MCB 3020 Exam 3

Name the tools used to make arun genomic fingerprinting (RFLP)?

1. Isolate the DNA of interest 2. Amplify the DNA of interest 3. Cut the DNA up with restriction enzymes, producing restrictions fragments 4. use gel electrophoresis to separate the fragments 5. use computer to analyze

Name the tools used to make a genomic Library?

1. Extract the DNA from the cell of interest 2. use restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments of a specific size 3. Insert the fragments into a vector 4. insert the vector into a host organism such as E.coli 5. Once the vector is inside the host cell, it can easily be amplified for analysis

Describe/ explain and define: Reverse Transcriptase

A RNA dependent DNA polymerase that synthesizes DNA based on an RNA template .Turns single stranded RNA into double stranded DNA.

Name few categories of products made by microbes in industrial scale (industrial microbiology)

A few categories of products made by microbes in industrial scale include primary and secondary metabolites, plant hormones, food additives, biopesticides, and genetically modified plants. -antibiotics -biofuels

What is the purpose (goal) of constructing a genomic library for an organism

A genomic library is a collection of an organism's entire genomic DNA, which is stored in a population of identical vectors, each of which has a fragment of the DNA. Just as a library contains multiple books, a genomic library contains multiple vectors, each which contains a fragment of DNA. 1. Extract the DNA from the cell of interest. 2. Use restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments of a specific size. 3. Insert the fragments into a vector. 4. Insert the vector into a host organism, such as E. Coli. 5. Once the vector is inside the host cell, it can be easily amplified or retrieved for analysis. Usually used when gene of interest is on a chromosome has not been sequenced yet

Describe/ explain and define: Gel Electrophoresis

A technique that separates nucleic acids and proteins on the basis of their size and electrical charge use a polymer gel ( agarose or polyacrylamide. Nucleic Acids moves towards the positive pole because they are negatively charge

How viruses enter, spread, and exit from the body?

A virus can enter the human body through two major routes: 1. The mucous membranes-- The mucous membranes include the respiratory tract, alimentary tract, genital tract, or conjunctiva (which covers the lining of the eyelid and the white part of the eye). By far, the RESPIRATORY TRACT is the most COMMON route of entry for all diseases. 2. The SKIN-- A virus can penetrate the skin via a wound, scratches from animals, or insect bites.--------------------------------------------Viruses can spread through the body in a number of ways, including the following:-Viruses can spread LOCALLY, over EPITHELIA surfaces -NEUROTROPIC VIRUSES spread through cells in the NERVOUS SYSTEM. For example, the rabies virus spreads this way. -LYMPHOTROPHIC VIRUSES spread through the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. -Viruses can spread in the BLOOD STREAM. VIREMIA occurs when viruses are present in the blood stream. -In pregnant women, viruses can pass from the mother to the fetus via the placenta, causing congenital diseases. VIRUS SHEDDING (exiting): refers to the many ways that the virus can leave the body. Sometimes, viruses remain within the host organism and do not shed at all. In other cases, viruses are shed through the skin, feces, respiratory secretions, oropharyngeal secretions, or other routes.

Define Bioconversion, Biosensors, Biopolymers, Bio-Surfactants, biocatalysts, bio-pesticides, GMOs and Biofuels

BIOCONVERSION (or biotransformation) is the use of live organisms (microorganisms, plants, or animals) to facilitate a chemical reaction that converts a substance to a chemically modified form. A microbial BIOSENSOR uses microorganisms, enzymes, or organelles and physical transducer to detect the presence of a substance. BIOPOLYMERS, such as dextran and polyhydroxybutryate (PHB), serve as gelling agents and modify the flow of liquids. Adding biopolymers to a fluid slows its movement through a system, which can be useful in many industrial applications. BIOSURFACTANTS emulsify other substances, such as oil. This makes it particularly useful in oil recovery efforts, dispersing oil spills, and in bioremidiation - using organisms to remove pollutants from a contaminated site. BIOCATALYSTS is an organism used for metabolic activity such as yeast where it reduces ketones. BIOPESTICIDES are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. GMO is an organism whose genome has been altered by the techniques of genetic engineering so that its DNA contains one or more genes not normally found there. BIOFUELS are fuels derived directly from living matter. Microbial fermentation of crop residues consisting of cellulose and hemicellulose produces ethanol, a biofuel that is widely used to power cars and other motor vehicles. Microbes are also involved in the production of methane gas and hydrogen, which can be used as biofuels.

