM (DIPOLES)
Electromotive Force (emf/Ecell)
the VOLTAGE (electric potential) of an electrochemical cell
Energy Density (battery)
the ability of a battery to produce energy as a function of its weight; you WANT this to be higher; more energy for less weight
Ingestion
the act of actually EATING food
Opsonization
the act of placing an an antigen on an antibody
Primary Response (adaptive immunity)? time?
the activation of B-cells (➝ Plasma & Memory cells) when exposed to an invading antigen; PLASMA CELLS PRODUCE ANTIBODIES; takes 7-10 days to mount the response
In a row, which elements contain the largest atomic radius?
the alkali metals!!!
Dominant Allele
the allele dominates over the other and is ALWAYS EXPRESSED
Recessive Allele
the allele is subordinate to a dominant allele AND MUST BE HOMOZYGOUS for expression
Acid Equivalent
the amount of acid that gives 1 mol H+
Base Equivalent
the amount of base that gives 1 mol OH-
Stroke Volume
the amount of blood pumped per beat of the heart; CO = HR x SV
What does your ionic radius size vary with?
the amount of electrons you have to lose or gain; the more you lose, the smaller you get (metals close to metalloids), the more you gain, the larger you get (non-metals close to metalloids)
Thermal Energy (Enthalpy)? what is it dependent on?
the amount of energy of a substance dependent on the quantity present e.g., just because something is hot does not mean it has a lot of thermal energy (e.g., a small hot cup of coffee vs a cool lake, which has more thermal energy)
Specific Heat (c)?
the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of something by 1C (J/gC or K)
Theoretical and actual yield? percent yield?
the amount of product you expect from a chemical reaction in theory (100% product formation, no inefficiency) vs actual (what was actually produced)
What can differ structurally between different blood vessels?
the amount of smooth muscle! Arteries have more than veins
Ideal Bond Angle? determined by?
the angle between the electron pairs (bonds AND LPs) of a molecule DETERMINED BY THE ELECTRON GEOMETRY e.g., tetrahedral arrangement is 109.5˚ ideal; bond angle LOWERED below IBA as # LPs INCREASE; e.g., NH3 (1 LP) is tetrahedral EG but 107˚ angles, and water is tetrahedral but 2 LP makes it 104.5˚ angles
Why are aqueous ionic compounds good conducers of electricity?
the are free to move and interact
Cations ________ electrons in an ionic bond
the atom that loses electrons (+) in an ionic bond; gives to the anion as its electrons are loose
Anions ________ electrons in an ionic bond
the atoms that gains electrons (-) in an ionic bond; receives from the cation as it gladly takes it to fill the valence shell
Although the enteric nervous system is not dependent on the CNS, how can it still be affected?
the autonomic NS can still affect it
bond length of covalent bonds
the average distance between 2 nuclei of atoms in a bond decreases as the number of shared electrons increases (length wise: single > double > triple bond for a pair of atoms)
Temperature
the average kinetic energy of particles of a substance; scale of how hot or cold something is
Starling Forces
the balances of hydrostatic (water out) vs osmotic pressure (water in) in blood; maintains fluid/solute balance inside/outside the blood vessels
Bolus
the ball of food our tongue forms; forced back to the pharynx and swallowed
The __________ (larger/smaller) the Ka, the _________ (stronger/weaker) the acid
the bigger Ka, the stronger the acid; for weak acids
Active Immunization (Immunity)
the body is stimulated to produce antibodies against a certain invader; either 1) Naturally (expose person to pathogen) to produce antibodies OR 2) Artificially (vaccines) that also produces antibodies (weakened invader or just the antigens injected/inhaled)
Digestion
the breakdown of food to the composing organic molecules (carbs to monosaccharides, fats to glycerol + fatty acids, proteins to AAs)
What blood vessels of the body actually deliver hormones to their targets?
the capillaries!
Into what vessels are hormones secreted?
the capillaries; this is done in the endocrine tissue, and then they're carried elsewhere
Epiglottis
the cartilage structure that covers laryngopharynx (leads to larynx) so food doesn't get into the airway
Articular Cartilage
the cartilage that stops bones from touching each other at movable joints
The appendix is attached to...
the cecum; the first 1/3 of the large intestine
Sarcolemma
the cell membrane name of a myocyte
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG)? what does - and + mean?
the change in energy that determines if a reaction occurs spontaneously or not (-) means spontaneous, (+) means not (needs outside input)
Hypermutation of antibodies
the changing of antibody antigen-binding region in attempt to find a peptide that is the BEST match for its antigen
Systemic Circuit
the circuit of bleed that sends/receives from the body; right heart receives the deoxygenated blood and sends it to heart, left pumps oxygenated blood from lungs to body
Pulmonary Circuit
the circuit of blood that sends/receives from lungs; right heart pumps deoxygenated blood there, left heart accepts oxygenated back
Chemical Digestion
the cleavage of molecules down to their composing parts (e.g., carbs to monosaccharides)
Stoichiometric coefficients
the coefficients placed in front of compounds in a balanced chemical equation; indicate relative number of moles that react and are produced
Sarcomeres
the combo of actin and myosin that makes skeletal muscle look striped microscopically
If you wanted to precipitate Ag1+ out of a solution of both AgCl and AgS (Ag2+ & S2-), then you could use...
the common ion effect, add XCl (something with Cl) so AgCl specifically precipitates
Atria
the compartments of the heart that receive blood from the either 1) venae cavae (right) or 2) pulmonary veins (left)
Ventricles
the compartments of the heart that send blood to either 1) the lungs (right) or 2) the body (left)
Strong Electrolytes (+examples)
the compound solvates into its ions e z e.g., NaCl, KI, covalent molecules that are highly polar and dissociate
Tonus
the constant state of low-level contraction that some smooth muscle maintains (e.g., in blood vessels)
Sarcomere? myosin? actin? titin?
the contractile subunit of skeletal muscle; 1) Thick (myosin) Filament, 2) Thin (actin) filaments + Troponin & Tropomyosin (regulate the first twos' interactions), 3) Titin (spring that anchors actin-myosin together, preventing huge stretch)
Sphygmomanometer
the device used to measure blood pressure; measures gauge pressure in systemic circulation
What happens to the difference in energy between shells as you move away from the nucleus?
the difference DECREASES according to function (1/n2^2 = 1/n1^2); e.g., energy difference between 3 and 4 is smaller than 1 and 2
Oxygen Debt
the difference between OXYGEN NEEDED vs OXYGEN PRESENT when exercising; also known as the amount of oxygen needed to convert all Lactic Acid into Pyruvate AKA: The amount of extra oxygen needed by muscle tissue to oxidize lactic acid following exercise. During vigorous exercise, the body needs a lot more energy, and therefore has to get more oxygen into the muscle tissue where energy is needed.
