MEGA/MOCA exam flash cards mild/moderate cross categorical special education

describe some intervention and policy approaches that schools can espouse (adopt) to prevent student problems in learning and behavior, and to reduce unnecessary referrals to special education

A school should recognize and incorporate cultural and linguistic differences in their practices related to assessment, curriculum planning and design, and instruction. Considering the demographics of American society today, all/most schools should have ESL programs. Classroom instruction and other school functions should include languages other than English. Schools should have support systems in addition to special education, such as tutoring programs, teacher assistance teams, and bilingual education programs. Schools should collaborate with their communities in established programs. They should also support their teachers via professional development offerings that respond to needs expressed by faculty members and continuing collaboration and consultation of teachers with other professionals. Educators should build upon students' existing knowledge and use interactive discourse to promote both fundamental and higher order student skills for reading, math, and writing. Schools should systematically and continually evaluate student progress and the quality of their programs, Decision-making should include all relevant stakeholders. School educators should include cooperative learning methods and thematic instructional techniques in their teaching.

compare some pros and cons of a few different medications prescribed for childhood anxiety disorders, which can include separation anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and others

According to psychiatrists, children with anxiety are often prescribed the wrong medications when practitioners fail to understand the children's experiences and lack knowledge of evidence-based anxiety treatments. Anxious children have attentional difficulties, not from attention deficits but worries. They are often misdiagnosed as having ADHD and prescribed stimulants. These improve concentration, but not mood; they can even increase anxiety and the insomnia it causes. Alpha-two agonists, e.g., clonidine or guanfacine, lower arousal levels and can calm children, but do not treat their anxiety. Some practitioners even prescribe antipsychotics, also inappropriate for anxiety disorders. Serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants are most effective in research studies and patient treatments by experienced psychiatric physicians. These can improve children's anxiety relatively fast, e.g., beginning in a week or two, and are most effective in conjunction with cognitive-behavior therapy. Benzodiazepines (Valium, Librium, Dalmane, Halcion, Xanax, Ativan, etc.), used as anti-seizure treatments, sleep aids, and muscle relaxants as well as anxiolytics, also provide short-term help for extreme anxiety, but not long-term help like SSRIs.

summarize some principles of classroom management. summarize the goal of behavior management techniques. list some ethical concerns related to behavior management

According to researchers (e.g., Smith & Rivera, 1995), to establish/maintain classroom order, teachers should develop positive atmospheres and foundations of positive learning environments; use preventive techniques; develop collaboration with parents and other professionals around disciplinary issues; make sure interventions are appropriate to the problems they address; and regularly evaluate student progress. The goal of behavior management strategies is self-discipline, defined as gaining control over one's behavior in varied situations with various groups and individuals. Some ethical concerns include questions like these: Who decides who is managing behavior and whose behavior must be managed? How can others control behavior managers? Which interventions must be used, and who decides on accepted interventions? For what goals/purposes must interventions be implemented? Are/should children be free to make choices? Are student actions observable, measurable, repeated, and congruent with behavioral principles? In schools: Can externals- educators, peers, parents- change student behavior? Who decides which/whose behaviors to change? What interventions are used in classrooms? And who monitors them?

identify some signs that babies and young children are demonstrating atypical development or delay sin their use of spoken expressive language

Babies normally babble at a few to several months. An infant's not babbling by eight months is a sign of delayed/atypical spoken language development. A child not uttering any words by 18 months is not developing expressive language typically. Children over two years using only single words show atypical development. After four years, speaking mainly in "baby talk" is atypical. Echolalia (continually repeating what others say) is typical in younger children, but beyond three years is atypical. Talking to oneself aloud is typical of toddlers, but children continuing this practice extensively past three years show delayed development. Children older than three years who do not take conversational turns but talk "in circles" are not developing typically. Children over four years who have trouble expressing their needs and wants show atypical development. Answering open-ended questions ("What did you do at Jimmy's?") with single words indicates a delay in a six-year-old. Overgeneralizing, i.e., naming many objects with one word like calling all vehicles cars is another sign of delayed expressive language development.

describe some aspects of the emotional and caregiving impacts of disabilities on families

Caring for a disabled child or family member, particularly one with more severe disabilities, is a daily stressor that can exhaust caregivers and all family members emotionally and physically. Emotional stress includes anxiety, anger, guilt, and insecurity- about the disability's cause, other family members' needs, whether caregivers are doing enough, the future, etc. Families grieve the disabled member's functional losses, initially and recurrently. A member's disability frequently causes major changes in family life. Members, especially females, may discard or alter jobs and/or career plans for caregiving duties. Some members feel too involved in care while others feel left out, and within-family relationships change. Different loyalties and/or alliances develop within the family. Past research has found that while disability tended to increase marital tension, it did not necessarily increase divorce rates.