Describe/ explain and define: Inserting vector into host cells

Bacteria can be made competent to take up naked DNA from the environment through the treatment of calcium chloride and a heat shock

Describe/ explain and define: Restriction enzymes

Bacterial Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sites. Naturally produced by bacteria to fight viral infections. Recognize restriction sites usually palindromes= yield sticky ends. Endonuclease.

Define bioinformatics. What branch of science is involved in bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is the study of the genome using COMPUTERS. Bioinformatics integrates computer science, biology, statistics, and math.

How bacteria may be used as bio-pesticides? Give an example.

Biopesticides are naturally produced agents that kill pests. For example, bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a gram-positive bacterium that produces an intracellular protein toxin crystal called the parasporal body during sporulation. This parasporal body kills specific groups of insects. Bt toxin has been used as a biopesticide for more than 40 years. It is generally considered safe because it specifically targets certain pests. In addition, it does not accumulate in the environment like many artificial, chemical insecticides. Scientists have successfully inserted the Bt genes that produce certain biological insecticides into some plant genomes, resulting in genetically modified plants. For example, Bt genes were inserted into the maize plant in 1996 to specifically kill a harmful pest called the European corn borer. There are Bt cotton and Bt potato plants as well.

What is meant by in silico analysis and annotation?

Biotechnology allows researchers to make conclusions about the function of a gene product exclusively through the use of IN SILICO analysis, or analysis carried out by a COMPUTER. Computers are also used in a process called annotation to determine where genes start and end, which allows them to locate genes on the genome.

What does cloning mean?

Cloning is the process by which a DNA sequence is isolated and replicated using a cloning vector.

What is the medical significance of comparative genomics analysis? RFLP?

Comparative Genomics is the study of the DIFFERENCES among the GENOMES of different organisms. This field of study has provided important information about what makes a pathogen virulent, and it has given researchers insights into what kinds of vaccines or therapies may be useful to fight against virulent pathogens. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) technique is a tool for genetic fingerprinting, genome mapping, localization of genes, paternity testing, and microbial classification. It takes advantage of the fact that highly conserved and repetitive DNA sequences are present in nearly every genome, including genomes of humans, gram-negative bacteria, and gram-positive bacteria. This technique relies on the premise that every organism's restriction sites will be located at slightly different locations on the genome, so the specific pattern of restriction fragments on the electrophoretic gel will be different from person to person. Therefore, each individual has a unique DNA fingerprint that can be used as forensic evidence or evidence of paternity.

What is meant by recombinant DNA?

DNA containing fragments from two or more different sources .requires and endonuclease, a cloning vector, and a host.

Describe DNA microarray system. What is its purpose? Where the sample come from for this analysis

DNA microarray analysis is a tool that allows scientists to OBSERVE the pattern of DNA expression for thousands of genes at a time. DNA microarrays are chips with a collection of tiny DNA spots attached to a solid surface. They are created by robotic machines that arrange hundreds or thousands of genes onto a single chip. The basic process of DNA microarray analysis is as follows: 1. The researcher collects the mRNA molecules present in a cell. 2. The researcher uses reverse transcriptase to convert the mRNA into complementary DNA (cDNA), and the researcher labels the cDNA with a fluorescent dye. 3. The researcher places the cDNA onto the microarray chip. 4. The cDNAs then bind to (or hybridize with) the complementary DNA sequences already on the microarray chip. 5. A special computer scanner is used to measure the intensity of the fluorescence in each area on the slide. The brightest areas represent the genes with the most mRNA. Therefore, these are the most "active" genes in the cell.

Describe/ explain and define: cDNA

DNA produced from a RNA template using reverse transcriptase. Used to clone eukaryotic genes in prokaryotes.

Name different components of a virus. Name the two components that every virus must have

Every virus must have a NUCLEIC ACID and a CAPSID. In addition, some viruses may have an ENVELOPE and SPIKES.

What is meant by autonomous replication? List examples

Example: A segment of a DNA molecule necessary for the initiation of its replication; generally a site recognized and bound by the proteins of the replication system. autonomous replication means that they replicate INDEPENDENTLY of the bacterial chromosome.

What is the scope of functional genomics?

Functional genomics is the study of the function of genomes - that is, it is the study of HOW A GENOME WORKS. Paralogs: 2 or more genes found alike in the same genome that likely arose from gene duplication. Orthologs: 2 or more genes very similar in different organisms that are predicted to have same function. Can look at conformation: 3D structure of proteins. Gives structure to proteins. Can predict which organism has a specific function and which one doesn't. Motif: act as active site of an enzyme. Often phylogenetically conserved.