Oxidation States
the different charges an atom's ions can take on
Electron Shells
the different levels (/distances) that electrons exist from the nucleus; those further out have higher energy
Other than entry points into the body, immune cells gather inside of use in the _____________ system where pathogens can be absorbed
the digestive system
Bone Remodelling? between what two substances?
the dynamic equilibrium of bone construction & destruction to maintain bone via osteoblasts (build) and osteoclasts (macrophage; destroy) w/ high turnover rate
Anode (electrochemical cells)
the electrode where OXIDATION (lose e-) occurs, releasing electrons that flow to the cathode
Cathode (electrochemical cells)
the electrode where REDUCTION (gaining e-) occurs, taking electrons flowing from the anode
Solvation? bonds?
the electrostatic interaction b/t solute + solvent, aka dissolution intermolecular bonds b/t solute broken, and established w/ the solvent
Formula Unit of a compound
the empirical formula of an ionic compound; the lowest ratio of each ion to the other
Bond Energy of covalent bonds
the energy required to break a bond and separate the 2 parts into gaseous atomic states increases with the number of shared electrons (triple > double > single); the higher the energy, the stronger the bond
If the electronegativities of 2 atoms are too close, what is the energy of ionic bonding?
the energy required to form ions (transferring electrons) is greater than energy released by forming an ionic bond; UNFAVOURABLE TO CREATE IONS; share instead
Adaptive radiation is favoured when...
the environment changes (demanding new niche fitting) OR small groups of the ancestral species are isolated
Carbonic Anhydrase
the enzyme that catalyzes the reversible reaction of CO2 + H2O becoming H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)
the equilibrium constant for the dissolving of an ionic compound ; note exponents are the other species' charge note there is no denominator because there are no aqueous reactants
Atrial Kick
the extra blood (5-30% of each heartbeat) that is added by Atrial Systole (SA node exited, contracting both atria to fill ventricles); most blood pumped still comes from passively filling ventricles
Alimentary Canal
the extracellular digestion canal from runs from mouth to anus and is section off by sphincters
Periosteum
the fibrous sheath around long bones that protect & connect it to muscle; some can differentiate into bone (growth/repair!)
3 Exceptions to the electronegative trend
the first 3 noble gases; they have high ionization energies, they don't rly form bonds
Effusion (Graham's Law of Diffusion-Effusion)
the flow of gas under pressure from one compartment to another via a small opening effusion is the flow of gas under pressure from one compartment to another via a small opening, and if 2 gases are at same T, the rate is proportional to average speed
Genetic Leakage
the flow of genes from 1 species to another; e.g., in making a species hybrid
Coagulation
the formation of a clot
Endochondral Ossification
the formation of bone from cartilage how most of the long bone in the body arises
Speciation
the formation of new species as a result of evolution
Allele Frequency
the frequency of an allele in a population out of all alleles; e.g., if there are 25 copies of q grand total and 75 of p, then q's frequency is 25% (ALSO YOU HAVE TO CONSIDER HAVING TWO COPIES OF ONE ALLELE IN HOMOZYGOTES!!!)
Reduction (chem)
the gain of electrons
Genotype
the genetic combo of alleles an individual has
Which leukocyte class causes inflammation?
the granulocytes
Which leukocyte class is involved in enemy destruction via chemical granules?
the granulocytes
Bond length vs electronegativity
the greater the difference in electronegativity between atoms of a covalent molecule, the shorter the bond length this is because when you add the ATOMIC RADII OF THE 2 ATOMS, a more electronegative one has a smaller atomic radius!!
What is the oxidation state of the halogen in the polyatomic oxyanions? e.g., (BrO3 -), (IO3 -), (ClO3 -)
the halogen is actually POSITIVE OXIDATION STATE! (e.g., (BrO3 -), (IO3 -), (ClO3 -))
Cardiovascular System (3 parts)
the heart, the blood vessels, and blood
What are the valence electrons for the transition elements?
the highest s and d subshells (despite the different n values) THUS EX: IRON HAS 8 VALENCE ELECTRONS (2 FROM THE S ORBITAL AND 6 FROM THE D ORBITAL SINCE BOTH PLAY A ROLE IN BONDING)
What are the valence electrons for the lanthanides and actinides?
the highest s and f subshells (despite their different n values)
What are the valence electrons for groups 13-18?
the highest s and p electrons
What are the valence electrons for groups 1 and 2?
the highest s shell
Example of our body's response to an intracellular virus infection:
the infected cells releases Interferons to decreases permeability of surrounding cells to the virus & lower their transcription/translation to avoid virus multiplication & cause symptoms ➝ presents intracellular proteins, some of which will now be viral and signal to other cells its been infected ➝ CD8+ T-cells recognize the foreign MHC-I and inject toxins for apoptosis ➝ if virus downregulates MHC-I, NKs will recognize and kill ➝ memory cells stored
Mendel's Second Law (Independent Assortment)
the inheritance of 1 gene does not affect the other tetrads of recombination in meiosis I mixes up genes so they're not REALLY inherited together
If a full reaction mechanism is given, and you KNOW the coefficients of the reactants in the rate determining step, and you want to use them as the exponents in the rate law, what is the problem with an intermediate as a reactant in that step?
the intermediate must have its conc'n determined from the equilibrium constant (law of mass action) from the step that produced it to be able to plug it into rate law
The kidney's two 'main goals'
the keep what we need, and to rid what we don't need
Renal Tubular Acidosis Type I? respiratory compensation?
the kidney cannot excrete acid effectively to restore blood pH; LEADS TO INCREASE OF PROTONS IN BLOOD & people breathe faster to blow off CO2 to compensate
The __________ (larger/smaller) the Ka, the __________(larger/smaller) the Kb (acids/bases)
the larger the Ka, the smaller the Kb since KaKb = Kw; this means a strong acid's conjugate base is a weak base!!!
Atomic Emission Spectrum
the line spectrum per atom; it's fingerprint; each atoms electrons can be excited to distinct sets of energy levels AKA: Atomic emission spectra are unique spectra of light emitted by an element when electricity is run through it or when it is viewed through a prism. Because they are unique, they can act as an element's fingerprint. ... It's a set of frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by excited elements of an atom.