identify several classic "special" characteristics of special education

Characteristics of "classic" special education include special settings; for example, segregated schools, classes, or resource rooms. Children are considered special, as evidenced by the way they are categorized, which determines their eligibility for special education and related services. "Classic" special education includes special teachers as well; whether they are trained and/or have experience or not, they are designated as special education teachers. Special education also includes therapists and other specialists trained to assess and remediate various conditions that qualify children for special education and related services. Special education traditionally involves a special teacher-student ratio: classes typically contain fewer students than general education classes, and more teachers per student. Another characteristic of special education is special teaching methods and tools; for example, Braille for the blind, sign language for the deaf, or communication boards/books/systems/software for the nonverbal. Special education also includes special goals, such as integration into the social life of the community, and special programs for teaching needed skills not normally needed by other students.

discuss some treatments used to address some medical needs of children with cerebral palsy

Damage or deficient development in the brain before birth usually causes cerebral palsy, which affects muscle tone, posture, and movement. It can include spasticity causing muscular rigidity and incoordination, athetosis causing involuntary movements and exaggerated reflexes, or both. Its effects can range from an unsteady gait or slight limp to complete loss of walking and speech, and every degree in between these. Botox can help isolated spasticity, and muscle relaxants can help generalized spasticity. CP patients benefit from physical therapy to improve motor development, mobility, strength, balance, and flexibility. Splints or braces can stretch stiff muscles, prevent contractures, and help some children walk. Occupational therapists provide adaptive equipment and alternate strategies to help children participate independently in daily routines and activities. Speech-language therapists help children speak clearly, use sign language or communication boards/devices, and improve eating/swallowing muscle use. Orthopedic surgery for severe deformities or contractures can reposition bones or joints; lengthen contracted tendons and muscles to reduce pain and increase mobility; and sometimes sever extremely spastic muscles.

describe a problem-solving procedure to teach to students functioning on grade levels 1-8, and how to apply it to conflict resolution

The teacher introduces the topic to students by explaining that where a conflict exists, a problem exists, and that having a way to think about and try to solve a problem helps. The teacher writes three steps on the board and goes over each step with the students: (1) Define the problem; (2) Brainstorm solutions; and (3) Choose a solution and act upon it. The teacher explains that before solving a problem, people must agree to work out the problem; that for problem-solving to work, they must agree not to call names, yell, or otherwise escalate the conflict. For step (1), the teacher encourages the students to define the problem in a way that does not place blame upon others. For step (2), the teacher encourages the students to think of as many possible solutions as they can. For step (3), the teacher advises the students that they should pick a win-win solution wherein all parties benefit and nobody loses.

explain some applications of fine motor skills for young children, including oral/motor skills. describe some early indications that a baby or toddler has atypical development in the area of fine motor skills

Young children need fine motor skills to play with toys, eat meals, turn lights on/off, and hold crayons, paintbrushes, spoons, etc. During evaluations, many children perform poorly on certain tasks, form delays not in cognitive development but in fine motor development. Oral/motor skills, like the control of jaw, lip, mouth, and tongue movements for eating and speaking, are included in fine motor skills. While occupational therapists work with other fine motor skills, speech-language pathologists and occupational therapists may both work to remediate oral/motor skill deficits. If a baby has trouble orally grasping the nipple or bottle to nurse, this can indicate delayed fine motor development. Babies whose hands are in fists more often than open may have fine motor delays. A baby having problems manually bring toys to their mouth and/or mouthing them can have atypical fine motor development. Difficulty holding small objects with a pincer grasp or with a thumb and forefinger is another sign of delayed fine motor development.

give an example of the steps in a task analysis for teaching a student with special needs the daily life skill of washing a load of laundry

(1) Take the laundry hamper to the laundry room. (2) Empty the hamper onto the table/floor. (3) Sort laundry into colors and whites. (4) Open the washing machine. (5) Put one sorted pile (or as much of it as fits easily) into the washer. (6) Add laundry soap. (7) Turn on the washer. (8) Wait until the machine is done. (9) Open the washer. (10) Take the laundry out and look to make sure everything is clean. (11) If not, remove soiled pieces and put them back into the washer for another cycle. (12) Put laundry in the dryer. *[Alternative: Hang laundry on a clothesline to dry.] (13) Choose the right setting for the fabric type. (14) If needed, set the length of drying time. (15) Turn the dryer on. (16) When laundry is dry, remove each piece from the dryer/clothesline. (17) Fold each piece and put it into the hamper. (18) Put away the clean laundry in the right closets, drawers, etc.

