Media after midterm

four forms of user-generated content

forms of user-generated content 1) VIDEOS OF AFFINITY -based on membership & connection content-sharing business provides videos of affinity life caching (people recording their own every day lives) -YT is a social network (& can be embedded in other social nets) based on a feeling of membership to people, places, ideas, things about feeling and producing a sense of connection -an extension of home movies & "bedroom cultures" -SO: they're about ongoing relationships YT doesn't change the culture, it just opens distribution way up alters the circulation of home movies & bedroom recordings rather than the production part of an ongoing social relationship -BUT: they can be monetized if they go viral amateurs are happy to commercialize this content 2) viral video (Burgess) -video clips that grow popular through rapid user-led networked distribution -can be commercially or non-commercially motivated or it can transcend that; start as non-commercial viral video, but then become a money-making venture Burgess argues that a viral video is not the same thing as a meme memes are inside jokes that fade quickly once they go mainstream -have "hooks" (that foster mimicry, parody & spreadability) *fostered by commonplace elements but can't identify until after the fact part of the magic of the Internet that finds something so compelling of the video that inspires mimicry as a response -VERNACULAR CREATIVITY = help video (& memes) spread replicable ideas *a networked practice, not separate texts *people share & revise videos/memes according to their tastes & interests people use the Internet and digital networking as well as new media tools to express themselves 3) cultural repository YT is a massive storehouse can work as an archive as well see a lot of old media TV clips YT operates as a sort of massive and highly adaptable public media library capable of hosting a vast range of nonprofessional material -world's largest storehouse of moving image material in this way, YT operates as a resource and memory bank for popular culture and text -resource for revisiting popular culture the value provided by YT's archive-like function gives us the ability to download, share, modify these texts -BUT: traditional media producers uninterested in archiving -SO: most archival video is made available by users & can be degraded in image/audio quality content with advertising overlays, recorded from VHS 4) original scripted content -YT not just a space for circulating copyrighted works without authorization mainstream media imagines YT as such but that is not the only use for YT -scripted & constructed content created & shared for market & nonmarket purposes these are original works, animation, tutorials, comedy sketches, webisodes -appeal of YT = openness & allows free dist. to (potentially) vast audience instead of having to pay a gatekeeper, you put it on the site itself *circumvent industry gatekeepers they don't have to buy access to the audience *allows greater control &/or experimentation (Funny or Die) allows them greater control and/or experimentation with media texts that the traditional media industry may be uncomfortable with -media industry scans YT for talent, formulas, & revenue models watching for talent looking for new content, formats economics of Web 2.0 digital media increasingly... YT is both an industry and user driven both a resource and industry driven 1) facilitates content democratization a greater diversity of people hosting a greater diversity of content for a greater diversity of reasons 2) is important to industry economics SO: we need to examine both diversified production & circulation AND changing economic models

importation, co-production, & formatting

1) importation imports are programs made in one nation and produced for exhibition in another -TV: US distributors are in a position of power because their: programs are aimed at the largest audience possible -b-cast strategy works internationally as well (wide appeal) -primetime dramas are $$$ to produce & have wide appeal (appetite for high-end drama across the globe; many stations choose to import American ones because they are so expensive to produce) -programs' performance in the US predicts international success (US has a vast market pumping out dozens and dozens of new broadcast programs each year) advantages for US distributors: global revenues = all profit American film needs additional markets to make money, American television usually recoups all its expenditures internally, this is especially true because of domestic syndication (reruns) -US can afford variable pricing for poorer markets (according to the importing nations ability to pay; global sales are just a "cherry on the sundae") *advantage for buyer = cheaper than local prod -BUT: US faces competition at home & abroad *HOME: non-US media find more success in the US (series like The Office, Dr. Who, and more recent versions) *ABROAD: US facing increasing competition from other markets -cost-effective alternatives (like telenovelas) - cheaper to buy than American telenovelas transcend cultural boundaries, moral issues 2) co-production = co-op between producers from different markets make programming distributed globally -advantages = tailored to needs of both & shared cost Discovery Channel is loaded with co-productions such as Planet Earth Battlestar Galactica : NBC Universal, Sky 1 in UK -BUT: co-op between markets are challenging producers and executives need to work together, so most co-productions occur between markets that share the same language *language & industrial diffs create conflicts *ad/program structure, scheduling, etc. structure for shows that have commercial breaks and don't three-month gap between US and UK premieres is concerning because US audiences can see it illegally online *needs of stronger partner usually win out (biggest market, most money, largest industry) 3) formatting = importing premise, not episodes offers a partial compromise between importation and co-production -licensed adaptation in local contexts can sell the premise of a show to be reproduced and adapted in a local context Big Brother originated in Northern Europe, became popular enough where it's been licensed to other regions -attractive to local programmers because they are proven successes works to attract viewers not only is it a success, but it costs less to buy the rights to remake the series to import it -cheaper to buy ideas than finished products -enables cultural specificity many non-American companies have generated successful formats Dutch Endemol - Big Brother, Extreme Makeover, Fear Factor (licensed these to the US, UK, etc.) -niche channels ("format TV") can travel globally too MTV, instead of airing an open channel of its open US stream, takes the rebellious youth culture, editing style, and tailors those to the individual markets

indecency vs. obscenity & the FCC

FCC regulates b-cast content: -does not allow obscenity (like all US media) -prohibits indecency (offensive images) & profanity (offensive language) based on "community standards" it is up to the local stations operating out of a city or municipality to decide what is indecent *EXCEPT during "safe harbor" from 10:00p - 6:00a can show indecent and profane content, but not obscene FCC responsive only: only fines channels for material people complain about the FCC enforces these rules by imposing fines FCC doesn't cover cable (not public, scarce, intrusive) politicians occasionally threaten to propose legislation that will allow FCC to regulate content on cable, but nothing has succeeded so far copyright and the internet -internet doesn't respect the traditional boundaries of CR today, nearly every innovation of digital culture creates new questions about copyright law digital networking doesn't obey the traditional laws of copyright duplication, near instantaneous exchange (sharing, downloading) -four regulators in 1990s re: piracy case study: music *law (doesn't cover sharing) - previously, sharing wasn't a big deal; just letting the person borrow it *norms (do what you want with what you own) *tech (perfect duplication, easy sharing & modification) - tape-trading circles weren't very effective; digitization and networking allowed perfect duplication; super easy to share, download an album, let someone pull it from your hard drive, people were able to produce remixes or mash-ups with relative ease *market (companies like Napster) - facilitated the exchange of music -CR holders frame this as theft -Lessig says it's "nonrivalrous" - doesn't deprive the owner of a thing; doesn't diminish what the person has industry and government respond to this crisis in which peer-to-peer sharing and the behaviors associated with it don't cover this new form of content circulation government response: *law: "clarify" legal penalties for violation for individuals & businesses *norms: increase education efforts on respecting CR *tech & market: encourage duplication-foiling technologies

stereotypes & the center

stereotypes and "the center" -we judge stereotypes by comparing them to a group's "real" traits & behaviors similar to genre -BUT: there is no "center" of a group the trouble with saying that there is a center (most representative depiction) is that anyone who falls outside that center is then considered less central -no single representation can embody a cultural experience there is no single type of character that can depict the breadth of the experience, large or small media needs to be dedicated to show a diversity of experience rather than attempting to find this ideal form persistence of stereotypes -media makers recycle stereotypes until economics force a change as long as there's a market or industrial utility for these images, media makers will be tempted to recreate certain stereotypes, whether or not they are realistic -how can we make progress? *self-representation: on the creative side, as well as on the executive side; not unproblematic, it doesn't mean that people within this group will make representations that are stereotype-free *widen the range of representations through a variety of media & over time; just as stereotypes travel intertextually, so can the multicultural perspective overtime, using a variety of strategies can help overcome stereotypes and create a richer, more nuanced image of the world the child audience audience segmentation is the process by which media products are targeted to reach different groups of people more than just a marketing strategy operates culturally -audience segments are cultural groups in addition to being marketing groups -various adult groups try to classify the needs of children as media consumers all spend a great deal of time attempting to define the characteristic needs of children as consumers -to understand them we need to consider: *how childhood is framed *practices of child viewers violence theories of the impact of mediated violence have changed dramatically since Greek times scholars argued that violence was actually a good thing because it was catharsis 12/11/13 3:08 PM studies have shown that people who enjoy watching violence in media also hold favorable views of committing violence; but these studies fail to prove that this is a causal relationship -research between violence and media have found a corollary but not causal relationship ultimately, violence researchers have concluded that media violence is a cause, but not necessarily the cause, of world violence -film, TV , comics, video games have policies that police violence in reaction to fears by medical communities, parents, politicians, and other groups in the 1930s, self-regulation of the film industry these policies are part of a tradition linking violence to a medium basis for regulating children's media -fears of moral decline focus on children as susceptible: painted as innocents who can be corrupted, damaged, and permanently transformed particularly susceptible to media representations because they are relatively inexperienced -brains still developing -gullible & naïve -don't immediately understand narrative storytelling & difference between programs and ads children learn these overtime, and their ability to recognize and understand them improved as they developed cognitively