Z-Lines (Sarcomere)
the lines that define the boundary of each sarcomere
Plasma
the liquid portion of blood; aqueous mix of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, proteins
Germinal Centres (lymph nodes)
the location where antigen-presenting cells show antigens to B-cells, activating them (proliferate, mature)
Oxidation (chem)
the loss of electrons
Lymph Nodes & Edema
the lymphatic system can take up excess interstitial fluid (fluid pushed out of blood vessels into tissue), but if there a problem blocking the lymph nodes, this can't happen
White Fat
the main insulating fat found in humans, just below our skin
Molar Mass
the mass of 1 mole of a substance; EQUAL TO THE MOLECULAR/FORMULA WEIGHT (amu) YOU ADD FROM THE PERIODIC TABLE JUST IN g/mol!
Gram Equivalent Weight
the mass of a compound that produces 1 equivalent of a particle of interest; GEW = M/N (N is the number of the particle of interest per molecule)
Atomic Mass
the mass of an atom based off of 1 amu being equal to 1/12 of C-12's weight
What is the difference in mass between a proton an neutron?
the mass of an electron!
If an atom has 2+ isotopes, then the Atomic Weight is never equal to...
the masses of any of its isotopes; and of course no atom will ever weigh 35.5amu (decimal), it must be even
If an antibody on a Mast Cell's surface binds to an antigen...
the mast cell degranulates, exocytosing histamine granules
What does the reactivity of a metalloid depend on?
the material with which they are reacting; e.g., Boron reacts like a non-metal with Na, but like a metal with F
Theoretical Yield
the maximum grams of product that can be generated (if all of the limiting reagent is used, no side reactions, the entire product is collected); rare
PaO2
the measurement of oxygen in the blood; Partial Pressure of O2; normally 70-100mmHg; problematic as you need to sample an artery
Reaction rate: medium? which are usually preferred? why?
the medium/environment that the reaction likes is specific: some like aqueous, some like non-aqueous (DMSO, ethanol), some like gas or solids POLAR SOLVENTS are usually preferred as they polarize the bonds of the reactants, lengthening and weakening them, speeding up reaction; ex: water, most alcohols, formic acid, hydrogen fluoride, and ammonia
How can metal polyatomic anions (CrO4 2-, MnO4 -) be negatively charged AND have positive oxidation states?
the metal is still positively charged (EXTREMELY positive, like 6+ or 7+) so don't worry, and the anion's (-) just outweighs it; note: they're good oxidizing agents
Trends of Ionicity & challenges on periodic table
the metals form cations, the non-metals form anions, but this is complicated by elements with intermediate electronegativities (less like to form ions) and by the left-to-right change in metallic character
M-Lines (Sarcomere)
the middle line of a sarcomere (through middle of myosin filament)
Subtraction Frequency (transition metals)
the mix of frequencies of light that are not absorbed by a transition metal jumping electrons from the lower split lower d to split higher d; the complementary (OPPOSITE) colour is seen! (note this is not additive but subtractive colour mixing: it does not work like paint mixing!) Carotene light colour example: it only absorbs blue light, so the colour we see is (white light - blue light) or the complement (opposite) of blue: YELLOW! (note this is not additive but subtractive colour mixing: it does not work like paint mixing!)
Molar Solubility
the molarity of a solute when it's at its saturation point; i.e. max conc'n
Entropy vs Microstates
the more microstates something exists in, the more entropy e.g, when NaCl is dissolved, it leaves the lattice and is more free in-solution, thus has higher microstates + entropy
Reaction rate: reactant conc'n
the more reactants (or the more PRESSURE if a gas), the more effective collisions, the higher the A value in Arrhenius equation, and the faster the rate; FOR ALL BUT ZERO-ORDER REACTIONS The reaction rate (the speed of reaction) is the change in the concentration of a reactant or product per the change in time
Raoult's Law (vapour pressure depression)? equation?
the more solute there is in solution (colligative; doesn't matter what the solutes are), the lower the vapour pressure of the solvent vapour will be; PROPORTIONAL; occurs because the presence of solute particles blocks evaporation of solvent (but does nothing to condensation) Pa = XaPa˚ where Pa is the pressure of solvent A when solute is present, Xa is the mole fraction of solvent a out of everything, and Pa˚ is the pressure of solvent a when alone
Neutrophils
the most populous leukocyte in the blood; short life (5 days) that use Chemotaxis to follow invading bacteria based on 1) chemical stimuli (moving up the concentration gradient towards them) 2) sense the antibody placed on it by a B-cell & phagocytosing them
Standard State (thermochem)? values?
the most stable form of a substance under standard conditions (25C (298K), 1M, 1atm) e.g., H2, NaCl, O2, C are the most stable forms of those respective elements
Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)
the most well-known PRRs (pattern recognition receptors)
Osteoclasts
the name for macrophages in the bone
Langerhans Cells
the name for macrophages in the skin
Vagus Nerve
the nerve that provides parasympathetic signal to the heart (slow rate)
Mole
the number of "things" (atoms, ions, molecules) present, where 1 mole = 6.02x10^(23)
1 Mole
the number of atoms found in 12 grams of carbon-12; aka Avogadro's Number (Na) = 6.022•10^23/mol
Coordination Number? determines what?
the number of atoms that surround and are bonded to a central atom; determines the MOLECULAR GEOMETRY (not electron!) e.g., CH4, NH3, H2O are all same electron geometry (tetrahedral) but their different coordinate numbers (4, 3, and 2) make them different molecular geometries (tetrahedral, pyramidal, bent)
Fx Generation
the offspring ('filial') of a cross; x denotes the generation number AFTER PARENTS (x = 1 means the P generation's kids)
What is the tug-of-war analogy of ionic bonding?
the one with higher EN wins all the electrons by tugging hardest on the electrons; becomes the anion
If 2 solutions are mixed, AB and AC, the one that will precipitate because of the common ion is...
the one with the LOWER Ksp, since this one is less soluble!