identify a condition for which a doctor may prescribe a drug like Pulmozyme (dornase alfa) and explain briefly why. identify some serious and less serious side effects of this medication

A doctor may prescribe Pulmozyme to a patient who has cystic fibrosis. This condition causes thick mucus secretions in the lungs, interfering with breathing. Excessive DNA in the pulmonary secretions causes these symptoms. Pulmozyme is a synthesized protein that breaks down this extra DNA. It makes the lung secretions thinner and thus less likely to obstruct breathing, and also decreases the patient's risk of respiratory tract infections. Pulmozyme is given in solution via inhalation from a nebulizer. Allergic reactions to Pulmozyme cause symptoms like breathing difficulty, swelling of the face, lips, or tongue, hives, swelling/closing of the trachea, chest pain, and/or fever. Emergency medical attention or immediate physician contact are indicated for these, which are the primary serious side effects. Less serious Pulmozyme side effects include changes in the voice; sore throat; laryngitis; rashes; conjunctivitis, or red, irritated, or inflamed eyes; nasal conjestion and/or discharge; and other symptoms, for which a doctor should be consulted.

give some examples of professional development topics covered by courses that special education professionals can take to improve their professional skills and engage in lifelong professional growth

A number of organizations offer professional development courses. For example, the National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) has many classes. Professionals can learn more about modifications for alternative assessments; the annual and triennial review processes; assistive technologies for students with disabilities; ADHD, anxiety disorders, autism, pervasive developmental disorders, bipolar disorder, depression, Down syndrome, eating disorders, emotional disturbances, epilepsy, LDs, intellectual disabilities, orthopedic impairments, multiple disabilities, PTSD, Rett syndrome, schizophrenia, speech-language disorders, spina bifida, Tourette syndrome, traumatic brain injuries, blindness and visual impairments, deafness and hearing impairments, and deaf-blindness; auditory processing disorders; developmental and psychological disorders in special education; criteria for eligibility determination for special education services related to each disability; educational implications of some disorders; factors influencing curriculum for special-needs students; identification of high-risk students in classrooms; developing, writing, implementing, reviewing, and modifying IEPs; medications; services related to special education; team transitional planning; and helping students cope with disasters and violence.

describe some considerations for families with disabled children/members related to differences in the degree, extent, or severity of functional impairment

A person's functional status is the extent to which they can perform activities of daily living (ADLs) like self-feeding, toileting, or walking. The severity of impairment in these activities caused by a disability can be assessed. The human help, support, and equipment an individual requires is inversely related to their functional status, and families are typically the main providers of such assistance. Providing it can constitute a burden for them, compromising their physical and mental health. For instance, research has found that parents and particularly mothers whose disabled children have lower functional status have more symptoms of depression. Another factor to consider is that when disabled children and their parents both grow older, and/or when grandparents are caregivers, their ability to provide the same amounts and durations of care can become more limited due to the physical stresses of caregiving, which may be unmanageable for many elderly persons.

discuss some considerations related to how a school's climate and philosophy can support educators in communicating and collaborating with students with disabilities and their families, especially those from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, to help students learn as desired

A school's principal should advocate strongly for the well-being and interests of culturally and linguistically diverse students receiving special education and related services. Parents and teachers should consider how the principal shows their commitment in this respect. A school's curriculum should reflect the viewpoints, contributions, and experiences of diverse linguistic and ethnic groups. Parents should consider whether a school's principal and staff blame diverse students or their families for different educational performance levels, and whether schools pressure diverse families to embrace school values, or work to incorporate cultural and language differences into their instructional programs. It is important to look for ways in which school administrators and staff demonstrate respect for language and cultural differences. Parents must consider whether the environment of a given school is orderly and safe for their children. Additionally, a school should demonstrate high expectations and provide sufficient achievable curricular challenges, both supported by evidence, for all of its students.

give some examples of different program placement settings for students receiving special education and related services. explain some ways wherein a school system can fulfill its legal requirements to assure a student's appropriate placement by providing supports for student integration into the placement

A student's IEP may be implemented in various placement settings according to the individual student's needs. Settings include placement in the regular education class, with supplementary services and aids the student needs; in a special class for all or part of the school day, with other students all also receiving special education and related services; in a special school dedicated to students needing special education and related services; in a hospital; in an institutional facility; and other settings. To fulfill its legal requirements to make sure a student is placed appropriately, a school system can take various actions. For example, it may furnish the student with a suitable program as part of the school system. Or it may contract with an outside agency that can provide the student with an applicable program. Or it may make some other arrangements and/or make use of other mechanisms available to pay for or otherwise provide the student a program appropriate and consistent with the terms of the IDEA.