What is meant by genetic manipulation?

Genetic manipulation involves changing the genome of an organism in order to produce desired traits. Genetic engineering is one form of genetic manipulation.

Define genomics and list the three area of genomics

Genomics is the study of the organization of genomes, the information they store, and the gene products that they code for. The field of genomics can be broken down into three subfields: 1. Structural genomics is the study of the PHYSICAL nature of genomes. 2. Functional genomics is the study of the FUNCTION of genomes. 3. Comparative genomics is the study of the DIFFERENCES among the GENOMES of different ORGANISMS.

What is the significance of transforming infections? List Viruses that cause cancer? Oncogenic Viruses?

In a TRANSFORMING INFECTION, the virus affects the host's genetic makeup, causing some kind of mutation in the host chromosome. Often, a transforming infection involves the integration of a viral genome at a point of the host's genome called the ONCOGENE, which has the capacity to cause cancer. For example, integration of the viral genome in a part of the host chromosome responsible for proper cell division might cause cells to never cease growing, leading to the formation of a tumor. List Viruses that cause cancer: -Human papillomavirus Virus (HPV) -Hepatitis B and C (HBV and HCV) Oncogenic Viruses? -HBV -HCV -HHV8

How industrial microbiology defines fermentation? Compare Chemostat vs batch for large scale industrial growth

In industrial microbiology, fermentation refers to the MASS CULTURE of microorganisms. A chemostat is a BIOREACTOR in which the VOLUME is kept CONSTANT by continuously adding fresh medium while REMOVING the culture LIQUID. In this way, the GROWTH RATE of the microorganism can be easily CONTROLLED. A batch culture, on the other hand, is a technique to grow bacteria in which bacteria grow until the LIMITED SUPPLY of BACTERIA is USED UP.

List steps in virus replication. What is the importance of un-coating step in viral infection?

In order, the steps in viral replication are: 1. attachment/absorption 2. Penetration (enter) 3. Uncoating (release of DNA/RNA inside the cell) 4. Synthesis/replication (more virus components) 5. Assembly (maturation, packaging) 6. Release (of virus particles) If the viral capsid penetrates the cell, it must be shed inside the cell so as to expose the nucleic acid. After coating, the virus fuses with the endosome and the nucleic acid is released into the cell.

What is meant by protoplast fusion? Electroporation? Transformation (plasmids picked up by laboratory-induced competent bacterial cells). Compare in vivo and in vitro transformation (done in lab vs. done in nature) a. What is the role of Transposons in genetic variation, mutation, and genetic exchange b. Define: Transposons, Transposition, Insertion Sequences (IS), Transposable Elements

In protoplast fusion, scientists use enzymes (such as cellulose) or other means to REMOVE the CELL WALLS of multiple cells, creating protoplasts.-Combine two cells by removing cell wall and letting cell membranes of the two cells merge. They then put the protoplasts together in solution and apply an electric shock (ELECTROPORATION), causing them to FUSE TOGETHER, forming a somatic hybrid. This method is most commonly USED WITH FUNGI. Competent: Pick up the DNA from the outside. Transformation involves the direct uptake of genetic material from a bacterium's surroundings. Competent: Pick up the DNA from the outside. Transformation involves the direct uptake of genetic material from a bacterium's surroundings. Transformation is very rare in nature, but it is commonly used in the laboratory. Transposon: a chromosomal segment that can undergo transposition, especially a segment of bacterial DNA that can be TRANSLOCATED as a whole between chromosomal, phage, and plasmid DNA in the absence of a complementary sequence in the host DNA. Transposition: the transfer of genetic material between organisms other than a vertical gene transfer. (horizontal gene transfer) Insertion sequences: part of the transposon that uses insertion sequences to insert itself into another part of the genome. Transposable elements: also known as transposons, are sequences of DNA that move or jump from one location in the genome to another.

What does metabolic engineering mean? Explain DNA shuffling and whole genome shuffling.

Metabolic engineering is the practice of optimizing genetic processes in order to INCREASE the PRODUCTION of a certain SUBSTANCE. Two evolutionary tools used in metabolic engineering include DNA shuffling and whole-genome shuffling, which are used directed evolution, or a process that mimics the process of natural selection to evolve proteins toward a user-defined goal. DNA shuffling is a technique used to propagate beneficial MUTATIONS and increase the size of a DNA library by randomly fragmenting a pool of related genes and reassembling those fragments. Whole genome shuffling involves the use of PROTOPLAST FUSION to introduce recombination throughout the entire genome. After these techniques have been applied, organisms with the desired phenotype can be selected.