Thrombocytes
the other name for platelets
Valence Electrons
the outmost electrons of an atomic; weaker interaction with the atom, strongest interaction with the environment
On the Hb cooperativity curve (% Hb bound to O2 vs mmHg of O2), howcan you tell much oxygen is released into tissue?
the oxygen released into tissue is simply the oxygen % not bound to Hb; e.g., 20mmHg; at this, according to the cooperativity curve, 30% of Hb stays bound to O2, meaning 70% was released into tissues
Bohr Effect (pH)(O2 hemoglobin curve)
the oxyhemoglobin curve shifts to the RIGHT (decreased affinity for O2) when blood pH drops, as free H+ (e.g., from CO2 as bicarb) allosterically binds and lowers affinity for O2; 100mmHg in the lungs is still 100% Hb bound tho!; obviously increases if pH raises
Solute
the part of solution dissolved; in lesser amounts
Solvent
the part of solution that is THE SAME after mixing; in larger amounts
In general, the difference between the 5 subtypes of Igs is...
the pathogen they fight & the location in which they are used
Thymosin
the peptide hormone that matures T-cells (secreted by thymic cells)
Variable Expressivity (genetics)
the phenotype exhibited appears in different degrees
Constant Expressivity (genetics)
the phenotype exhibited only appears in 1 degree/way
Phenotype
the physical manifestation of the genotype of an individual
Endpoint (titration)
the point at which the indicator changes colour (AFTER equivalence point); usually negligible volume difference between it and equivalence point
Triple Point
the point on a phase diagram where the 3 phases (phase boundaries) meet; all 3 phases exist in equilibrium
Locus
the position of a gene on a chromosome, CONSISTENT among people
Plating (Galvanization)
the precipitation of the salt bridge ions onto the corresponding electrochemical cell (anion builds on the anode to balance (+) charge creation, and cation builds on cathode)
Vapour Pressure (henrys law)
the pressure exerted by evaporated particles above the surface of a liquid; the pressure created fore some molecules back down into the liquid, and at the same time some of the liquid gains enough energy to become gas (dynamic equilibrium!) Vapor pressure from the evaporated molecules forces some of the gas back into the liquid phase, and equilibrium is reached between evaporation and condensation (this expressed as a formula)
What pushes blood through vascular resistance?
the pressure gradient of blood!
Gauge Pressure
the pressure measured relative to at and beyond sea level
Isotype Switching (antibodies)
the process in which cells change with antibody type (DAMEG) they produce IN RESPONSE TO specific CYTOKINES
Calorimetry (2 types)
the process of measuring transferred heat constant-pressure & constant-volume
Kinetic Product (thermochem)
the product that forms faster, but isn't necessarily as stable
Thermodynamic Product (thermochem)
the product that is more stable, but probably forms slower
Humoral Immunity
the production of antigen-specific antibodies by B-cells
Hematopoiesis
the production of blood cells and platelets (via bone marrow); triggered by hormones, growth factors, cytokines
Reaction Mechanism (chem)
the proposed series of sub-steps in a reaction because it is the only way to explain rates (NOT captured by the overall chemical equation); determines reaction rate, equilibrium, and thermodynamics characteristics
How does quantum number n determine the values of l?
the range of l is 0 to n-1; the value of n is also the # of different subshells (e.g., n = 1 has 1 type of subshell, n = 2 has 2 types, etc.)
The rate of evolution is measured as...
the rate of change of genotype over time
Secondary Response (adaptive immunity)
the re-activation of Memory B-cells when an antigen is re-encountered; THEY start producing the antibodies; RAPID & ROBUST compared to the primary response
Kidney: Reabsorption (3/3)
the reabsorption of CERTAIN things that were secreted that can still be used; most commonly glucose, amino acids, and vitamin
If there were ONLY a wire connected 2 cells of an electrochemical cell, what would happen?
the redox would stop after all positive charge remvains at the anode; countervoltage would build that prevents redox! AKA: THE SALT BRIDGE CANT BALANCE THE CHARGE
Common Ion Effect? What happens to Ksp? What direction?
the reduction in MOLAR SOLUBILITY of a salt because the solution already has 1 of those ions dissolved Ksp stays the same for salt AB, if A is already present, less AB will dissolve; basically Le Châtelier's, shifting equilibrium left to reactants; IN THE KSP EQUATION OF THE SALT YOU'RE ADDING, THE [C] OF THE COMMON ION IS KSP MUST BE THE SUM OF THE OG AND THIS ADDED ION
The widest part of the ureter would be...
the renal pelvis (the beginning of it)
Where is the SA Node?
the right atrium
Adaptive Radiation
the rise of MANY species from a common ancestor; benefit?- they all occupy DIFFERENT NICHES and thus do not compete
Which electrons are drawn on Lewis structures?
the s and p electrons
Pericardium
the sac that protect the heart
Kidney: Secretion (2/3)
the secretion of salts, acids, bases and urea ETC. into the tubule of the nephron DEFINED AS ANYWHERE ELSE BUT BOWMAN'S CAPSULE via passive OR! active transport, dependent on what our body needs to do (i.e. lower or maintain a level of something, e.g. like nitrogenous waste/urea that built up, etc.)
Aortic Valve
the semilunar valve that separates left ventricle from the aorta; 3 leaflets
Pulmonary Valve
the semilunar valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary arteries (to lungs); 3 leaflets
Spectroscopic Notation (list them)(quantum number options for l?)
the shorthand notation for Azimuthal Number (l); represented as a letter; l = 0 = s; l = 1 = p; l = 2 = d; l = 3 = f e.g. if something is n = 4 and l = 2, it is in the 4d subshell
Structural Formulas of molecules
the skeletal drawings of molecules that show the covalent bonds
The delay in having our sick symptoms subsiding is due to...
the slow pace of the adaptive immune system responding
Rate-Determining Step
the slowest step in a reaction mechanism; limits the speed of the overall reaction down to it because it bottlenecks
Capillaries
the smallest vasculature; perfuse tissue delivering oxygen from arterioles, then re-group into venules; only 1 layer of endothelial cells; thin walls to diffuse O2 and CO2, nutrients (glucose), waste (ammonia, urea), hormones
Raoult's law depicts an 'ideal solution', meaning...
the solute particles MUST have equal attraction to the solvent, equal to that of the solvent's attraction to themselves; IF NOT, THE LAW WILL DEVIATE!