First Amendment & unprotected speech

First Amendment "Congress shall make no law...abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press..." -protects against government censorship (not editorial control) protects speech acts specifically by the government but not by editorial controls or prohibitions; doesn't protect newspaper journalists for example from the executives that employ them -it's the public's job not the government's to decide what is a good idea the government is not supposed to tell us what to think BECAUSE: ideas should circulate in a marketplace of competing ideas AND: courts have expanded "free press" to include all types of mass media despite the fact that it says "congress shall make no law" , the government has done just that unprotected speech 1) clear & present danger = speech that would cause immediate social harm (yelling fire in a theatre that is not on fire) 2) libel: defamation of character in written or broadcast form (false statements that holds a person up to public ridicule, contempt, hatred, or injures a person's interest or occupation) (accusing someone of drug dealing, etc.) private individual must show: a) statement is false b) professional//personal damage/harm public individual: the above plus c) malice RESULT: hard to prove 3) right to privacy: protection from unwanted intrusion (guarantees one's right to be left alone, without his or her image or activities becoming public property) -unauthorized recording -making records public -disclosing personal information -appropriation of one's image for commercial purposes 4) obscenity: "offensive to accepted standards of decency" legislators have argued that obscenity does not constitute a legitimate form of expression protected under the first amendment -1800s: judged by most offending portion -NOW: judged on whole merit (how it relates to the larger purpose of the work) -a work must meet ALL of the following to qualify: a) "obsessive interest in sex" according to an "average person" b) depicts sex in a clearly offensive way (pictures or writing) c) a "reasonable person" agrees it lacks artistic, political, or scientific value by the 1990s, major prosecutions regarding obscenities have become rare 5) copyright infringement: appropriating words without permission copyright = automatically-granted & exclusive right to control / copy a work as incentive to create original works you need permission before replicating it after the copyright ends, the work enters free-domain which gives the public access to that work the copyright gives the author incentive to create works, free domain gives public incentive to create derivative works EXCEPTIONS: -fair use (borrow small portions or transform without permission) example: to critique or review works for example, or to show clips as part of a news segment, quote authors in essays without having to ask permission first -first sale (copyright covers only the first sale; can resell the copyrighted text, album, sheet music, book without having to ask permission first) iTunes - signed a contract that first sale doesn't apply -limited term (over the years, copyright ownership has become more important and more common, copyright periods have been extended by Congress) copyright and limited terms Congress has extended CR exclusivity with rise of corporate ownership 1790=14 years + 14 more years with renewal Now=author's life + 70 years (individual) 95 years (corporation) corporate owners have millions of dollars to gain by keeping their property outside of the public domain

why & how kids engage with TV

WHY do kids really engage wit the TV they watch? • a "magic window" to see (depictions of) the world • for learning numbers, words, behaviors, etc. RESPONSE: • TV focuses educational curricula or social skills HOW do kids really engage with the TV they watch? 1) direct participation (answering questions, etc.) some researchers have found that children are more likely to enjoy programming that involves direct participation 2) repetition (learn to understand storytelling conventions) they're learning to comprehend storytelling codes, conventions, and narratives 3) problem solving (narratives require multiple views to grasp) adults might find these tasks and mysteries boring or simple, but for children whose brains and experiences are still developing, they need multiple viewings to command and grasp these Ex. Pokémon CON: shameless commercial manipulation functions to further the Nintendo-owned copyright PRO: engagement through practicing encyclopedia knowledge helps learning & researching although the knowledge a kid accumulates may not be applicable to one's social life interactions, scholars argue that active engagement teaches children how to learn, research, and apply their knowledge TAKEAWAY: engaged viewing compatible w/ industry goals... (may help them practice encyclopedia knowledge and learning, but it certainly helps line the pockets of Nintendo) ...but no guarantee kids will adopt the preferred meaning in play children being sold products is by no means a guarantee that they will embrace these products play is a process like popular culture might be provided a framework of how to use toys, but the way in which children use those toys or watch the television show may be different "children as powerless" -tastes, values & engagements of less powerful groups ignored when what they consume is called "bad" by more powerful groups -RESULT: children marginalized - opinions & viewing practices ignored left out of policy-making choices rarely asked to define their own viewing practices research looks at the effects on children, but often doesn't ask children to describe what they like, why they like it, and what pleasures they receive the overall point of this children lecture is that rather than imagining them as passive audiences, we need to find a way that they can be acive

code & trusted systems & Lessig's concerns

"CODE" = programming language (text of a computer file) describes what you can and can't do with that hardware and software "TRUSTED SYSTEMS" = a media platform that restricts its text's functionality (number of plays, duplication, etc.) are enforced through privatized law, contracts you sign via licensed agreements (end-user license agreement) 12/11/13 3:08 PM Lessig: we should be wary of technologies that are able to enforce use through code and trusted systems; narrow the definition of copyright take away rights that we have for the first amendment protections have the capacity to limit a user's ability to copy and transform a text more than any time in human history overall, he contends that increasing property rights will stifle science and arts and their capacity to innovate and build the commons Lessig's concerns Dangers: 1) trusted systems makes fair use unobtainable we just do not have the capacity to transform these texts because they are not allowed machines have no capacity to judge transformative appropriation (what is derivative, what is new) -a machine (not courts) determine lawfulness; with computers, compliance is automatic 2) eliminates anonymity removes the ability to read privately without the fear of surveillance to explore different ideas, without feeling that you are being judged want to know who you are to track purchases and know you better Lessig: current law privileges professional culture over personal culture -which culture should we protect, mass culture or pop culture? -is "perfect" IP protection ideal or should we allow for individual use as speech?

the Other & how media spread it

"us" vs. "them" -inclusion/exclusion: -divisions between "us" & "them" concerned with finding who gets to be part of the group and who is on the outside sometimes unintentional ways in which people divide "us" and "them" without malice -media helps define who is inside/outside our group use the term "the other" to show how this work -the Other: -anyone who is "not like us" -we are "normal" while the Other is "strange & different" -media spread Othering through: 1) absence (lack of portrayal) 2) stereotypes - how these groups are portrayed by media- makers when they do appear Native Americans are an interesting case study because imagination plays such a huge part in how we understand them; media are relatively free to configure what little we know about their culture into narratives; with little need to be constrained by the reality of actual Native American life

audience segmentation & segment types

-audience segmentation: media products targeted to reach different groups of people (process) shift from an undifferentiated mass audience to niche audiences by audience segmentation -targeted segments: desired segments producers want to reach (can be broad or narrow) • valued because they spend money & time in similar ways (would be particularly receptive to their messages) segment types -geographic (not that useful in age of national brands) still, we do see geographically-targeted ads -demographic (social categories like gender, age, education) marketers believe to be relevant to why people use and want a product -lifestyle (interests, hobbies) activities that the audience is involved that marks it different from other audiences -psychographic (personality characteristics) types, attitudes, motivations

character types vs. stereotypes

-character types: constructions with commonly understood traits & behaviors help media-makers produce meanings -a "shorthand" to help media-makers create meaning & audiences to understand it difference between character type and stereotype -stereotypes: -fix & naturalize differences between groups of people (in terms of race, class, age, sexuality, etc.) making it common sense that the differences between groups are natural, essential, and insurmountable -reduce an entire group into a few simple characteristics exaggerate those traits without change or development all people from one certain ethnic background act in a certain way -emerge from inequalities of representational power (group is not in a position of power) -spread intertextually through repeated representation 12/11/13 3:08 PM what makes stereotypes so pervasive is their repeated use work through a representation of images -can be positive or negative

narrowcasting logic & edge

-narrowcasting logic: foster divisions useful to marketers goal is to not only target certain groups, but to scare away other groups -ONE TACTIC: "edge" = push the boundaries of taste cable-content regulation is less strict because cable companies are privately- owned • cuts through the media clutter (people are looking to produce content that's going to stand out) • okay to turn away from universal values it if attracts target demos cable stations that employ "edge" don't worry about those that might be offended so long as their content really strikes a chord with intended audiences some are actively attempting to alienate viewers that make up the demographic that they don't appeal to this might turn away the mass audience, but these specialized networks cater to specific audiences • in fact it's good to alienate audiences that don't fit these demos (sell advertisers a smaller audience at a higher price per head; saves advertisers money because they are not paying for "eyeballs" that are not interested in their products)

"splitting" (Hall)

-splitting: fix boundaries between social groups it works by emphasizing their difference 1) create/fix differences: -establish divisions between us/normal/mainstream & them/abnormal/outsiders 2) binary forms of representation: -images both repelling/compelling -"noble savage" this is where "the Other" can be presented as both positive and negative displays both cultural tendencies of others different because they are crucially better in some aspects, but also less civilized (less human) assume that the other is different from us in a key way that can be exotic, but can also be repulsive Othering in media-making when discussing the ways in which media portrays others, it's too easy to blame Hollywood but of course Hollywood isn't full of people that sit down to right a script with the intentions of being racist complicates the idea that changing personnel will change the institution -can occur unconsciously -is a storytelling shorthand that reinforces stereotypes can provide convenient solutions to many storytelling situations not simply being racist, sexist, or ageist: attempting to do a straightforward job, trying to make your character seem dangerous but in telling your story, you have reinforced the long history of these stereotypes

profiles & databases

2. commercial surveillance commercial enterprises also track our movements and information online a big business ever more important part of advertising and marketing trade using marketing techniques that speak more directly to the interests and personalities of the targeted individual target marketing = encourage consumption through tailored appeals driven by information about consumers the more information that is available, the more understood the consumer is -GOAL: "understand" & target customer through data collection -pre-internet data collection gathered publicly through census data & surveys cobbled together into profiles about their consumers want to gather information on the consumer because it is more efficient later on process became more automated with credit cards and loyalty cards but the internet has been revolutionary -BUT NOW: businesses collect & track personal traces without visibility without our recognition or explicit consensus -SUCH AS: search terms, "datamining" communications, "cookies" that track website visited, purchases, contact info, etc. profiles = storehouses of info on individual consumers marketers also construct profiles on us Axium is a business that maintains a storehouse on information on 200 million consumers Facebook allows users to log into third party services Facebook also grants these third party networks access to some of your profile data so that they can better know their users and better target them with ads databases = constantly-updated collections of user info sortable by relevant info desired at a particular time turned into data points to be turned into an identity of yourself once online, our online lives become raw material for the production of consumer identities not only is this information compiled and organized into profiles that provide insight into habits

courting surveillance & reputation management

3. surveillance between individuals WE SURVEIL EACH OTHER -surveillance is a condition to be courted (we WANT attention) we are looking for publicity, hits it's hard to be visible on line -we fight the noise of the internet for visibility w/ personas & try to get publicity by being funny, an expert, outrageous, etc. this doesn't signal the death of privacy with experience, users develop strategies for control over the amount of exposure plan and experience their social presence online by combining privacy and publicity in proportion -SO: users must attempt to balance publicness & privacy through controlling self-exposure through reputation management -THUS: privacy is considered important to maintaining a "good" reputation (online or off) -BUT: reputations vary by context we have different identities that we're attempting to balance online different imagined audiences that you're a part of or that you speak to -AND: identities may be concentrated on FB & are easily found through search -SO: how can we manage all of our identities & audiences?