expand the acronym AIM and define what it means. explain some ways AIM benefit students with disabilities. identify some AIM formats

AIM stands for Accessible Instructional Materials. Many students with disabilities find reading impossible or difficult because of various disabilities affecting being able to read standard printed materials. AIMS consist of textbooks and other printed educational materials published in special digital formats. These formats provide accommodation to individuals who are blind, visually impaired, have various physical disabilities, and have reading-related learning disabilities (LDs) including dyslexia. Using digital formats enables students with reading and/or print disabilities to hear and see the text simultaneously using a computer, tablet, or other digital device. AIM includes formats like Braille, large print, audio, and digital text. The standard format for digital text files is named DAISY, for Digital Accessible Information System. DAISY allows users to listen to recordings of human voices or electronic speech synthesizers for audio versions of print materials. Accompanying reading software presents text visually at the same time. Today, most young students are comfortable and familiar with electronic voices and adapt easily to using them for reading.

give a brief differential definition of instructional accommodations and modifications for students with disabilities. summarize how federal and state laws affect accommodations and modifications

Accommodations are changes in HOW students learn and are assessed, while modifications are changes in WHAT students are expected to learn. Accommodations can involve teaching methods, materials, assignments, tests, the learning environment, scheduling, time demands, and special communications systems, and they need not change school learning goals. Modifications can involve partial program or course completion; lower than grade-level curriculum expectations; alternative curriculum goals; and alternate assessments. The IDEA mandates that schools give students with disabilities the change to be included and progress in the general education curriculum, which can require accommodations and/or modifications to accomplish. The IDEA also requires all students receiving special education and related services to have IEPs Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act that requires that schools provide accommodations to students with disabilities even if they do not have IEPs. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) bans discrimination against the disabled. State laws follow the federal laws in allowing accommodations and modifications for students with disabilities.

identify three areas or principles wherein children have rights educators must observe during the behavior management process in special education

According to the Council for Exceptional Children, children have rights in the areas of normalization, fairness, and respect. The principle of normalization means that a person with a disability has the right to develop a life that is as close as possible to that of a nondisabled person. The principle of fairness includes not only basic fairness, but also the due process of law. Educators must determine whether a specific intervention they choose for modifying a student's behavior is fair to the student as an individual. The principle of respect means the student has the right to be treated as a human being rather than a statistic or an animal. Educators must measure any intervention in light of this principle. For example, physical or psychological punishment, segregation or isolation, medication, shock, restraints, or other punishments usually violate this principle. Ethics encompassing these principles dictate that in behavior management procedures, the end does NOT justify the means unless the principles of normalization, fairness, and respect have been met.

identify some elements of print books that present challenges to representation in digital formats for reading-disabled students and give an example of progress in technology to address these

According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities, certain visual images in printed books- for example, mathematical concepts, charts, and graphs- cannot be accurately represented using text to speech software programs. This presents a limitation to what students with reading or other disabilities can access compared to the original printed book versions. However, progress in technology is addressing this need. The organization Benetech is the parent group of the extensive online library known as Bookshare. Benetech has a division called the DIAGRAM Center. At the DIAGRAM Center, designers of digital technology have created a new web application tool named POET. POET is an open-source application that enables crowd sourcing of verbal descriptions of visual images. In addition, it facilitates the process of creating descriptions of visual images for Digital Accessible Information System or DAISY file format, the standard format for digital text files. The progress of this and similar technology developments afford increased access to text for students with disabilities.

identify three main components of effective instruction in reading. describe some of the benefits of digital technology for enabling access to reading text for students with disabilities

According to the National Reading Panel, three main components of effective instruction in reading are (1) phonemic awareness, phonics, and alphabet knowledge; (2) vocabulary, text comprehension, and reading fluency; and (3) reading comprehension strategies. When the National Center for Learning Disabilities surveyed teachers and assistive technology (AT) specialists about digital technologies and digital books, the consensus of their responses identified a number of benefits. These included that digital reading technology affords a whole new world of learning potential for students, and that it affords flexibility among more learning options according to student preferences and learning styles. Teachers and AT specialists also find that digital reading options further the personal achievement, independence, and socialization skills of students. They say digital reading does much to aid students who struggle with decoding printed words. It keeps students' attention for longer time spans. It helps students read at their grade levels. It encourages students to take notes and make annotations to texts. It also corrects students' spelling errors.

describe some ways that adults can help students with disabilities prepare for living independently when they grow up by teaching them daily life skills beginning in early childhood