Reason why electrolytic cells are non-spontaneous, according to reduction potentials
the species with higher reduction potential, which wants to be reduced, is forced to be oxidized (thus it is considered the anode too); the other one = cathode which has a less reduction potential but is forced to be reduced -> non-spontaneous
Reason why galvanic cells are spontaneous, according to reduction potentials
the species with the higher reduction potential is allowed to be reduced (gain e-), which is what's supposed to happen: thus it occurs naturally/spontaneously AKA: The electrode has a more positive reduction potential in the cathode (get the e-) and the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the anode -> naturally things want to gain e- -> it is spontaneous and G is (-)
Hematopoietic Stem Cell
the stem cells that produce all blood cells in the bone marrow
Stoichiometric Coefficients vs Rate of Use/Appearance of reactants/products
the stoichiometric coefficients show the RELATIVE RATES of use; e.g., A + 2B → 3C; twice as much B is used over time as A, and X3 as much C is made than A over time, and 3/2 times as much C is made as B is used
Which layer of the epidermis is 'optional'? Where is it found?
the stratum Lucidum; it's only found in thick & hairless skin area (hands, feet)
Osteons (Haversian Systems)
the structural units of Bony Matrix; contains Lamellae (concentric circles of Bony Matrix) with Lacunae between them (houses for mature Osteocytes/bone cells) that are connected by Canaliculi (exchange nutrients/waste between the canals and osteocytes) & Volkmann's Canals (perpendicular to the bone with blood vessels, nerves, lymph to maintain bone)
Lattice Structure
the structure of ionic bonding rows of alternating-repeating cations and anions all get together
Supercritical Fluid (thermochem)
the substance that exists at high T and P (critical point) of a phase diagram; liquid heated (density decreases) and the vapour above it has density increase, and these 2 densities become equal, thus there is no difference
Molecular Weight
the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms IN A MOLECULE (unit amu)
Mass Number (A)
the sum of the protons + neutrons in an atom, averaged over the abundance of isotopes
Where do veins bring blood for the heart?
the superior/inferior vena cavae
Interstitium of nephron
the surrounding connective tissue; takes anything reabsorbed at any point to the vasa recta
_______________, _____________, ________ and _______________ originate in the dermis
the sweat glands, blood vessels, sensory receptors, and hair follicles
Solvation (chem)
the tendency of an ionic compounds to dissolve into its constituent ions; high OR low water (or the solvent) will surround it, pointing the oppositely charged dipole at it!
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
the theory that accounts for the geometric shapes of molecules takes Lewis structures and predicts the 3D arrangement of the molecule as determined by repulsion between bonding and non-bonding pairs in the valence shell of the central atom (arrange as far as possible to minimize repulsion)
In Gibbs Free Energy, T∆S represents...
the total amount of energy the system absorbs when a process changes its entropy reversibly
Cardiac Output (concept)
the total blood pumped by a ventricle in 1 minute, typically 5L; DOESN'T MATTER WHICH, they're in a circuit so that same volume of blood passes
Heat (Q)? changes due to?
the transfer for energy from one substance to another due to a difference in temperature between the 2 (warm gives E to cold); process function
Passive Immunization (Immunity)
the transfer of antibodies to an individual TRANSIENT because the person is not able to produce the antibodies themselves (e.g., antibodies crossing the placenta, in breast milk, or used to prevent spread of rabies/tetanus via intravenous)
Absorption (digestive system)
the transport of the products of digestion from the digestive tract to circulatory system (sent around the body to tissue to use)
Resonance Hybrid
the true structure of a compound that has resonance, a hybrid of the individual resonance structures; e.g., SO2; although structures suggest a double bond to 1 O and a single to another, both are EQUAL bonds
What is constant between the structures of different blood vessels?
the types of cells that compose them!
Which electrons determine the reactivity of an atom?
the valence electrons
Atrioventricular Valves
the valves between the atria and ventricles; prevents backflow into the atria: Bi and Tricuspid
Semilunar Valves
the valves between the ventricles and the vasculature they pump to; necessary to build the pressure needed to shoot blood through the body & prevents backflow: aortic and pulmonary
Countercurrent Multiplier System
the vasa recta + nephron's effects where: The flow of filtrate through the Loop of Henle is OPPOSITE the flow through vasa recta; this keeps their concentrations of stuff different (NOT ISOTONIC), and always exposes the filtrate to hypertonic (high osmolarity) blood TO FORCE WATER OUT
Superior Vena Cava
the vena cava (vein) that returns blood from everywhere above the heart
Inferior Vena Cava
the vena cava (vein) that returns blood from everywhere below the heart
Intermolecular Forces
the weak electrostatic attractions between all molecules determine properties like MP, BP, etc. (keep solids and liquids together)
Formula Weight of a compound
the weight of an IONIC compound they have no molecular weight because there is no 'molecule', thus this is the weight of their formula unit (add the weights of the atoms in the formula unit)
Atomic Weight
the weight of an atom averaged (weighted) over the different masses of its isotopes e.g., Cl-35 and Cl-37; 35 is x3 more abundant, so the atomic weight on PT is 35.5
Scientists can tell how similar 2 species are by examining...
their DNA (e.g., humans & chimps are 95% similar
The names for the granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) are named after...
their appearance after being stained
Natural Selection
theory that certain traits help someone have greater reproductive success, and thus they can have offspring and pass them on (Darwin)
Neither the glomeruli nor Bowman's capsule swell with fluid because...
they are isotonic
What do we understand about electrons now, instead of Bohr's planet model?
they are not in orbits, but restricted to regions of space around the nucleus
What does the ability to form many different complexes allow for transition metals?
they can take on many different properties depending on what's bound (e.g., AgCl is not aqueous, but silver ammonia is (Ag(NH3)2)2+
Why are covalent molecules poor conductors in solution?
they do not dissolve into ions; they stay together when dissolved
Why do veins recoil less than arteries?
they have less smooth muscle in their walls
Why are pregnant women at greater risk for varicose veins?
they have more blood volume & their inferior vena cava is pressed by the fetus, pushing blood DOWN the veins in their legs
How do the leg veins prevent backflow of blood with gravity?
they have valves that open only to flow up and slam shut if blood tries to flow back
How must lanthanides and actinides fit into electron configuration?
they must be filled first when you hit rows 6 and 7, note there are n = 4 and 5
Why can you not measure the distance from an atom to its valence electrons?
they're constantly moving
Calluses? caused by?
thick depositions of keratin in the skin due to excess friction; wants to avoid damage in the future
Veins
thin-walled, relatively inelastic vessels, low smooth muscle; what venules become, ultimately becoming the vena cavae to bring blood to heart
Most lymphatic vessels join to form the ______________________ in the posterior chest, which deposits fluid into the __________________
thoracic duct; left subclavian vein
The lacteals (carrying chylomicrons w/ fat) converge into the __________________ duct, which empties into the __________________ vein of the circulation system
thoracic duct; left subclavian vein
To reabsorb a lot of water, the kidney is capable of actually CHANGING the ______________ of the interstitium surrounding the nephron depending on need; when you need to conserve water, the concentrations of stuff at the cortex are low (isotonic to blood), but high in the medulla, forcing water out; the kidney lowers those concentrations when its trying to pee out water
those concentrations are set-up by the kidney - osmolarity The kidney conserves water by first diluting urine as it moves through the loop of Henle and then concentrating urine in the distal tubules and collecting ducts (the latter under the influence of antidiuretic hormone or ADH).