benefits & concerns of commercial surveillance

BENEFITS TO CONSUMER -increases amount of relevant info; decreases amount of irrelevant info -automated (no human surveillance) computer algorithm that's doing it instead CONCERNS TO CONSUMER -constructs identities that limit potential future choices without your participation profiles may encourage the advertisement of some services but not other services profiles don't represent identities they construct them attempt to predict future behavior this prejudices future behaviors -compiled without consumer consent done externally outside of the individual erosion of personal autonomy oftentimes without individuals' consent and knowledge -doesn't distinguish between public & private (erodes anonymity) there's no way to know where personal information will end up and how it will be used -no way to guarantee accuracy -no limit to duration of use (one's history is never forgotten) in the age of digital record keeping, there are no physical or practical limitations to the duration that data can be kept, nor the ease of access to that information -vulnerable to hacking, seizure, & data breaches

produsage content creation & distribution

CONTENT CRAETION: -information (citizen journalism, wikis, etc.) people work together to produce and circulate information outside of cultural gatekeepers -entertainment (fan fiction, memes, remixes, etc.) "Nyan cat" CONTENT DISTRIBUTION -more important than content creation is creation of distribution & exhibition systems sharing a fundamental part of the web -people on the web are predisposed to share & connect w/ peers these sites become popular not because they exist but because they take advantage of these desires of users to share allows for the creation of archives

direct vs. indirect surveillance

instead of distribution of personal data 1. gov't surveillance direct surveillance = classified screening, tapping, & tracking programs very little regulation of the distribution of processing of personal data we're producing tons of personal data on ourselves (more and more) the government can commit direct surveillance indirect surveillance = laws that compel private companies to save & hand over user records & communications another example of function creep of course, lax privacy laws in the US means that companies are already retaining extensive consumer data for marketing purposes

decentralized distribution

decentralized distribution -BUT: corporations own b-cast & narrowcast outlets -decentralized distribution: corporations want big audiences & small audiences -SO: niche & broadcasting complement each other businesses pursue both of these, audiences consume both of these diversity vs. divisiveness niche programming is allowing greater content diversity, riskier content, and engagement with content that broadcasters might shy away from -does limited size segregate audiences & reduce critique? -PRO: more diversity of targeted audiences & content -CON: based on a logic of emphasizing differences for advertisers people like Turow are suspicious of audience segmentation because they feel that these emphasize difference; just for selling product

Web 2.0 & how it operates

Web 2.0 user-generated content on websites that provide templates that make it easy for users to share content -participation-enabling architectures that encourage user contribution & innovation we see it manifest as blogs, bookmarking services, photo/video storage platforms, social networks, wikis -UTOPIANS: we create the content & this results in an democratization of authorship, info, & culture operates: -technologically (geared towards interactivity & sharing) allow us to more easily circulate content, to publish and reach an audience -socially (by encouraging the creation & circulation of knowledge & culture) central to generating, adding value to content in our culture: we should share, we should pass on the knowledge -economically (to do all of this is a way that is monetizable) encourages us to create and share, but in a way that marketers can direct

Web 2.0 dystopians

Web 2.0 dystopians -DYSTOPIANS: users may be participatory but that doesn't mean they're powerful participation is not the same as powersharing -web 2.0 activities framed as fun but they are a form work let us convince ourselves that our media production matters *users are unwaged we add content for free *attn sold to advertisers & marketers *recommendation features steer users to promoted content the content that advertisers and media-makers have paid money for

YouTube & streaming

YouTube -owned by Google (makes money through ads & paid search) attractive because of its size and breadth its openness to contribution access with a few limitations provides basic social networking features videos easily embeddable multiple points of view -its innovative value came from openness & "spreadability" it's popularity came from making media more available, more easily shared -STREAMING NOT DOWNLOADING not a filesharing service embedded into blogs, websites, forwarded via email, social media newsfeeds a) quick loading b) centralized control (to take down offending/infringing content) controls videos posted on the site in a position to remove material banned by the site's community guidelines c) user-friendly (free, no logging in, no additional software) Shakira, "Waka Waka" (2010) "Charlie Bit My Finger" (2007) YouTube's impact -"Waka Waka" & "Charlie" widely viewed (~600 mil) -contrast illustrates: a) content diversity - global superstar and global company vs. British family home video b) YT's power to collect a mass audience - number of videos, uploaders, viewers, time spent watching all increasing 100 billion different users access YT every month 100 hours of content is uploaded every minute -SO: will computer screens become default screens for info & culture? Scholars are beginning to imagine a future in which YT and not television will be the primary source for disseminating info and culture

YouTube & surveillance (Andrejevic)

YouTube & Surveillance (Andrejevic) -YouTube is tied to issues of exploitation where user actions can be capture & analyzed by marketers he argues that we're increasingly caught in privately controlled networks aggregating information on us and tracking us -users exchange data about themselves & their browsing histories for access to content describes two classes on the internet: those who control interactive spaces on the Internet and those who must submit to them to gain access to those spaces Andrejevic contends that we are losing control of information and ourselves RESULT: asymmetrical loss of privacy -we give up detailed information about ourselves -BUT: companies' profiles on us & use of those profiles are secret to us

YouTube & media democratization & open culture

YouTube media democratization -based on sharing & abundance rather than scarcity easy access and cheap store have led to an explosion of social sharing through the internet perhaps nothing better illustrates this than YouTube fastest growing site in history of the Internet -opens up our beliefs in who can create & circulate culture -tied to increasing recording/editing techs & social networks just a waypoint that connects the cameras that we have on our phones or else and the social networks that we're tied to that allow us to circulate recordings of our own or that others have recorded YouTube's open culture DETERMINED BY: 1) architecture (low barriers of entry) Web 2.0 architecture easy to upload content, easy to access content 2) uploaders *pros users (alternative to b-cast) utilize this site as cheap distribution outlets / alternatives to mainstream distribution *nonpros ("user-generated content") 3) users (engage w/ & share content in diverse ways)

YouTube vs. TV

YouTube vs. TV FLOW (keeping the audience "tuned in") -TV = keep people on channel as long as possible across shows & ad breaks, convince to return -YT = keep viewers on the site through recommendation & auto-loading YT does engage with flow, sort of engages with stickiness attempts to keep you on the site videos appear in the scrollable side bar can also search videos as well YT replicates the act of channel surfing MASS AUDIENCES -TV = attracts a simultaneously-viewing public a mode of collective address or collective consumption all about gathering an audience for advertisers, want to show it simultaneously because ads are time-sensitive -YT = collects audiences over time; provides connection through comments, sharing, etc. provides a sense of collectivity we see people engage with each other not by watching the same show at the same time, but in terms of comments, response videos, sharing linking, remix, annotation, and so forth they both gather large audiences but in different ways the sense of collectivity comes not in the sense of simultaneously watching the same thing but in the sense making connections through them CONTENT DIVERSITY -TV = more channels mean more options but coming from the same few media corps ultimately that means the same number of voices -YT = radically increased content choices & creator diversity opens production way up circumvents traditional gatekeepers allows users to more easily access and distribute material RESULT: users become broadcasters creating, filtering, & circulating content capacity to create material and disseminate it to a much larger audience than ever before possible and allowing that audience to distribute that material

media & democracy

attributes of democracy our conception of democracy in this class is one of citizen participation specifically citizen participation in the production and consumption of culture -access & inclusion when we have power in the means of transmitted information and accessing that information; access and ability to share it are there a variety of thoughts, opinion, debates made public? Can they all be easily accessed, can a variety of different people access them? -information & education citizens have an obligation to become informed about public issues and watch carefully how their political leaders use their power and to express their own opinions and interests -deliberative public process more than just careful thinking about a product; discuss or argue openly about an issue or an agenda in order to come a conclusion about the issue, reach an agenda, or reach a decision about the argument; stances get formed, minds get changed through deliberation -ways for citizens to place their concerns on the public agenda bringing particular issues to attention, not only responding to the issues brought up by politicians or elites - saying this is important, we want to talk about it bringing to attention of larger public, legislators, political decision makers, and the press can the medium be used to circulate ideas to the public at large? Put the concerns of the citizenry on the public agenda and consciousness -active participation from the people key role of the citizen is to be engaged and participate in public life voting, volunteering, being a member of rights/activist/civic organizations, campaigning, running for political office, informing other citizensmedia and democracy media is judged democratic when individuals: 1) are exposed to a diversity of ideas 2) can easily exchange ideas with each other - use the medium as a form of communication 3) can publish & reach an audience