Adults can help many students with cognitive, behavioral, emotional/social, and mental health disabilities prepare for daily life. For example, for telephone skills, they can first teach young children to answer the phone, and then take and deliver messages. As they grow, adults can help them progress with skills like calling 411 for phone numbers; calling stores in advance to ask if they have certain products in stock; calling restaurants to order takeout or delivered food; or calling technical support for help with computer issues. Adults can teach young children about walking to nearby neighborhood places; teach middle children about riding bicycles to destinations and taking public transport when ready; and help adolescents and young adults learn to drive when appropriate. They can teach children as they grow to carry house keys, cell phones with important numbers, and money when leaving home; and personal safety, like judgement about hand-shaking versus hugging/kissing; protecting their information online and their money in public; and what to do if followed/approached by strangers.

give a summary of what the school must do under the IDEA in scheduling the first IEP meeting for a student identified as eligible for it

After a student is determined eligible for special education and related services according to the IDEA, the school must schedule the first meeting to write an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for the student. The IDEA mandates that ALL students that receive special education and related services must have an IEP written for them. By this law, the school system must contact the parents and all others who are to participate in the IEP process. They must inform parents early enough to ensure they are able to arrange to attend the meeting. They must schedule the meeting at a place and time with which the parents and the school agree. They must inform the parents of the purpose of this meeting and its location, date, and time. They must also inform the parents of the other people who are attending the meeting. The school staff is also to inform the parents that they may invite any other people to the IEP meeting who have special expertise or knowledge about their child.

summarize the parts of the special education process under the IDEA related to evaluation, eligibility determination, and what eligibility dictates regarding the IEP

After screenings and prereferral interventions have been completed and a student is referred for formal evaluation or evaluation is requested, professionals must evaluate all developmental/learning areas related to the disability suspected. Test results are applied to decisions regarding eligibility for special education and related services, and an appropriate educational program. If parents disagree with evaluation results, they have the right under the IDEA to arrange an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE) and to request payment for this evaluation by the school system. Once evaluation results have been collected and reported, parents meet with teachers and other qualified professionals to review them. They decide together whether the student meets the IDEA definition of a "child with a disability." Parents are entitled under the law to request a hearing challenging the eligibility decision if they disagree. If the child is found eligible for special education and related services, an IEP team must meet within 30 calendar days of eligibility determination to write an IEP.

summarize the legally required information in an IEP related to the student's participation with nondisabled students; participation in statewide and district-wide testing; and dates and locations of services

All students identified with disabilities and eligible for special education and related services must have IEPs (Individualized Education Programs). The IEP must include an explanation of the degree, if any, to which the student will NOT be participating with nondisabled students in regular classrooms and other school activities. Regarding statewide and district-wide standardized achievement tests regularly given by school systems to students at certain age or grade levels, the IEP must identify which modifications in test administration the student will need. Moreover, if any such test is deemed inappropriate for a particular student, the student's IEP must explain why and state what alternative testing will be substituted. The student's IEP must also state when the student's special education and related services will start, how often services will be provided, in what locations services will be given, and the duration of the services.

summarize some legal requirements for the reevaluation of the special education student in the IEP process

All students receiving special education and related services are required by law to have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). It is developed by the IEP team, which includes the student, parents, teachers, other school employees, other professionals, and any others invited by parents or schools who have relevant contributions to the student and their education. The student has received a formal evaluation to determine eligibility. The IEP is reviewed at least annually or more often if the school or parents request it and is revised as needed. Additionally, the student must be reevaluated at least every three years. Educators often call such reevaluation a "triennial." Reevaluation is made to determine whether the student still meets the IDEA definition of a "child with a disability" or not, and to reexamine the educational needs of the student. The three-year interval is a minimum, though: if circumstances indicate it, and/or if the parents or teachers request a new evaluation, the student must be reevaluated sooner than after three years.

describe some similarities between deaf and hearing students

Although a major difference in deaf students is that they learn language through visual rather than auditory modalities, they also have many similarities to hearing students. They have the same need to communicate and interact socially with others. Unfortunately, the majority of hearing people do not know sign language; and while many deaf people can visually read speech, many others who sign exclusively and adhere to deaf culture function best within the signing deaf community and are at significant disadvantages in hearing milieus. While deaf students often do not understand humor based on word play or sound, they do appreciate humor, and the deaf culture has its own inside jokes. Deaf students have equal interests in competing in sports and academics as hearing students do. They feel the same emotions as others. While they typically hug each other more and spend longer times on good-byes, their social interactions still fulfill the same needs for belonging, connection, and communication.

explain some reasons gabapentin is prescribed, especially to children. identify some of its most serious side effects