What types of atoms does Bohr's orbit and emission theory work for?
those with ONE electron (H, He+, Li2+)
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
T-cells are matured in the _________, a small gland in front of the pericardium
thymus
T-cells mature in the _____________, whereas B-cells mature in the _____________ and ultimate become active in either the ____________ or ______________
thymus; bone marrow; spleen; lymph nodes
Avery, MacLeod & McCarty's Discovery of DNA as the genetic material (Mice)
took lots of heat-killed virulent S. pneumonia, separated the substances inside them, and found that mice died when the substance was treated with PROTEIN DEGRADING ENZYME, but not DNA DEGRADING ENZYMES; therefore the substance was DNA
Ways that a protein can be 'mutated' without change to DNA
transcription pairing wrong or translation tRNA pairing wrong or incorrect AA bound to tRNA
Lyman Series? releases what?
transition of an H electron down to n = 1 (from n = 2 or higher); larger energy, shorter wavelengths; UV light
Balmer Series? releases what?
transition of an H electron down to n = 2 (from n = 3 or higher); releases 4 wavelengths of VISIBLE light
Paschen Series? releases what?
transition of an H electron down to n = 3 (from = 4 or higher); releases IR
T/F: saliva does mechanical & chemical digestion
true; enzymes breakdown food and saliva lubricates it to be mechanically digested
The 4 pancreatic peptidases
trypsinogen, chymtrypsinogen, carboxylase A & B
If you lack a particular disaccharidase, then you are __________________ to break down that disaccharide; instead, __________________ in your intestines will hydrolyze it and produce __________________ as a by-product
unable; bacteria; methane gas
Graham's Law (Diffusion & Effusion) equation
under isothermal & isobaric conditions, the rate of 2 gases diffusing/effusing are inversely proportional to the square root of their molar masses: r1/r2 = √(M2/M1), where r are the rates of diffusion i.e. a gas x4 as heavy is x2 as slow
Compared to skeletal muscle, smooth muscle appears ___________ because...
unstriped; the actin and myosin is not as organized into sarcomeres
Properties of molecules that hydrogen bond
unusually high BP, extreme energy to break the hydrogen bond
Non-metal (on table)
upper right of table EXCEPTION: HYDROGEN = NONMETAL
Location of the stomach
upper-left quadrant of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm
Papillary Layer (dermis)
upper-most layer; loose connective tissue
How to use recombination frequency (genetic mapping) to figure out order of genes on the chromosome
use your head to find the distances, and the number should add up when you plot
Equivalent Weight (Equivalents)
used for acid-base, oxidation-reduction, precipitation reactions you must understand things like 1 mol HCl gives 1 mol H+, 1 mol H2SO4 gives 2 mol H+, and 1 mol H3PO4 gives 3 mol H+; thus if you need 1 mol H+ for a reaction, you can use 1 mol, 1/2 a mol, and 1/3 mol of each of those substances, 1 equivalents vs 2 equivalents vs 3 equivalents 1 mol of Na can donate 1 mol electrons to become Na+, but 1 mol of Mg can donate 2 mol electrons to become Mg2+, so for 1 mol electrons only 1/2 mol Mg is needed
Bohr Model
used info from Rutherford and Planck to electronically model an atom; hydrogen had electrons circling in ORBITS held in by centripetal force that was created by electrostatic force between the proton and electron
The Complement System fights bacteria by...
using non-specific proteins that punch holes in cell walls to make them osmotically unstable
Oxidation number rules: oxygen? exceptions? Ex: Peroxide (O2 2-) Ex: O in HOCl Ex: O in OF2
usually -2, but in peroxides (O2 2-) its -1, and 2+ with more electronegative atoms Ex: Peroxide (O2 2-) = -1 Ex: O in HOCl = -2 Ex: O in OF2 = 2+
Why is the Bohr Effect (oxyhemoglobin curve shifts to the RIGHT (decreased affinity for O2) when blood pH drops) beneficial?
usually our blood pH drops when exercising (lots of CO2 produced), thus the affinity for O2 goes down so it can drop off in tissues more effectively; 100mmHg in the lungs is still 100% Hb bound tho!
Excretory System: pH Regulation? pH too low? pH too high?
usually the respiratory system does it (quicker response), but Kidney can increase/decrease excretion/reabsorption of H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate) depending if pH is too acidic, excrete H+, reabsorb HCO3-
Electron sharing in covalent bonds usually creates __________
usually unequal electronegativity and dictated by bond polarity (electronegativity)
The number of nuclei in cardiac muscle is...
usually uninucleated, but sometimes two.
Which structure is weighted the most in the resonance hybrid? aka: how do you know which resonance structure is the most stable?
usually with least formal charges AND the negative formal charge is on the most electronegative atom Ex: in picture, the (1) structure is the most stable structure
The 4 colligative properties
vapour pressure depression, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure
Is atomic mass constant or variable?
variable The number of neutrons is variable, resulting in isotopes, which are different forms of the same atom that vary only in the number of neutrons they possess ATOMIC MASS = MASS NUMBER ALMOST
Genetic Drift
variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population, owing to the chance disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not reproduce. most common = Founder Effect, where a small number of genes from few individuals happens after a Genetic Bottleneck Effect (leaving them in genetic/geographical isolation from others of their species) can lead to homozygosity/loss of diversity that leaves small populations vulnerable to disease
Expressivity (genetics)
varying DEGREES of expression of a certain genotype (different symptoms etc.)