Blogging

blogging (and vlogging) -internet opens up access to media to nonprofessionals -blogging allows access to more voices into the public domain -a blog is a form of online publishing (organized in reverse chronology) latest material most easily accessible provide a sense of "now-ness" -range from diaries to news coverage to social commentary blogs and vlogs provide access for people outside professional media industry to comment on topics big/small/powerful/frivolous blog software allow people to participate blogs practice both interpretation and dissemination of alternative and oppositional viewpoint can be individual or collective -blogosphere = sum of all linked blogs & their debates/concerns blogging takeaways 1. users must negotiate personal identity w/ larger info & viewpoints within this complex environment, blogs illustrate how people attempt to negotiate their personal identity with a larger public identity (their public self that they want to introduce to a global network and scope) constructing one's role in the world and then participating in that world 2. unfiltered media raises issues of quality control, truthfulness, noise plagiarism, inaccuracy, and deliberate fabrication are also issues of blogs with more information online, it becomes increasingly difficult to evaluate the quality of that information 3. blogosphere not just a result of the tech, but how the tech is used this is crucial for understanding the blogosphere it is not created by the tech, but how that technology is accessed and used

broadcasting & its three regulatory rationales

broadcasting broadcast: sending out sound & pictures via radio waves for reception by the general public free speech and broadcasting why don't these additional restrictions violate the first amendment? FOR THIS REASON: government's job to protect can trump individual freedoms perceptions of b-casting as unique by regulatory framers because it is: 1) public = b-casters must serve public in exchange for use broadcasters are asked to be stewards acting in the interests of the public -market-centered approach would appeal to audiences & avoid propaganda thought that national commercial corporations would respond and serve better the national audience the government wouldn't make content and therefore wouldn't have issues of creating and disseminating propaganda 2) scarce = licensees have to represent unheard voices; not everyone can use broadcast; only so much space; government had to get involved and regulate access in order to prevent interference; non-offensive content that everyone can listen to 3) intrusive = must protect audiences from signals invading private homes policy makers understood broadcasting as something that must be subject to content control not in other forms of media

broadcasting vs. narrowcasting (re: advertising)

broadcasting -focus on mass audience the term broadcast is a technological definition, but it's also a marketing strategy that attempts to find the largest audience possible -GOAL: largest audience possible the goal of broadcasters it to create watercooler shows; programs that after each episode people will be talking about • "least" objectionable programming" (broadest appeal) [operates via a logic that with fewer choices, audiences will turn into programming that has the broadest appeal; safe appeal; today, there's a tension between least-objectionable programming and more-oriented, scandalizing fare] narrowcasting -focus on target audiences even if networks are dabbling with controversial content, even if audiences prefer some demographics, they're still looking for huge numbers (millions and millions of people) cable stations have more programming flexibility and are able to take more risks because they're supported by ad-revenue and subscription (2/3 of the cost of programming comes from subscription, 1/3 from advertising) -GOAL: create interest in "primary media communities" for niche channels, it's not about the quantity of the viewers but the quality of the viewers • produce content for a niche, then sell access to that niche to ads

four general characteristics of casual games

casual games -billion-dollar industry with a wide audience -made for a general audience gaming is normal in contemporary US culture -games generally: *lacks any significant narrative *are quick to learn, simple mechanics skills that you learn quickly and improve through repetitive game play *focus on repetitive play (same tasks over & over) *provide quick payoffs for low time investment can play them for short amount of time and still feel gratified can play it while camping or cocooning and derive some pleasure from it

casual gaming & the player space (Juul)

casual gaming (Juul) -recent trends has increased its popularity: *downloadable games easy to get started and work well with playing in short bursts *mimetic interfaces player performance mimics the game activity on screen (Wii) -casual games fit easily into the rest of daily life they're meant to function within our rhythms of work, play, and relaxation player space (Juul) -games take place in screen space & player space -player space = socially embeddable games the space in which you operate socially embedded games are becoming more important using that space as a way of having fun with your friends use casual games while you're in transit fitting in with your environment when you're on the go -player space is increasingly important to casual gaming pleasure comes from the experience of bodily performance and not just what the avatar on your screen is doing casual games and the internet -access and downloads via networked distribution don't have to go to retail outlet to purchase the game -can play with others through online networks this is increasingly popular casual games are blending... -...work/school & play thanks to casual games, play and work or school are increasingly become blurred -...online &online forms of offline activities like traditional gaming can now be done online through the internet -...individual & social -..."gamers" & everyone else increasing popularity of gaming and casual gaming has led to an understanding that gaming is a common activity and a pleasure derived by many people

conglomerate power & power/knowledge

conglomerate power critics fear conglomerate power conglomeration leads to oligopolies that favor their own interests/partnerships & make it difficult for outsiders to compete we need to ask ourselves, what impact does concentration have? most media companies diversify media production, never fully dominating a particular industry however, media giants only really compete with other media giants this makes it difficult for products outside of oligopolies to compete an independent production company has a very difficult time entering the national television market "knowledge is power" BUT: power is knowledge? -power over media = power to control circulation of ideas what types of ideas are circulating in society and culture ideas found in news and entertainment programming ideological work (hegemony) -newcomers can't compete with giants (and alternative ideas they might bring with them) access to the power of media is increasingly concentrated and in the hands of a few corporations SO: the distribution of knowledge at stake Example: Minot: local media removed, couldn't provide its service of alerting people of "death cloud"

conglomeration critics vs. defenders

conglomerate power critics: 1) narrows media voice -reduces # of speakers it's rare to see a movie that isn't distributed by a major studio critics worry that mass media conglomerate have accumulated enough assets to dominate the major channels of mass communication -more choice BUT NOT more voice Clear Channel in Minot increased diversity of channels, but they were all coming from the same corporation and power structure increasing diversity of cable channels on television, but they're all owned by the same few transnational companies 2) limits democracy jeopardizes the democratic process -giants have power to shape policy debates & prevent calls for reform control opinion and policy for instance, make sure that regulation isn't re-imposed -corps serve $$$ agendas, have power to shape & withhold knowledge can get away with controlling dozens and dozens of different outlets fail to report on issues that don't work within their political or economic interests defenders: respond to critics saying their arguments are overstated these conglomerates are not as powerful as they seem -media industry is dynamic & changing with some powerful players falling out of dominance and some rising into power numbers may not be changing, but companies are -corps must grow or lose market share in abundant marketplace the marketplace is getting bigger, there are more and more outlets to watch entertainment content; as the total avenues and number of programs increases, corporations need to buy out and get bigger in order to keep their market share and not grow smaller corps that have increased in size over time may actually enjoy a smaller slice of the media consumption pie than they have in the past -corps absorb losses, afford innovation smaller media companies may make safe media products because their entire bottom line for that year is dependent on that movie/television show being successful giant, multi-million dollar corporations can take chances big, trans-national companies can actually be sources of innovation -larger corps but also more choice the conglomeration critics are arguing what's in the public interest, and in doing so they are arguing that they know best FOX News and MSNBC add diversity, but maybe not the kind of diversity that these critics may have had in mind -internet allows more production & sharing than ever creators of all sorts are still able to publish online through YouTube, blog, and other forms of self-expressions critics argue that defenders: -problematically equates capitalism with democracy less consumer control in deciding what media gets produced and circulated -focus on audiences as consumers but not speakers SO: # of speakers remains the same ultimately, the question comes down to whether what we want is more choice or more voice AND: what about hard-to-target demos? if we equate public interest with consumer interest, what about those interest groups that are less valued by commercial corporations?

NIE criticisms & Benkler's responses

criticism #1 = "information overload" response = vetting process (small # of sites "push info upwards" towards bigger sites) users solve this problem by congregating to a small number of sites and then push info upwards towards bigger sites; the cream rises to the top; the funniest, most creative, most informative content is the content shared more often and will go from a smaller number of sites to a larger number of sites as its hyperlinked across the web this filtering creates a system of peer review; more responsive than mass media criticism #2 = "money will dominate" response = less reliant on $$$ for circulation (ex: Wikipedia) the internet doesn't rely on capital as much for dissemination of content yes, you can buy advertising, promoted tweets, sponsored search returns, but content can also easily travel through non-commercial reasons as a result of viewer interest capital isn't necessary, but it can help it is more difficult to purchase user attention than it is with television, etc. stuff can go viral criticism #3 = "polarization" response = provides "see for yourself" links the networked information environment promotes a networked sphere the culture of blogging has an etiquette of linking to the material you are discussing a conservative-leaning blog will link its response to a liberal-leaning blog he also argues that it's unfair to think of it as polarization, instead: -allows a space for internal argument construction before going wide discuss ideas and viewpoints to come to a consensus it begins with communities of interest on small scales without creating a point of hierarchy or single control regulatory approaches 1) regulation = government oversight people for regulation argue that we need to impose regulation by some outside governmental body 2) self-regulation = industry polices itself to protect their own interests in the marketplace 3) de-regulation = removal of ownership rules instead of regulation, businesses will rely on free-market industry to foster free-market competition; the best ideas, etc. will be the most popular advocates of deregulation argue that previously regulated media are businesses and should be treated as companies that are free to do business in the way they see fit -started in the 1980s & increased in the '90s -replaces trustee system w/ market system hoping to increase competition the public interest would be served with companies competing for their revenue and attention previously, companies weren't allowed to own media across media, but those were removed to produce competition media mergers RESPONSE: rather than compete, media companies merge through buyouts allowing them to get bigger and more powerful as a result, we've seen the rise of the media conglomerate a company that owns several mass media firms under a single corporate umbrella