Although gabapentin is prescribed to adults for the nerve pain of shingles and for Restless Leg Syndrome, it is prescribed to children primarily for seizure disorders. For epilepsy, it is prescribed alone or with other medications to children at least 12 years old as well as adults, and with other medications to children aged 3-12 for partial seizures. Caution is advised with patients having liver disease, kidney disease, or heart disease. Gabapentin can cause suicidal or self-injurious ideations in some patients. It can also cause depression, anxiety, changes in mood or behavior, agitation, hostility, restlessness, or physical or mental hyperactivity. Serious gabapentin side effects include increased instead of decreased seizures; fever, body aches, swollen glands, flu like symptoms; bleeding or bruising easily; skin rashes; severe tingling, numbness, or pain; muscular weakness; chest pain, hearth arrhythmia, shortness of breath; rapid weight gain, edema/swelling; less/no urination; confusion; nausea, vomiting; worsened/new coughing; difficulty breathing; nystagmus; and upper stomach pain, loss of appetite, dark urine, and jaundice (signs of liver damage).

discuss a few similarities between blind and sighted individuals

Although the totally blind cannot read printed text, blind students still often want to read and enjoy it. Some read available Braille texts by touch. Others listen to books on tape and/or use text-to-speech computer software, greatly expanding their options of available texts. Though blind students may not understand visual humor like sight gags, they still appreciate humor. Students not blind from birth have additional frames of reference for understanding visual expressions and comparisons. For example, Helen Keller, who became deaf-blind at 19 months, reportedly was told she had blue eyes and asked, "Are they like wee skies?" Without hearing or sight, Keller had to learn tactile finger-spelling to communicate, yet her accomplishments made her famous. A woman who became blind around nine years old found hilarious a coworker's description of another employee bundled up in a fur coat and hat with only her nose protruding. Blind people have the same social, communication, and emotional needs as neurotypical non-blind people; they just need supplementary auditory information/verbal descriptions of what they cannot see.

identify three ways wherein ESL classes differ from other American classrooms. relate a few proactive steps ESL teachers can take to help students with disabilities

American classrooms where students are learning English as a new language demand much more interaction between students and teachers than other classrooms generally do. Many activities assigned in ESL classes involve group work, which necessitates moving desks, getting up, and moving around, which must be kept in mind for disabled students. Teachers should also be sensitive to the diversity of most ESL classes, which often include students from different countries and of various ages. ESL teachers can help by educating themselves in advance about any specific disabilities incoming students to their classes have. They should ensure their classes are inclusive by providing accommodations and/or services needed by disabled students and clearly communicating this to students in their course syllabi and in other ways. They should discuss with disabled students how their needs and accommodations might change, and any help or adjustments such changes could necessitate.

identify some things for teachers, including ESL teachers, to keep in mind when their instruction in communication skills includes students who have cognitive and learning disabilities

An ESL teacher may find that students with traumatic brain injuries or ADHD encounter difficulty in class, especially if the teacher presents information using only one modality, format, or approach. Teachers should use multimodal teaching approaches and alternative assessment formats. Utilizing a variety of instructional methods (lectures, games, small group assignments, paired work, etc) makes it easier for students to find which techniques are most effective for them. Students with LDs often perform better in one modality and worse in another, e.g., excelling at spoken language but struggling with written language. Teachers can accommodate these students by offering them a variety of ways to demonstrate their learning, like doing assignments in artistic or oral formats. Teachers should also realize that individual differences give every student's disability a unique presentation, so they must discover solutions case by case. ESL teachers need to understand students' abilities in their native languages to differentiate errors due to disabilities from those due to learning a second language.

describe some differences in the language development of students with autism spectrum disorders from students with more typical language development

An estimated one-half of those on the autism spectrum never develop verbal language skills. The other half range from echolalia as their only speech production to perfectly functional, high-level speech, and everything in between. Some autistic students display advanced vocabularies and fluent speech in long monologues about topics they find interesting, often including the highly specialized and/or technical, but are unable to initiate or maintain two-way conversations with others. These individuals have difficulty with turn-taking and the give and take of verbal interactions. Some autistic people can conduct "normal" conversations with others, but their speech patterns may sound a bit singsong, odd, or quirky. Many autistic students have difficulty understanding emotional overtones in others' speech, such as sarcasm or humor. Additionally, they often cannot understand nonverbal cues like facial expressions, gestures, and body language indicating emotions or social customs, though many learn this through explicit training.

describe a few behaviors related to communicating with others that students with disabilities need to demonstrate or learn, and a few examples of how educators can teach these behaviors