The cardiovascular system regulates blood pressure by ______________ or ______________, whichever is needed
vasoconstriction, vasodilation
ADH is also called...
vasopressin
Veins: smooth muscle vs skeletal muscle to push up
veins have low smooth muscle to push blood up (e.g., legs) thus rely on external skeletal muscle to push blood up like toothpaste
Varicose Veins
veins that form when the anti-backflow valves in the veins of the legs fail; blood pools there
Pulmonary Veins
veins that return oxygenated blood to
What are the chemical/physical properties of a molecule compared to the parent atoms?
very different! E.g. sodium is reactive with water and produces water, but NaCl is table salt and doesn't react with water AT ALL
Higher-Order Reactions
very few reactions are termolecular (3 molecule, third-order) rates, because this implies 3 molecules need to collide with the right orientation and such to react... even less above that
The appendix was once thought to be __________________, but evidence now shows it may have a role in fighting __________________ infections, and __________________ the large intestine's __________________ after diarrhea
vestigial (no function); bacterial; repopulating; flora
The small intestine is lined with __________________, small finger-like projections, each with their OWN smaller finger-like projections called __________________; they increase the __________________ for absorption
villi; microvilli; surface area
If you are unable to absorb fats in the intestine properly (leading to liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine problems), you may also be unable to absorb __________________
vitamins (Vitamin deficiencies!)
A ____________ is connected to an electrochemical cell to measure electromotive force
voltmeter
How waste is transported in blood, in general
waste goes WITH it's gradient out of tissue → most waste travels to kidneys and is excreted to be peed out
The main role of the large intestine is...
water absorption
Autoionization of Water
water is amphoteric, and will take an H (basic) if acid is around, and give an H (acid) if base is around; this can even happen with other water molecules! = hydronium + hydroxide
The descending loop of Henle is permeable only to ______________ and the surrounding interstitium (as you move down into the medulla) becomes ______________ concentrated; ascending loop of Henle is permeable only to ______________ and the surrounding interstitium (as you move up into the cortex) now becomes ______________ concentrated
water, more; salts, less
__________________-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with water/carbs/amino acids, directly into __________________ cells and passing directly into __________________
water-soluble; endothelial cells; plasma
Use of atomic emission spectra
we can see what elements stars and planets are made of by resolving the component wavelengths and matching to atomic spectra
How has the new idea of orbitals been refined?
we define them as regions of space that have a probability of finding an electron there
How do we identify what elements make up a gas?
we must be ABSORPTION SPECTRA; see what wavelengths of light the gas will absorb
Serum
what blood plasma is refined into by removing clotting factors
Bruising
what happens when capillaries and damaged and blood enters a (closed) interstitial space
Boiling Point Elevation (colligative properties)? why? equation?
when (non-volatile) solutes are added to a solution, the boiling point of the solvent increases (point at which vapour pressure = ambient pressure, which decreases according to Rault's Law, meaning more E needed to vaporize) ΔT = iKb*m, where ΔT is the increase in T, i is van't hoff factor (the number of ion/molecules the solute contributes, i.e. NaCl = 2 and glucose = 1), Kb is a provided constant, and m is the molality of solution (moles solute/kg solvent)
Complete Dominance
when 1 gene is ALWAYS expressed over another
Codominance
when 2 alleles of the same gene are expressed simultaneously (e.g., ABO blood types)
Polarity of a covalent bond
when 2 atoms with different polarities enter a covalent bond, the sharing of electrons is uneven higher EN = greater electron density
Transition State Theory
when 2 reactants collide with at least the Ea, the old bonds start to break, the new bonds start to form, and then forms products AKA: Focuses on forming high-energy activated complex that can then proceed forwards or backwards, forming the products or reverting to the reactants
Reproductive Isolation (Evolution)
when 2 subsects of a species have been (geographically) separated for so long that they can not longer interbreed; now different species
Oxidation-reduction/ionic equation: combination reactions
when 2 things combine, you can write out an ionic equation & write out the half-reactions & balance Shows that one is oxidized and one reduced
Oxidation-reduction/ionic equation: double displacement (metathesis) reaction
when 2 things decompose, you can write out an ionic equation & write out the half-reactions & balance like; one is oxidized and one reduced USUALLY THEY'RE NOT ACTUALLY O-R BECAUSE ALL THE SPECIES MAINTAIN THEIR OG CHARGES; ALL IONS APPEAR ON BOTH SIDES OF THE COMPLETE IONIC EQN AND THERE IS NO NET IONIC EQUATION
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
when 2+ gases do not react are in a vessel, each interact independently (as if it's the only gas in there) THE PRESSURE IT EXERTS IN THAT VOLUME IS AS IF IT WAS ALONE IN THERE States that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases
Myogenic Activity
when SMOOTH muscle contracts without nervous input ex: The myogenic mechanism is how arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease of blood pressure to keep the blood flow within the blood vessel constant.
Chelation
when a complex ion is formed where the central cation binds multiple times to the same ligand; the ligand is usually big and can loop back for 2 or 3 bonds; note: used to sequester toxic metals (lead, arsenic & even Fe if there's A LOT)
Frequency Summation
when a muscle is exposed to frequent/prolonged stimulation, it will not have time to relax; contractions will combine as it becomes stronger and prolonged... can lead to tetanus
Neutralization Reaction
when an acid + base react, forming water and salt; usually to COMPLETION; salt can precipitate or not
Excited State
when at least 1 electron is promoted to an orbit (or SUBshell) with more E and higher radius
Sweating via skin
when body T rises above the 'set point' from hypothalamus ➝ postganglionic sympathetic neurons use acetylcholine via nerves in sweat glands to secrete water w/ ions ➝ water steals heat from body (ESPECIALLY vasodilated blood vessels), undergoes phase change and evaporates
Piloerection via skin
when cold, Arrector Pili muscle contract to stand up hairs, trapping heated air near skin AKA: goose bumps
Vasoconstriction via skin
when cold, arterioles feeding skin capillaries constrict to limit blood flow to skin aka heat loss
Hybrid Genetic Leakage
when genes from 2 species mix when 2 related species mate; e.g., mule (male horse + female donkey)
Inbreeding Depression
when inbreeding of a population leads to lower fitness
Evaporation/Vaporization
when molecules of liquid gain enough kinetic energy to energy the gas phase
Oxidation-reduction/ionic equation: combustion reaction
when something combusts in O2, you can write out an ionic equation (usually won't be any ions) & write out the half-reactions & balance like; one is oxidized and one reduced AKA: hydrocarbon + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
Quick way to convert pH & [H+] in your head: ex: what is the pH of [H+] = 10^-3
when the [H+] is a power of 10, like 10^(-3), pH is the exponent: pH = 3
Hypersensitivity Reactions
when the immune system is over active to certain antigens; e.g., self-antigens (autoimmunity) & allergies
Allergies
when the immune system overreacts to harmless antigens that it incorrectly perceives as threatening (e.g., pollen)
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
when the mother's Rh antibodies attack an Rh+ fetus; occurs when she is Rh- and she has a first child that is Rh+, sensitizing her and making antibodies by the time it is born; fatal to that second fetus; medicine prevents; these IgG antibodies can pass
Dynamic Equilibrium
when the rate of the forward & reverse reaction are equal; you are at equilibrium no net change in conc'n; note this is not a static equilibrium!