cultural production

cultural production -some fans build upon / transform texts as part of folk culture -enabled by new techs & internet (forms of cultural production to produce and disseminate these texts) -can express underserved audiences & needs by rewriting the text, viewers can make the original serve a public that it was not originally targeting -shared in communities for pleasure & skill-enhancement people spend hours generating material that can never be sold due to copyright infringement cultural production vs. intellectual property BUT: IP holders fear loss of control & authority media companies are more dependent on inspirational consumers in an overcrowded marketplace, but they fear loss of control -they want celebration, not appropriation want to maintain full control and authority over this material

cultural & secondary proximity

cultural proximity (La Pastina and Straubhaar) use a variety of techniques including observation and formal and informal interviews cultural proximity = shared linguistic & historical concerns this involves location, language, and other factors like culture, dress, ethnic types, body language, religion, gender roles, and so forth -can be expressed through media storytelling, values, etc. genre codes and conventions, themes we see reoccurring while we may feel a sense of cultural proximity to media produced in our own country, we might feel a sense of secondary proximity secondary proximity = familiarity through important genres here, we may have never visited that country, but because we know telenovelas from Latin American or animation from Asia, we feel a sense of connection that country and to the values, stories, themes, and storytelling devices that are common within that culture what these authors are arguing is that national identity does not work uniformly national identity doesn't necessarily eliminate or supersede local values La Pastina & Straubhaar: national identity competes with local values Ex: Marimar in Brazil and Terra Nostra in Italy Marimar is from Mexico, difference in language, but popular in parts of Brazil Important to a country that spoke another language, but the rural working class Brazilians preferred the Mexican telenovela over Brazilian telenovelas because it told a more traditional story with more traditional values Terra Nostra is a migratory experience, one about immigration shared history with this production that proximity is again at the sub- national level, this time based on the history and experiences through this migratory moment (Italians immigrating to Brazil)

definition of globalization & its rise

defining globalization globalization = the flows of 1) media, 2) techs, 3) ideas, 4) money, & 5) cultures across national/cultural boundaries used to stick more to national or regional boundaries, but now, thanks to globalization, these are spreading -applies to all industries goes far beyond media media is the number 2 most profitable export powerful form of an example of globalization -goods/services pitched at a global level rather than national one our media system developed to reach and serve the entire country but now, globalization is the idea of moving beyond the boundaries of nation and reaching the world -BUT: globalization is uneven due to inequalities of power poor countries have less technological and economical ability this makes poor countries unable to compete with richer, foreign or transnational producers rise of globalization factors influencing global media: -political = end of Cold War & opening up of new foreign markets that had previously been closed to the US and US-based media companies -econ = deregulation, loosening ownership regs, & trade treaties loosening of media ownership restrictions national government used to closely control and regulate media ownership, but this has fallen away trade agreements also unite nations into a single market (NAFTA, for example) -tech = satellite, digital networking previously, where a news report would have to be taped and mailed, now it is beamed up to a geosynchronous satellite, then beamed to other satellites, and beamed down to the US/market -cultural = new migration patterns & movements of people creates demands for new flows, new forms, and new hybridized manifestations of media content (immigrants, refugees, students) because ideas, money, and people can move more freely across the globe, the stage is set for the media industry to capitalize on this

strongly- vs. weakly-designed medias-paces (Interactivity, Immersive games)

defining interactivity -new media = emerging digital media (smartphones, internet, etc.) -SOME PEOPLE: "interactivity" separates "new" media from "old" media -BUT: no unifying definition outside "customization & control" advertisements outside of new media promote interactivity and customization -framed as the opposite of passive "couch potatoes" with television, all you have to do is stay awake "roller coaster rides" - strapped in for thrills but no control *BUT: the processes of interpretation & speculation are active too film and television do not come to you pre-digested it is up to you as the audience member to make meaning the meaning-making process is an active one film and TV from the outside appear to require little effort and so this is how we envision them but in reality, we participate when we consume old media by making speculations, predictions about what the text means however, interactive media are unlike film and television they require physical and mental action to go forward for this reason, interactive media foreground the fact that you have control ads for GTA talk about this world where you can do things *AND: emphasis on control ignores how interactivity can be frustrating/dull in reality we're, more likely than not, just pushing buttons with our thumbs -SO: each provide their own pleasures & will continue to coexist *old media = enjoyment of a well-constructed narrative *new media = interactivity despite the growth of interactive media, there will always be a market for old media they will continue to coexist together the ability to do it yourself does not replace the desire to experience a universe that is already made for you forms of interactivity 1) strongly-designed mediaspaces: -constructed to provide different audiences similar experiences -content created by few for consumption by many examples include film and most video games made by the mediamakers and you can do little beyond consume its narrative (film) video games - more often than not, you have to fulfill certain objectives before you can level up -made compelling thru payoffs from time investment value the mediaspace whether it was worth our time and money 2) weakly-designed mediaspaces: purposeful as well this doesn't mean these spaces aren't well-designed or that there isn't a lot of effort that goes into designing them -purposely designed to be open platforms spaces like Facebook, YouTube, or Wordpress are constructed as templates that will be useful to fill by audience members -content comes from participants not creators -it's not about the space, it's about how you fill it immersive games -immersive games = fully absorb your attention forget where you are and project your concentration in this screen of visual carved out panoramics -RESULT: blurring of real & synthetic worlds the avatar as an extension of the body you are represented on the screen by the character you're playing see virtual world through the eyes of the avatar *avatarial introjection = avatar as "me", "I", "mine" although the boundaries between these two worlds blur *emotional investment & desires as a player in a digital game, you get mad when things don't work out right *feeling a personal connection to other players can form interpersonal connections with characters who you work with as a member of a team there are many ways that games are engineered to be immersive

three ways of defining the fan

defining the fan 1) intense engagement - fans don't just read texts, they reread and analyze them; this deep scrutiny moves from what will happen to how and why things happen for fiction, this includes character relations, analyzing storytelling, etc. gives them access to glances between characters, the visual composition of a short 2) close / repeated scrutiny 3) social practice / public display of passion it's a social practice fostering interpersonal bonds in consuming or discussing media as part of a community even as every fan has a person connection, most of them share their passion with a larger group, turning solitary consumption into broader engagements fans make meaning and share this with other fans • enabled by online fan communities (outlet of sharing, easier to find individuals interested in the same things, enable social interactions beyond the locale; provides a space for competing interpretations) THUS: it's not the text, it's what fans do with it that empowers them the way fans find each other and discuss meaning and quality that's powerful to them fandom as a process like popular culture is a process

depicting the Other

depicting the Other -QUESTION: how should we represent different groups? -EMBRACE THE PROBLEM 1) "big issue" strategy PRO: sympathetic, make the difference the heart of the story (Philadelphia; Tom Hanks's character fired from a law firm for having AIDS; results in a law suit) CON: the Other becomes defined by their difference; difference is always a problem (beyond all other traits, Beckett is his disease) 2) "stack the deck" strategy: the other is made so impeccably good that he/she cannot be possibly disliked guess who's coming to dinner: parents are initially opposed to daughter's interracial relationship, but ultimately won over PRO: well-adjusted role models Prentice is perfect, doctor, philanthropist, financially stable CON: sets bar for acceptance impossibly high implies that the Other needs to be flawless in order for us to accept them sets a boundary for nothing less than perfection INCREASE DIVERSITY people who have been traditionally other, need not be presented as a disruptive force don't have to be the problem casts in film and televisions have grown more diverse but this diversity comes in supporting roles (best friends, sidekicks) 3) ex-nomination ("colorblind casting") - allows anyone, of any race to fill the part example: Grey's Anatomy the result was a highly diverse cast PRO: promotes diversity & doesn't focus on difference CON: doesn't acknowledge cultural specificity people want to see cultural specificity within a group; fail to acknowledge differences in tradition, experience, history, etc. 4) multiculturalist strategy this contains viewpoints and a portrayal of cultural difference even within groups PRO: portrayal of cultural difference within groups different goals, backgrounds, personality and behavioral traits CON: rarely found in media this multiplicity can only occur in texts that have enough diversity in their cast to show differences in groups overall, this strategy is not just about increasing the diversity of the group, but the quantity and therefore the quality of the different individuals found

industrial utility of fandom (Gwenllian Jones)

industrial utility of fandom (Gwenllian Jones) -fandoms can be incorporated -fandom is an industrial construct & not a community she asserts that we're not seeing culture, we're seeing an unstable gathering of similarly interest individuals fans are going to disappear and appear depending on their time and interest in the text contrast to Jenkins' folk culture notion, Jones sees fandom as a function of the industry • the industry's "adoring offspring" not its nemesis • based on consumption, not critique (pleasure, rather than challenge) fans remain slavish in their devotion to these industry-created texts these companies are looking for a wide audience but also a devoted audience GOAL: a wide audience PLUS an active one -fandom = niche market cultivated by the industry regardless of IP violations it works in the corporate interest fandom activities are vulnerable and dependent on studio-tolerance SO: cultural production relies on studio tolerance