An important part of communicating with other people is being able to recognize emergency situations and respond timely and appropriately. This can be difficult for students with intellectual disabilities, behavior disorders, and other conditions. Among those who do not recognize an emergency situation, some will always require supervision, while others can be taught certain basics, such as the smell of smoke; the sight of fire, flooding, or a person needing emergency medical attention; and what to do, like calling 911. Some students with disabilities can recognize emergency situations but may panic. Educators can use explicit, systematic instruction, including task analysis steps and behavioral shaping and chaining, to help them develop strongly entrenched procedures to follow. With enough practice, repetition, and enforcement, many students with disabilities can implement these series of behaviors instead of panicking. Autistic students often need explicit instruction in the meanings/purposes of social cues (like facial expressions, vocal intonations, gestures, body language, and verbal expressions) and how to respond appropriately.

identify Piaget's third stage of cognitive development by name and summarize some of its prominent characteristics

Around ages 7-11 years, children are in what Piaget termed the Concrete Operations stage. A salient feature of this stage is that children develop the ability to think logically and conduct mental operations with regard to concrete objects. However, they have trouble comprehending hypothetical and abstract concepts. A significant ability developing during this stage is the understanding of reversibility, i.e., that actions can be reversed. Whereas the younger Preoperational child watching someone pour liquid from a short, wide container to a tall, narrow one believes the taller container has more liquid, the Concrete Operations child sees the amount is the same despite different container shapes. Reversibility aids this insight. Children in Concrete Operations also understand sequences between mental categories, e.g., their pet is a poodle, a poodle is a dog, and a dog is an animal. The introduction of formal school subjects, especially math, is no coincidence with the age range of this stage because children in Concrete Operations are first able to do simple arithmetic computations.

discuss some of the challenges of disabilities to child development when children with disabilities begin to attend school

As Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and others have observed, when children begin school, their social and emotional focus shifts from the parent-child relationship to developing social relationships outside of the home with peers, children of other ages, and adults other than parents. The focus of child development consequently shifts from mainly personal skills and parental attachment to social competencies and interpersonal skills. In spite of government mandates of special education and inclusion, schools still vary significantly in their effectiveness with these. Insufficient funding for special education programs; inadequate training of school staff for accommodating instruction to special needs; and frequently, negative attitudes regarding disabilities in school personnel and other children; constitute some of the obstacles faced by children with disabilities and their parents. Because of the variance among schools in this respect, some families realize great resources in school programs, while others realize great additional challenges in trying to advocate for their disabled children's educational rights with schools and other service providers.

describe some ways for special educators to collaborate with general educators

As all teachers have various strengths and needs, special educators should share these. General educators are likely less familiar with specialized resources for matching practices to student skill levels when these are far beneath grade level; special educators are likely less acquainted with the richness of grade-level projects and activities. Both types of teachers can pool their knowledge of proactive/preventive and disciplinary techniques, and two pairs of eyes can better prevent misbehavior and identify desirable behavior to reinforce. General educators have training in using and instructing students with many kinds of software; special educators contribute working familiarity with assistive technology. For routine planning, special and general educators can help each other develop simple students routines. While structure and content often easily combine in general education, special-needs students must learn how assignment directions are structured before addressing assignment contents. Teachers can use tracing/matching routines to plan independent student activities. Praise motivates teachers as well as students: collaborating special and general educators should regularly praise each other's successes verbally.

describe some of the challenges of adolescent development to teens with disabilities

As especially elucidated by Erikson, adolescents have the developmental tasks of developing their individual identities, separating from their childhood relationships with parents, and becoming more independent. Having a disability makes these tasks more challenging for a teenager. While abled adolescents often engage in risk-taking, e.g., experimenting with alcohol and tobacco, as part of this process, teens with disabilities may refuse prescribed medications, diets, or other disability-related treatments as their form of the risk-taking part of the developmental process. The natural adolescent development of sexuality also involves additional complications for disabled teens, as they often experience anxieties and fears about their desirability, performance, and future potential for marriage and reproduction. The complications they encounter can include being exploited sexually by others, risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, and possible higher risks of pregnancy for females.

identify some behaviors that students with disabilities must learn that demonstrate problem-solving skills and how educators can help them learn these

As much as some students with disabilities may want to be completely independent, some disabilities dictate that they need help with some things at times. A crucial behavior included among problem-solving skills is having the judgment, willingness, and ability to ask for help when they really need it. Educators can help in one on one, small group, or whole class settings by initiating discussions wherein students identify situations they have experienced when they needed help; what they did; what they could have done instead; and discriminate situations where they could have succeeded independently from those where this was impossible. Some students can benefit by learning from the experiences their classmates share. Teachers/specialists can assess and teach student skills for identifying problems, give them practice in predicting the consequences of events/actions, develop various alternatives for responding to problems, and evaluate their relative effectiveness. They can also work with students individually and in groups on developing their own goals, plans, and solutions to problems.