Define metagenomic and its role in identifying microbes that cannot be cultured (isolated) from the environmental samples such as soil and water samples

Metagenomics is the study of the collective genomes of the members of a microbial community. It involves cloning and analyzing the genomes without culturing the organisms in the community, thereby offering the opportunity to describe the planet's diverse microbial inhabitants, many of which cannot yet be cultured.-Go to environment, take sample-Have sample with a ton of different organisms.-Grow genes into different plasmids, put them into a cloning vector, then into new host,-one plasmid, one fragment, sequence the fragment, look for function.-trap mosquitos, sequence them, look for virus, look at a lot of things through this testing.

What are the methanogens and what are their ecological and/or environmental impact?

Methanogens produce METHANE as a metabolic byproduct. They live in anaerobic environments and are commonly found in the RUMENS of COWS alongside grass. They are used by humans in sewage plants to digest sludge.

Compare and contrast the common cloning vectors used in creating Recombinant DNA. What is the significance of Ti plasmid?

PLASMIDS -by far, the most commonly used type of cloning vector is a plasmid. It is a self-replicating piece of extrachromosomal DNA found in PROKARYOTES. Plasmids are popular because they can be easily transferred from one organism to another via conjugation or transformation. Plasmids can typically carry inserted sequences in the mid-size range 20,000 base pairs or fewer. Two examples of commercially available plasmids are p322 and pUC19. Often, genes are inserted into PLANT genomes using the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a type of bacterium. This bacterium induces the formation of tumors in hundreds of plant species. However, scientists have found a way to take out the tumor inducing genes and other-non-essential regions. The plasmid can then be used as a cloning vector that carries the DNA of interest and a selectable marker. The vector can then be incorporated into the plant genome, creating recombinant plants with desirable characteristics, such as SALT resistance or COLD resistance. This is an example of a cloning vector that can be used to transfer a gene from PROKARYOTES to EUKARYOTES. Can also go the other way, eukaryotes can transfer to prokaryotes. PLANT cells

Define/explain how do bioprospecting and high-throughput screening (HTS) work?

Pharmaceutical companies regularly send researchers to collect soil samples in remote places (such as oil fields, rainforests, volcanoes, copper mines, and hot springs). They do so in the context of bioprospecting, or the search for species that have medical and commercial uses for humans. Researchers bring environmental samples back to the lab, extract the DNA of the organisms found in the soil, put it into a vector (such as a plasmid), and then put the recombinant DNA into a bacterial cell, such as an E. coli cell. This metagenomic library can then be used in genomic sequence analysis (to determine the sequence of the genes) or in a function-driven analysis (to analyze the proteins that the genes produce). High-throughput sequencing technology allows researchers to RAPIDLY and CHEAPLY sequence and analyze a large amount of DNA; this is critical in the field of metagenomics.

List the type of genes carried on plasmids. How plasmids are transferred between bacteria cells?

Plasmids can carry genes that cause DISEASES or convey ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE. The genetic material contained within a circular plasmid is directly transferred from one cell to another via a bridge-like structure called a PILUS during CONJUGATION.

What is the significance of primers and Taq polymerase in PCR?

Primers: nucleic acid sequences that start DNA synthesis. Taq polymerase: First heat stable DNA polymerase for PCR. Transformed DNA amplification, making the process rapid and efficient. The combination of Taq polymerase, primers and nucleotide triphosphates creates new DNA strands, and the helix forms.

What is proteomics?

Proteomics is the study of proteomes, or entire collections of PROTEINS produced by an organism.

Explain the role of RNA in origin of life.

RNA played a major role in life's early beginnings because it has the ability to REPLICATE and act as a CATALYST for chemical reactions. RNA could have been the nucleic acid used in Earth's earliest life forms, and RNA could have eventually given rise to DNA.

How reverse vaccinology works?

Reverse vaccinology involves the use of bioinformatics to screen the ENTIRE genome of a pathogen in order to identify genes that are good vaccine targets.

Name some of the industrial and medical products produced via biotechnology

Scientists have engineered bacteria to produce INSULIN, a-, b-, and gamma interferons, and many other useful proteins such alpha1-antitrypsin (used to treat emphysema), BLOOD-CLOTTING factors (used to hemophilia), and CALCITONIN (used to treat osteomalacia), among many others. Industrial microbiology often focuses on producing primary and secondary metabolites for use of food, amino acids, antibiotics, and other purposes.