diaspora

diaspora diaspora = movement of people from one geographic location to another as a result of diaspora, most nations have a sizable and diverse amount of multilingual populations 1) creates global market for media diaspora is increasing in terms of markets themselves that producers themselves want to target they're targeting the diaspora with stories about living elsewhere Ex: karaoke spread from Japan following the movements of Japanese businesspeople often set up in bars and restaurants catering to this people then caught on or didn't catch on in many places, people see karaoke as no longer a Japanese practice but a local one 2) creates hybrid media Ex: mutating music genres & styles particularly apparent in music but can apply to media more largely

alternatives to nationalism & its dominance

dominance and nationalism Waisbord concludes that there may be multiple senses of belongingness but these forms don't do as well Waisbord: only nationalism provides historical & cultural & political bonds -everyday media (invisible daily backdrop) we are reinforced with our national identity by listening through radio, listening to music that is part of our identity, or visiting websites -chauvinistic media (aggressive saber-rattling) aggressively engages with the idea of the national most examples of everyday media just subtly, unconsciously help reinforce your identity of American-ness, but other media can hail your nationalism position America as the best and you should identify with it case study: The Simpsons as an animated sitcom satirizing the American middle class family was an unlikely hit for Fox became the network's first big success global production: scripted in US & animated in South Korea but branded as a US product Fox needed to keep production costs low in developing the program so it outsourced the labor-intensive animation process after animation, rebranded as an American product global reception: is it imperialist? the circulation of The Simpsons transcends its American identity one of the most popular shows around the world people might fear that The Simpsons popularity and the text itself spreads American values across the globe reduced opportunities for local production and the economic flow of foreign consumer spending towards American-based imports ON ONE HAND: mocks US values & culture highlights a dysfunctional family, undercuts civic institutions like politics, education, and law enforcement criticizes consumerism mocks media genres including film, television, popular music for many international viewers, The Simpsons is regarded simultaneously as a uniquely American program, but also mocking American norms thus this program operates as an example that simultaneously supports and undercuts America's cultural values ON THE OTHER HAND: consumerist enterprise about the US experience we can't ignore considering the show in economic terms factoring in it's extensive multimedia tie-ins The Simpsons is a multi-media franchise quite explicitly promotes and is part of a consumerist experience TAKEAWAY: media products contain multiple meanings & cultural impacts

self-regulation & factors driving it

factors driving self-regulation 1) threat of imposed regulation following the Janet Jackson incident, NBC edited an episode of ER that shows a woman's breast in a medical procedure 2) standards & practices -internal guidelines for policies & conduct media companies have their own standards and practices in journalism, these are editorial standards in entertainment, guidelines and practices 3) pressure from public advocacy groups individuals can write letters or threaten to stop consuming a text, but the media is largely unconcerned with the actions of individuals more convincing are those individuals who organize into advocacy groups to voice their displeasure -media companies see individuals as consumers Parents Television Council, etc. might be successful if they can convince executives that they might lose a substantial portion of their market -BUT: they come together to effect change through letter-writing efforts, press attention, etc. meet with executives in 2003, CBS cancelled mini-series the Reagans following pressure from Conservative groups who thought it was too critical 4) pressure from advertisers -skittish about outrage from target demos advertisers are influential, national corporations spend a lot of money on advertising and they use their clout to influence media makers to tone down their content 5) self-imposed ratings systems -provide parents info before consumption Ex: MPAA (legally optional but industrially mandatory) BUT MPAA ratings inconsistent & biased criticized for its lack of transparency no clear guidelines; inconsistent; found bias against LGBTQ content compared to heterosexual content, female nudity against male nudity, sex and violence, independent production against big studios 6) corp's own commercial interests it may attempt to protect the reputation or the interests of the larger company from which the media text is owned NBC SNL aired the video but it was cut from re-run episodes from SNL because NBC executives thought it was not funny critical of NBC's parent company GE internet and democracy "Freedom is fostered when the means of communication are dispersed, decentralized, & easily available, as are printing presses or microcomputers." "Central control is more like when the means of communication are concentrated, monopolized, & scarce, as are broadcast networks." -Ithiel de Sola Pool (1983) he argues that with a centralized means of communication, where only a select few have access to production and dissemination, this leads to a less productive society

fandom as folk culture (Jenkins)

fandom as folk culture Jenkins: -fandom=displaced form of folk culture with own folklore -imitation, revision, parody are crucial to culture people took these commonly understood characters and stories and changed them, revised them, gave them different slants mutated them in ways that they saw fit and applicable to their concerns and interests -BUT: intellectual property controls make folklore illegal & "extreme" today today, copyright disallows fans from using material -too restrictive IP harms public interest when the fair use of a culture to adapt or evolve is unprotected, we all suffer the diminished right to quote and critique core cultural materials fandom and technology impact of new techs new technologies make it difficult to distinguish fan practices from mainstream practices -internet makes discussion & production more common a decade ago (15 years ago) it would have been extreme to share or purchase videos of one's favorite film or television show very few programs released on VHS, generally thought to be fan programs -DVD makes collecting & sharing "normal" owning a TV box set and watching it at your leisure used to be considered an extreme form of television consumption; now it's more than common many people who wouldn't consider themselves fans in a traditional context, read discussion forums, collect DVDs, watch behind-the-scenes -SO: differences between fans & mainstream is historically contingent fandom was diminished by the rise of industrialization and copyright, but it can also flourish thanks to additional outlets of digital distribution and circulation, audience adaptation and circulation as well the fan & binary forms of representation wearing clothes, decorating homes and office spaces, liking/sharing/posting comments about them -media representations oftentimes "Other" fans through splitting = "extreme" opposed to "normal" somehow different from who the "we" are we see this othering process take place through the depiction of fandom through the binary forms of representation COMPELLING: personification of the pleasures of media REPELLING: obsessive & dysfunctional BUT: these are stereotypes oftentimes, we draw conclusions about fans without making a genuine attempt to understand their motives and experiences we don't look at those involved as fans in their particular acts of fandom beyond the cursory caricature

four regulators (Lessig)

four regulators (Lessig) 1) norms (social pressures) the stigma imposed by a community 2) market (cost, variety, access, quality, etc.) 3) technology (construction constraints) - how the technology is constructed affects the affordances and constraints of the user 4) laws (threat of punishment) - includes copyright law, defamation law, and obscenity law AND: these must be considered together since they all impact each other each can support or undermine each other

games & realism & promoting realism (educational?)

games and realism suspension of disbelief, plausibility of being real appeal to our sense of the real helps us suspend our disbelief and become immersed in the game GOAL: foster deeper immersion BUT: standards of realism keep changing shift with time games that were pretty pixelated and slow/jerky, used to be considered and recognized as very immersive today, considered retro games & realism sense of realism promoted thru: -photorealistic representation -feel of gameplay ("force feedback" of response handling) controllers send reverberations back Wii remote, can perform natural physical movements of what you're doing -links to real life people Aaron Rogers in Madden, etc. -degree of interactivity (freedom to explore or control world) -realtime response this is something that dates back to early video games (when you shoot something, there is an explosion) -multiplayer environments & unpredictable encounters don't know what the player on the other side of the screen is going to do players can hack, break rules, etc. and you can't predict their motivations games and learning what kind of learning do games facilitate? even those primarily meant for entertainment can be educational games are usually associated with procrastination or distraction from improvement, but not necessarily the case -coordination & cooperation may play with other games on your team or other gamers attached to other computers and terminals elsewhere; learn how to solve things cooperatively or coordinate with each other -identity exploration playing a character in a video game, you can move to another time or space attempt to get inside that person's head or understand their world -interaction (w/ NPCs or online other people) -production (we make things happen) -challenge & risk-taking -"scaffolding" of skill practice & mastery well ordered problems through which you learn to solve easier problems or use easier forms of hand-eye coordination until the next level when the problems get more complex

definition of representation

gender, race, class, age, and sexuality long history in the fields of media studies and cultural studies representation -influence ON media texts: how do perceptions shape media? -influence OF media texts: how do media shape perceptions? -ideology can be: • descriptive: way the world is • prescriptive: way the world should be women are nurturing, women should be homemakers (hegemony) how different groups are presented in media texts; role models as how groups should act -representation: "to represent" : 1) to stand in for - the image in a media text stands in for all members of a group 2) the practice of image creation

globalization of film (Balio)

globalization of film (Balio) film corps want to take advantage of home video & global auds: manifestations of economy of scope and scale SMALL STUDIOS: increase # of films saw more people and more niches they could apply to MAJOR STUDIOS: create blockbusters • promotes "media events" that you have to see • allows synergy & tie-ins • easy to distribute (one film, rather than twenty different films) this has changed how and for whom movies are made today, 80% of theatrically-released films in the US need foreign revenue to turn a profit • RESULT: focus on high production values & plots appealing to many markets focus on international stars, big special-effects budgets (actors, themes, events, actions that could be enjoyed and understood despite barriers of culture and language)

government regulation models

government regulation models laws and guidelines that influence the freedom of media companies characterized by the level of freedom they permit 1) AUTHORITARIAN - adopted by dictators who want to keep themselves and their supporters in power the attempt to control what the population, reads, sees, hears through media outlets -maintain leader's power media may not be owned by the government, but everything must adhere to the party line -not necessarily government controlled but only sanctioned media allowed -dissent not tolerated people may very well be punished if they question leaders and the status quo too fiercely dissenters are barred from speaking out and criticizing regimes not allowed to access materials that the government does not approve model practiced by Fascist Germany and Italy pre and during WWII Burma and Uzbekistan 2) COMMUNIST -government controlled -uses media solely to express communist ideals & goals of government the goal to convey these beliefs informs everything the government produces this form of media is on decline but we still see it in action in nations like North Korea, China and Cuba 3) LIBERTARIAN -government restrictions infringe on the rights of the individual -INSTEAD: marketplace of ideas people can make their own decisions of what is true and what is false let the opinions compete puts a lot of ability in the people to distinguish what is truth -no restrictions -BUT: others fear this will lead to corporate concentration & "infotainment" (news that has mutated into something meant to not inform, but entertain the public) this doesn't exist anywhere, fear that it will lead to total control by a few huge corporations 4) SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY this model characterizes the ideals of mainstream journalism -private ownership independent of government ("Fourth Estate") unofficial branch of the government that monitors the legislative, judicial, and executive branches PLUS: government action to ensure diversity through funding alternatives & regulation we see this in place with restrictions over broadcast regulation alternatives to underserved audiences not motivated by selling advertising not specifically targeting the same demographics that everyone else is bars from publishing information that might be harmful to society -GOAL: strike balance between needs of public and media companies

advertising goals

influence us a particular product or brand -GOAL: manufacture a sense of desire helps define the needs and desires for new consumers create an economy based on consumption and ever-expanding demand identify us as consumers influence our purchasing decisions, as well as constantly reproduce the activities of desiring and buying function and identify as part of a culture of consumption change the way we think about ourselves1) positive impact - happiness can come through purchase; positive can come with consumer goods 2) creating discontent - attempts to express upon viewers that there's something lacking in their life without this product