Oxidation-reduction/ionic equation: decomposition reaction
when things decompose, you can write out an ionic equation of the individual ions & write out the half-reactions & balance like Shows that one is oxidized and one reduced
When is x = 0 a good approximation for situations where you have to add/subtract in the Keq expression ICE tables?
when x is < 5% of what the initial concentration was; the smaller that percent is, the better the approximation
How you are signalled to pee
when your bladder is full, stretch receptors tell your brain it's time to pee ➝ parasympathetic neurons fire ➝ Micturition Reflex: detrusor muscle (bladder!) contracts, internal urethral sphincter relaxes ➝ at this point, you feel uncomfortable (periodically as this reflex starts and stops) it's up to you to relax the external sphincter to pee
Henry's Law (chem)
with different pressures applied, the concentration of gas dissolved in a liquid changes
Maternal-Fetal Rh Factor situation
women are exposed to a small amount of fetal blood; if a woman is Rh- and fetus Rh+, she will be exposed, and become sensitive to Rh+ blood; not a problem for first child (antibodies not produced until after child born), but if second child is Rh+, mother's antibodies can cross placenta and attack fetus blood; fatal to second fetus; medicine prevents; these IgG antibodies can pass
Pressure vs Temperature Gas Graph (Isovolumetric)(Guy-Lussac's Law)
yep
Are there exceptions to the octet rule (8 valence electrons)? List 5 interesting ones
yep hydride (hydrogen w/ 2 valence electrons like helium) lithium (2 ve) beryllium (4 ve) boron (6 ve) all elements in period 3 or more (d orbitals fit more) (e.g., Cl can have 7 bonds and thus 14 ve)
Can hybrid species ever be viable/successful?
yes! Just can't have odd chromos (e.g., Beefalo = cow + buffalo)
Formal Charges for resonance hybrids
you need to consider each resonance hybrid, and take the AVERAGE formal charge the atom has on each other the resonance structures e.g., CO3(^2-), between the 3 resonance the oxygen atoms are -1, -1, and 0, meaning their actual formal charge is -2/3!
Why is sampling partial pressure of O2 (as a measurement of O2 in blood) problematic? Alternative?
you need to sample an artery; alternative is to measure oxygen saturation
Classifications of Reaction Order
zero, first, second, higher, or mixed
The pancreas releases peptidases in their __________________ form
zymogen/inactive
Un-linked genes have a recombination frequency of...
~50%; I.E. THEY BEHAVE LIKE THEY'RE ON SEPARATE CHROMOSOMES, 50% CHANCE THAT THEY'LL BE INHERITED TOGETHER
Systole
½ phases of heart contraction: CONTRACTION (high P): ventricles contract and AV valves close, semilunar open
Diastole
½ phases of heart contraction: RELAX (low P): ventricles relax, semilunar valves close, AV valves open to fill the ventricles with blood
Ultimately, the spontaneity of a dissolution depends on_____________
ΔG (gibbs free energy), thus both ΔH and ΔS (entropy) affect it
A positive emf means ΔG ____ 0 and ________ energy
ΔG < 0; the electrochemical cell releases energy
A negative emf means ΔG ____ 0 and ________ energy
ΔG > 0; the electrochemical cell absorbs energy
ΔG-emf equation for electrochemical cells: standard change in free energy
ΔG˚ = -nFE˚cell; n is the number of moles of electrons exchanged WHICH IS JUST THE COEFFICIENT OF ELECTRONS IN THE O-R HALF-REACTIONS, thus ΔG depends on this; (-) sign means that Ecell and ΔG should always have opposite signs (makes sense, +ΔG for galvanic cells makes them spont.
Entropy Equation
ΔS = Qrev/T; Qrev is the heat gained/lost in a reversible process, and T is the temp in K (therefore J/molK)
Gibbs Free Energy & state equilibria value? G of the gas and the liquid?
∆G = 0 still; the G of the gas and the liquid for example are equal, G(l) = G(g)
Gibbs Free Energy at equilibrium
∆G = 0, meaning in the equation ∆H = T∆S
∆Grxn Equation under NON-standard state conditions
∆Grxn = ∆G⁰rxn + RTlnQ = RTln(Q/Keq) Used to determine free energy of a reaction in progress
Equation that relates ∆G⁰rxn and Keq
∆G⁰rxn = -RTln(Keq) R is ideal gas, T is in K; the higher Keq, the higher the ln, and the more negative the G is, and the more spontaneous the reaction
Calculating Standard Free Energy (∆G⁰rxn) from products/reactants
∆G⁰rxn = ∑∆G⁰f(products) - ∑∆G⁰f(reactants); add up the free energies of formation of products/reactants
Heat of Fusion/Vaporization
∆H(fus/vap) = q = mL; L is the latent heat; these 2 values will be different from each other
Enthalpy for a chemical reaction equation
∆H(rxn) = H(products) - H(reactants)
Bond Dissociation Energy & Hess's Law: Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction: C(s) + 2H2 (g) -> CH4 (g) Bond dissociation for H-H and C-H are 436kj/mol and 415kj/mol respectively. The Hf of C(g) is 715 kj/mol
∆H⁰rxn = ∑∆H⁰f(bonds broken) - ∑∆H⁰f(bonds formed) literally take the bond enthalpies given, multiply them by the number of the corresponding bonds that are broken & formed (DRAW OUT THE MOLECULES): assume all reactant bonds are broken, and all product bonds are newly formed; note you must also consider STATE CHANGE energy, so if something goes from solid to gas, that counts are energy added ("bonds broken" which is added energy)
Total Peripheral (Vascular) Resistance Equation -
∆P = CO x TPR (pressure differential, cardiac output, total peripheral resistance)
Standard Entropy Change (∆S⁰rxn)
∆S⁰rxn = ∑∆S⁰f(products) - ∑∆S⁰f(reactants)