List and describe types of virus-host cell interactions for animal viruses...lytic (acute), latent, transforming, chronic

Several possible virus-host cell interactions are as follows: LYTIC INFECTIONS-(also sometimes called a permissive infection or productive infection) is the "STANDARD" kind of viral infection, in which the VIRUS infects the HOST, "hijacks" the host's cellular machinery to make more copies of itself, and then DESTROYS the HOST by causing lysis. Only occurs for a short period of time. ABORTIVE INFECTION-(also sometimes called a non-productive infection) is one which the virus is UNABLE to successfully complete the process of REPLICATION. PERSISTENT INFECTION-occurs when viruses reproduce SLOWLY and are released by the cell slowly over a long period of time. These infections do not abruptly kill the host as in a lytic infection. TRANSFORMING INFECTION-the virus affects the host's genetic makeup, causing some kind of MUTATION in the host chromosome. LATENT INFECTION-the virus remains in the host cell in a DORMANT state until a trigger activates it and causes it to make more copies of itself. Latency happens with HERPES, becomes part of some of your cells. CHRONIC INFECTION-long lasting like herpes.

List some of the Human peptide and proteins synthesized by genetic engineering

Some human peptides and proteins synthesized by genetic engineering include: insulin (for diabetics), alpha1-antitrypsin (used to treat emphysema), blood-clotting factors (used to treat hemophilia), calcitonin (used to trat osteomalacia), epidermal growth factor (used to treat wounds), crythropoietin (used to treat anemia), growth hormone (which promotes growth), interleukins (which treat tumors and immune disorders),macrophage colony stimulating factor (used to treat cancer), relaxin (used to aid in childbirth), serum albumin (a plasma supplement), somatostatin (used to treat acromelagy), streptokinase and tissue plasminogen activator (anticoagulants), and tumor necrosis factor (used to treat cancer).

List tools used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology

Some important Tools used are in silico analysis, DNA microarray analysis, gel electrophoresis, PCR and RFLP analysis

Describe/ explain and define: Blotting

Technique that combines gel electrophoresis and hybridization to dectect specific DNA fragments. Southern Blotting= uses radioactive DNA hydridization probes and autoradiography to identify the presence or absence of a specific gene

Describe/ explain and define PCR

Technique that quickly and easily makes copies of even very small amounts of DNA

Define One-Step growth cycle? What is the meaning of eclipse period?

The ONE-STEP GROWTH CYCLE was a technique developed in the 1930s by bacteriophage virologists. It involves exposing bacteria to viruses then diluting the sample enough that no additional host cells will be infected by new viruses. Viruses can then be measured in the sample via plaque assay. The typical one-step vial growth curve is as follows: -Attach or adsorb to cell -Entry Penetration by fusion or endocytosis -Eclipse - infectious virus NOT detectable -Rise - infectious particles detectable During the attachment and penetration period, the virus binds to receptors on the host's cell membrane. During the ECLIPSE PERIOD, there are no detectable infectious viruses in the cell, although the virus is using the cell's internal machinery to produce the components needed to produce more viruses. During the yield period the number of observable infectious viruses in the cell increases as the viruses begin to assemble. During the release period, the number of particles remains high. Eventually, the viruses are liberated from the cell.

Define CPE and give examples.

The cytopathic effects (CPE) of a virus on an infected cell specifically refer to the effects of a viral infection that can be VISUALIZED with a microscope. Several cytopathic effects are as follows: -The formation of VIRAL PLAQUE; or a visible area where the virus has destroyed infected cells in a cell culture. -The enlargement of either the CELL (and its cytoplasm), the NUCLEUS, or BOTH.-MEMBRANE changes, such a greater ELASTICITY. (More elastic membranes better allow viruses to exit the cell through budding) -The FUSION of cells, producing a multinucleate cell called a SYNCYTIUM. This essentially produces a more efficient "virus production machine" with more polymerases and ribosomes to be used for the expression of the viral genome. (Dr. Asghari linked this to removing the fences between houses and turning an entire neighborhood into one gigantic compound.)Syncytia are a common cytopathic effect caused by paramyxovirus. -"Leaky" internal organs, such as inclusion bodies, vacuoles, and lysosomes. This can cause damage to the host cell.

Define the human microbiome and explain the role metagenomics plays in its investigation.

The human microbiome is the aggregation of ALL of the microorganisms that reside ON or IN the human body. Metagenomics is the study of metagenomes, or genetic material recovered from environmental samples. Metagenomics can be used to study the composition of the human gut genome through analysis of fecal samples.