"TV-as-a-drug" & its problems (Mittell)

interrogating "TV-as-a-drug" (Mittell) TV-Free America: functions nationally and locally that attempts to reduce or eliminate television-viewing because they think it is a negative thing TV-Free America= • TV is addictive • that makes it a social problem (similar to drug-use with the same psychological impact) • must call for a public intervention (frames it as a public-health crisis) something that needs the law to intervene Mittell=drug metaphor inadequately understands spectatorship he wants to reveal that things get obscured when people argue that TV is like a drug groups repeatedly link television to the drug crisis and the war on drugs psychological effects, shoddy research that links it to criminal behavior, etc. Mittell is critical about TV-Free America's claims 1) assumes children are viewing passively - stare at the screen; processing rather than thinking 2) is a middle-class fear of the inner-city Other - like drugs, television abuse is unfairly and unrealistically painted as a non-white inner-city problem; suburban families must contrast themselves against them their children may become violent, intellectually-stunted; characteristics linked to urban poor through common media representations • *biased solutions based on suburban activities (they ask parents to participate in other recreational activities) • *relies on ideas of the nuclear family & stay-at-home mom (presents parenthood and the resources of parent-hood in a very narrow way) TAKEAWAY: he illustrates how dominant social groups control discussion of TV's value & effect and that these beliefs, in turn, become presumed and naturalized anti-TV organizations can set the generalizations for what TV does and how it can be solved this group sets a discourse about how and why television is good or bad for you that becomes more largely internalized by the culture children and taste -cultural assumptions about kids in attempts to protect them oftentimes, anti-TV critics frame their critiques through a sentimental nostalgia of a pre-TV age these are myths what other assumptions are being made about kids and culture? • *they lack taste distinction & ability to choose (must have good choices made for them) • *they are passive, acted upon by TV • *they watch TV the same way as adults but without critical skills (these critics assume that children watch TV in the same way and for the same reasons as adults, but without adults' capacity and

moral panics

moral panics -fear of a new tech's negative impact outside of parental control RESPONSE: 1) call government regulation or industry self-regulation (making certain content or media messages illegal) 2) implement surveillance systems (can active the V-chip in television or put content blockers) -response to "mean world syndrome" moral panics are a response to "mean world syndrome" media representations of violence or other social problems cause the viewer to feel more afraid or anxious about culture -media become scapegoats for societal ills are these media really to blame? moral panics are responses to anxieties about larger cultural concerns: sex, violence, so forth -displace anxieties for larger cultural concerns too difficult to confront head- on THUS: makes fears more manageable but does little to protect kids some people are worried about violent or harmful television content but others are concerned with the very act of watching television itself

narrative involvement vs. narrative activism

narrative involvement = interaction designed by producers (like voting) narrative activism = interfering in producers' plans American Idol (Sanjaya) - oppositional to the show and its ideologies; trying to sabotage its credibility the boundaries between involvement and activism can blur; activating audiences to become more invested in seeing Sanjaya win or lose TAKEAWAY: active audiences can be fans &/or oppositional not all active audiences are understood considering the fan fans help us understand how audiences engage with media are fans individualists daring to express their passion or are they conformists following a trend? any claims arguing that all fans are dupes of mass culture or resistance fighters against mass culture should be viewed skeptically -fans perform publicly what we do privately we see their love for a media text in their practices of dress, expression, adoration the pleasures advertised by fans are pleasures that we may also feels -they are heightened examples of typical audience behaviors & pleasures not excessive and zealous outsiders

nationalism (Waisbord)

nationalism (Waisbord) differentiates the globophobe from the globophile globophobe = fears loss of cultural identity fear the loss of diversity and identity these super powerful corporations are going to produce monoculture globophile = techs will result in more diverse content more mediamakers will produce a greater variety of content from a greater variety of countries with a greater variety of storytelling forms BUT: Wasibord is skeptical he believes that there is no evidence that media can induce long-term transformations there is too much emphasis on the emancipatory or maybe dystopian potential of emerging technologies Waisbord's article is concerned with nationalism nationalism = shared rituals, traditions, etc. -media constantly reminds audience of national culture through: provides cohesion and unity (a larger sense of identity) helps keep societies together media is a source, like other institutions, that helps us adhere together 1) national sentiments (language, symbols, etc.) it expresses the daily representations and interpretations about what being an American is and who is an American 2) national experience (memories, events, etc.) media can be nationalist by conveying a sense of its home country but also by using and creating share memories, identities, and events as well can both foster solidarity and influence exclusion alternatives to nationalism = religion, localism, larger region, cosmopolitanism cosmopolitanism is the feeling of global village belongingness (global urban populations; global urban cities that are connected to other global urban cities - San Francisco, New York, London, Tokyo)

networked info environment & results (Benkler)

networked information environment (Benkler) networked information environment = cooperative production of information & culture supported by digital techs not only decentralized, but people are producing and sharing this content for non-commercially motivated reasons argues that the internet has changed how we exchange information, knowledge, and culture RESULTS: 1) audiences become participants & speakers reorient themselves as active speakers and participants; consuming media, but can also speak back to it, make video responses, produce their own media 2) less dependent on/susceptivity to mass media changes how we read and think more generally when we engage with media, we consider "should I comment on this, post this on Facebook, write a blog entry or a response?" provides us more independence from mass media alternative venues of expressing our opinion and sharing information with others INSTEAD: info & culture shared through a culture of linking email, blog post, etc. every page is a node in a highly distributed system of organization through hyperlinking, people can easily share information with each other and go from more visible sites to less visible sites TOOLS: email, blogs, collaborative content production (like a wiki), texting, social media email: cheap, easy to use, not ideal for communicating with a large number of people blogs: make it easy to modify web pages from any computer; journal style web pages for readers to respond to comments collaborative content production like wikis: large groups promote collaborative authorship texting: share in real time post using social media

society-making vs. segment making media (Turow)

niche nation (Turow) -Turow: industrial changes have social consequences negative consequences of what may be lost as broadcasting is replaced by niche narrowcasting -broadcasting: society-making media nation-building material; values that are shared programs like Modern Family can teach us values and bind us together as a large community who will never know each other, but nonetheless will identify as part of the American whole • desire for big audience means appeal to lowest common denominator (this isn't a bad thing; a large audience watching together with a shared cultural text that contains values about who we are as a nation) • people can share "universal" & national culture -narrowcasting: segment-making media a shift from the former to the latter • no exposure to content / people outside niche • marketers exacerbate / profit from social differences (these companies and cable networks are in the business of carving people into categories, according to the desires of media-buyers) electronic-gated communities changes the way we imagine these communities, away from the national compelling, but also generalizing argument Turow presents an either/or relationship

participatory culture & its development

participatory culture -UTOPIANS: distinction between producer & consumer outdated -people produce, remix, collaborate, share, annotate info & culture as more people create and share, the differences between producers and consumers become increasingly insignificant development of participatory culture 1. diversity of content leads to increased choice & "information pull" with so many choices to choose from, we become more powerful in choosing what channels we tune into or what websites we access 2. access to production tools is cheaper, easier, more widespread 3. networking allows community & collaboration users, fans, and consumers can communicate directly with each other and form groups based on their interests find an audience and speak directly to that audience people can use the internet to not only communicate but to collaborate with each other 4. digital content is "non-rivalrous" & easy to copy & modify it can be endlessly used and circulated by all those that have access to the technology as a result, information and cultural products are produced and shared in a network communal environment

personal traces & function creep

personal traces = the electronic footsteps that people leave behind (on surveillance cameras, browsing histories, etc.) people are concerned about the government's invasion of privacy subjugate populations through excessive surveillance function creep = widening surveillance use of a tech beyond its intended purpose example: Driver's License (intended to show that you can drive a car; now it serves a variety of purposes, such as getting you into a bar)