Compare three domains of microorganisms. Compare viruses with all other living things

The three domains of life are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Research shows that members of these three domains are related. Archaea and Bacteria include PROKARYOTES - single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-enclosed nuclei and membranous organelles. Eukaryotes have membrane-enclosed nuclei and membranous organelles. Eukaryotes also have DIFFERENT RIBOSOMES than prokaryotes and they lack gas vesicles. Moreover, eukaryotic mRNA contains INTRONS and has to be further processed after transcription, while prokaryotic mRNA does not. Viruses, on the other hand, are ACELLULAR and considered NONLIVING, as they rely on the machinery and ENERGY of their HOSTS' cells to live and reproduce. -Sub microscopic-Obligate intracellular parasites with host specificity (rely on the host) -Animals, plants, bacteria, etc...

Name the tools used to make a recombinant plasmids?

The tools used to make recombinant plasmids include RESTRICTION ENZYMES, CLONING VECTORS (such as plasmids), and DNA LIGASE. Restriction enzymes cut the DNA of interest and the bacterial plasmid at specific restriction sites, leaving fragments with sticky ends. These sticky ends can base pair with one another, allowing DNA from different sources to be combined. DNA ligase then seals the strands together by catalyzing phosphodiester bonds between the single-strand breaks. The result is recombinant DNA.

Describe how two-dimensional gel electrophoresis works. What is it used for?

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis uses an electrophoretic gel to separate proteins based on two dimensions: CHARGE and MOLECULAR MASS. (Note that this technique can be used to analyze DNA and RNA fragments in a similar way.) A pH gradient separates proteins by charge using isoelectric focusing, and gravity is used to separate proteins based on molecular mass. A mixture of proteins is first loaded into an isoelectric focusing tube gel, which consists of a pH gradient that separates proteins by charge. The proteins move in the gel until they reach the point where their net charge is ZERO. The isoelectric focusing tube gel is then laid on its side, and the proteins are allowed to migrate from the top of the gel to the bottom of the gel based on their molecular mass. (Smaller proteins will migrate farther down into the gel) The final product of two-dimensional gel electrophoresis is an AUTORADIOGRAPH that has a specific pattern reflecting the charge and molecular mass of the proteins being analyzed.

List the damages inflicted on host cells by viruses

Viruses damage or change their host organisms in a number of ways, including the following: -Inducing lysis, which KILLS the cell. -TRANSFORMING the cell's genome -Altering the nuclear or cytoplasmic STRUCTURE of the host, such as by making the nucleus larger, making the cell larger, or causing the cellmembrane to become more elastic -Altering gene EXPRESSION in the host, such as by shutting down expression of the host's genes or causing the host to produce gene products from the viral genome -INHIBITING RNA synthesis or the synthesis of proteins-Using the product of transcription (RNA molecules) to construct new viruses rather than in normal gene expression for the host .-Encouraging programmed cell death, or APOPTOSIS, in the host cell

What are icosahedra and helical structures?

Viruses have a number of shapes, but one of the most distinctive shapes that is unique to virus is the icosahedron shape, a polyhedron with 20 triangular faces, 30 edges, and 12 vertices. Another common shape is the helical shape, which consists of a helical array of proteins wrapped around the nucleic acid.

How terms such as sub-microscopic, obligate intracellular parasite, and host specificity characterize viruses.

Viruses have the following characteristics: -They are SUB-MICROSCOPIC. This means that you CANNOT SEE viruses with a microscope because they are so SMALL. -They are OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES. This means that they CANNOT GROW or PRODUCE ENERGY on their OWN; they REQUIRE a HOST to replicate and pass their genetic information on to future generations. -They exhibit HOST SPECIFICITY. This means that specific viruses only attack a SPECIFIC range of ORGANISMS.

What does whole genome shotgun sequencing mean?

Whole genome shotgun sequencing is a method used for sequencing long DNA strands. In shotgun sequencing, DNA is randomly broken up into numerous small segments and is then reassembled by computer programs by looking for regions of overlap. This was the method of genome sequencing that was used to map the human genome.

Describe/ explain and define: Vectors

allows for the transferring a gene of interest to a host organism during the cloning process. Vectors have characteristics that allow genes to be inserted into the vector to create recombinant DNA

What is the advantage of RT-PCR (qPCR) over traditional technique?

qPCR is used to detect, characterize and quantify nucleic acids for numerous applications. Use of dyes helps to measure fluorescence to quantify the DNA. PCR amplifies the DNA.