four perspectives on global media power

perspectives on global media power SO: whose culture does media spread? which ones are dominant? cultural exchange = global flows are part of a "global village" this perspective argues that the more globalization occurs with the free-flow of information, products, technologies across formerly separate borders, the more like we are to become a cosmopolitan across the globe -global media = marketplace that unites people cultural exchange celebrates the free flow of media across nations and cultures using satellites and digital computer networks cheap media production and circulation costs can produce access to valuable information about healthcare and education, political ideals, and representations of culture and identity -advocates a free flow of media media that is most popular abroad is whose ideas are most resonant exchange between cultures produces content that is most in demand and most universal to consumers worldwide media transcends local cultures, provides empowerment, education, and gender equality -"universal" cultures/values most in demand / shared by so many different cultures -supported by US/international media conglomerations support cultural exchange because it's in their financial advantage to be able to distribute their media across international borders rise of the TNC (Transnational Corporation) cultural imperialism = global flows are part of a "global pillage" -global media = one-way flow from US/West to the rest economic disparities have lead to Western companies dominating still developing countries by disseminating consumerist-charged texts -no real exchange of ideas, but unequal position of influence -local media suppressed or imitates US media US culture is in a position of influence over others and they don't have the same opportunity to influence American culture as American culture does on their own region destroys local cultures media texts that develop in other countries often imitate US texts not an equal flow and global markets are cluttered with western media; this is bad -DANGER: imposes cultural values from outside the basis of the idea of cultural imperialism is that the media of western countries export more than just entertainment and information our media contain cultural values and these aren't necessarily shared by the countries in which we export our media impose our values on these countries (consumerism, beauty norms) international markets can decode US programming oppositionally Sex and the City can become a commentary/satire Nation and Diaspora 12/11/13 3:08 PM perspectives on global media power SO: whose culture does media spread? which ones are more dominant? cultural nationalism = extension of cultural imperialism -local cultures need to be protected from larger and more powerful, oftentimes aggressively commercial, media cultural nationalists fear monoculture -local cultures need to be protected -must be reasserted through government funding, restrictions, & quotas cultural hybridity = global flows are a recombination of cultures -genres/styles combined aspects of the old and aspects of the new global flows use innovation and imitation to generate hybrid genres, styles, and fashions that are ultimately untraceable to a single national or regional culture these styles are combined into something new -Ex. MTV in other countries = mix of successful business model with local & international cultures doesn't automatically Westernize or Americanize its content for that country, but it's not specifically local as well combines its formulas with the logos, styles, fashions, and cultural traditions of the region that it is now broadcasting into globalization and interrelatedness we can understand globalization in terms of interrelatedness this interrelatedness manifests in being -instantaneous (crosses time & space) almost instant access thanks to the Internet and geosynchronous satellites, you can access it in almost seconds -interconnected (relationships across cultures) global media and global connections facilitates connections across space connections to the far away using communication technologies like Skype and Facebook or other social networks, but also consume media content produced somewhere else in the US using these technologies -interdependent (global economies) cuts across local markets, global conglomerates have holdings in dozens of countries produce media superstars or blockbusters that gear to appeal to not just a national audience, but a global one as well

principles of produsage & "quality outcomes"

principles of produsage 1) open participation & evaluation -diverse range of collaborators w/ a wide range of skills 2) ad hoc & fluid meritocracy -leaders rise thru skills & commitment -pluralistic rather than hierarchical 3) production is a continuing process -the text is never finished -always developing & in progress produsage undermines the romanticized notion that an idea can be finished products of produsage are inherently incomplete and never finished Wikipedia and memes are always open for further revision and remix 4) common property w/ individuals rewards -products aren't owned by a single entity -incentives include social standing, creative outlet, vocational training, money implications of produsage 1) creates greater diversity rather than "quality outcomes" content created out of this produsage logic is no more likely to be better than work created from commercial forms -BUT: "quality outcomes" more likely to result from greater public involvement the more people involved, the more likely a stronger work will occur -SO: we judge the success of produsage based on sustained involvement 2) can foster a new digital divide this form is about participation one of producers vs. non-participants those with the skills and those with little skills those with the technologies and those without the technologies those with the time and those without the time SO: produsage values &s skills must be taught in class it's necessary to reinvent learning as a process of collaboration between teachers and students students need to be taught these produsage skills if not taught in school, this will lead to digital divide 3) commercial interests can "harvest" produsage Web 2.0 make money from advertisements -sites turn users into laborers with advertising, personal info, etc. commercial forces play a significant role in harvesting user-generated content

productive practices of consumption

productive practices of consumption people argue that television and media consumption is a passive activity groups like TV-Free America try to protect viewers from television but as Hall's encoding/decoding model suggests, consumption is another moment in production where interpretation is actively produced by audiences when we consume media, we interpret it per Hall's decoding model we often put the text in relationships with our own contexts, values, and frameworks from outside the text we use our analysis of what we 've learned and how we understand the world to provide our own interpretations of what media texts mean 1) interpretation 2) discussion - we can talk to one another about the texts we consume we see that consumption can be active 3) speculation - all sorts of media facilitate the active production of generating suspense; here consumption can be speculative (who's the killer, who's going to get killed next, what team is going to win the game) our thought processes change; we re-evaluate the situation moves from more casual engagements (interpretation) to more intense practices (speculation) but not all audiences engage in these consumption practices and not to the same degree

produsage & its results (Bruns)

produsage (Bruns) -interactivity allows media users to become producers & distributors -fostered by popular & open platforms provide a foundation for platforms on which large communities can innovate and circulate content RESULT: *less reliance on commercially-driven media rediscovery of a vernacular culture of folk creativity (just like Jenkins describes) *demystifies the production process rather than imagining filmmakers or journalists or writers as creative professionals, we learn by experimenting become more media literate *makes culture more participatory/democratic something that comes from all around us produsage = networks of cooperate critique, debate, co-creation he argues that highly flexible digital software and content means that users become more involved in their media and network usage

surveillance & "surveillance society"

surveillance surveillance = to see without being seen; to be seen without seeing the watcher "surveillance society" = a person's every move is electronically recorded & stored to be examined when needed/desired on one hand this has led to more detective and preventative measures for criminals on the other hand, widespread surveillance brings up fear in a society in which law enforcement agencies amass huge amounts of data on their citizens and thus reduces our privacy privacy & the law -includes the rights to control personal... 1)...autonomy (freedom of choice) 2)...info (about yourself) 3)...property (incl. name & likeness) 4)...physical space (freedom from intrusion & unwanted attention) -BUT: gov't can invade privacy esp. when it's a threat to security or others additionally, today's political climate has shifted away from an emphasis on one's privacy towards an emphasis on security has expanded the government's capacity to intrude on privacy without obtaining search warrants and court orders -AND: antiquated laws more concerned with forbidding eavesdropping instead of distribution of personal data

synergy & its pros & cons

synergy synergy: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts ("1+1=3") in 2000, AOL purchased Time Warner for 164 billion, the idea behind this was that Time Warner + AOL would allow the two companies to work better together; complement each other the concept of synergy utilizes horizontal integration across media industries the idea is to maximize efficiency and profit by using every part of a company to produce, promote, and deliver media content -each corp. division works together to advance the brand/franchise -logic = company would make more $$$ from cross-promotion than several brands working separately HSM - television show, movie, video game, merchandise line "economies of scope" SO: synergy (& convergence) redefine content; focus on developing convergent IP content development becomes more important than ever it's not about creating a good/interesting movie, it's about creating a movie that will make for an interesting video game, toys, comics we need to reconsider content as intellectual property; no longer just a TV show or a film; a property managed and deployed across media platforms; convergent/synergistic enterprises BUT: synergy can lead to loss of efficiency & drain on profits *AOL + Time Warner Time Warner had used its magazine, internet, and television holdings to advertise AOL; offered exclusive AOL benefits over the past few years, reality setting in that they were not good fits for each other not an equal pairing; AOL didn't have much to give back drain on the resources of Time Warner there is a possibility that Time Warner will try to sell AOL (divest) *News Corp. + Myspace News Corp. bought Myspace in 2005, imagining that it could link its properties in film, television to a social media platform that was already renowned for its ways of bringing musicians and bands to people didn't work out the way they wanted to purchased for 580 million, sold for 38 million

two forces shaping the child audience

two forces shaping the child audience 1) MEDIA INDUSTRY -desirable & lucrative demographic for the media industry, the child audience is an extremely desirable segment -high frequency media consumption -advertisers and media producers believe that children have a consumerist mindset and are impressionable -create brand loyalty early on (lifetime of brand dedication at an early age) this was not always the case as children as an audience were ignored by the television industry until the 1950s when Disney-originated programming resulted in bumps of consumption of goods (super influential in shaping parental purchases) there are multiple cable channels targeting children at various ages with content that's made to appeal to them 2) PARENTS, TEACHERS, POLITICIANS -victimhood, innocence, fragility -blank slates (childish mind) that adults with the power to produce media and other adults need to protect -watching is a passive activity resonates with a lot of adult assumptions about children many of these adults imagine children watching television to be a passive activity people only learn to be discerning with age parents attempt to restrict what children can watch or consume with other media children watching TV children engage with content differently than adults, but that doesn't mean that they're passively absorbing programming

vertical integration & horizontal integration

vertical vs. horizontal integration vertical integration = total control within a single industry production distribution exhibition controls production by owning and producing their own content distribution - gatekeepers of the content they deliver nationwide control means to exhibiting the materials to these viewers (broadcasting content to local stations, selling DVDs on website or in the Disney store) Ex: CSI Amazing Race, CBS Television Studios CBS broadcast network broadcast station it owns (Ex: KCBS (Los Angeles, CA)) makes media more profitable, increases efficiency horizontal integration = corp control & coordination across media sectors TV FILM PRINT Production Production Distribution Distribution Distribution Exhibition Greater market, if one is down, others can be up (ticket sales, blockbuster, etc.)