identify some nonverbal and behavioral signs of delayed expressive language development that can be observed in children by the age of 12 months

Babies who make no, or very little, eye contact with others by 12 months of age are developing atypically. Another sign indicating a need for evaluation is not pointing at things by this age. Children who demonstrate few or no skills at taking turns by a year old can have expressive language delays. Little or no demonstration of joint attention, i.e., attending to the same thing as their parent, is another sign of developmental delay. So is a lack of joint action, i.e., engaging in the same activity as the parents. Children who consistently hit others or have temper tantrums when they cannot communicate a message to others show signs of delayed expressive language. Crying, yelling, and similar shows of frustration when trying to communicate also indicate developmental delays. In addition, young children with such delays may rarely if ever initiate conversations with others, and may not want to engage in activities with others.

describe some aspects of the interrelationship of disability and child development, and this interrelationship's impacts on the child's family

Because childhood development is sequential, the mastery of skills at each level or stage depends upon the successful completion of the previous stage. Therefore, the earlier in a child's life the onset of a disabling condition is, the more it interrupts the child's developmental progress. Accomplishing developmental tasks is complicated in many ways for children with disabilities. This influences what family roles the child can adopt and consequently affects the family. If an infant's disability prevents the infant form responding to parental efforts at nurturing, this impedes the development of bonding, secure attachment, and trust, undermining parenting competence. Toddlers must actively explore their social environments to develop self-control and autonomy. But sensory, motor, or cognitive disabilities can hamper such exploration. Parents may be overprotective for fear of additional damage or injury, and/or, due to guilt or sympathy, overindulgent. Others' negative feedback about the child's disability can reinforce these parental behaviors, additionally limiting the child's development of self-control and autonomy.

describe some considerations related to the special education referral process when culturally and linguistically diverse students and their families are involved

Because diverse students are frequently overrepresented in special education referrals, their parents should be included on referral teams, as well as persons with expertise regarding cultural diversity. Educators should review these factors before recommending comprehensive evaluations: the school and classroom climate; all attempts at pre-referral intervention and their results; any temporary problems in the classroom, home, and/or community; educator effort in building on students' cultural experiences and knowledge and their strengths; and observations by parents when possible, and by qualified others with knowledge of cultural differences, of the student's current classroom- particularly if the referral is for behavior management, as these problems can be influenced by teacher behavior management approaches. In addition, it is only appropriate to refer ESL/ELL students if: students have good communication skills in their native languages but are behind peers in English, and instructional adaptations have been implemented; students are academically proficient in English, receive effective reading instruction, and still demonstrate significant reading problems; and/or effective ESL or bilingual instruction do not improve academic English-language skills.

discuss some differences between blind and sighted students

Blind students with normal hearing do not miss out on the auditory medium wherein children learn to understand and use speech and language as deaf students do. However, while they can learn spoken language normally, they cannot learn to read and write visually as other children can. They must learn Braille and have access to Braille publications to read and/or listen to books on the internet. Today they have the added advantage of computer text to speech software. Another significant difference is that blind students cannot learn their way around schools and other large, complex building simply through the experience of navigating them a few times. Sighted individuals often take this for granted. Blind students usually need help from Orientation and Mobility specialists to learn how to get around in indoor and outdoor settings. Without the benefit of the multitude of visual information others have, it can be very confusing not to know just which way to go, but even where one is and in what position relative to one's surroundings (orientation).

identify some examples of activities that preschool and young school-age children learn to do that reflect written expressive language skills development

Children learn to speak before they learn to write, though there is also some overlap in their developing spoken and written expressive language skills. These both also depend on the development of the receptive language skills of listening and reading comprehension. Young children fist learn to trace letters, then they copy them, and then they write them. They follow the same progression with tracing, copying, and writing numbers. They copy examples of simple words, like "mom," and then do the same with more complex words like "truck." Once they have copied words and can remember letters, they progress to writing the letters in sequence to spell written words (d-a-d-d-y). Thereafter, they learn to write consecutive words that form sentences, such as "I love my kitty." Eventually, school-age children can write connected sentences that form paragraphs, like "I love my kitty. One day my friends can come over. I can show my kitty to my friends."

identify some of the medical needs that children with cystic fibrosis often have

Children who inherit cystic fibrosis have a genetic defect that makes normally thin, slippery secretory juices become thick and sticky. These fluids, which normally lubricate the tissues, which thickened obstruct passageways, ducts, and tubes, particularly in the lungs and pancreas. CF has no cure, and treatment involves complex management. However, improved detection and intervention have decreased complications and ameliorated symptoms, allowing children to live longer. Treatment focuses on loosening and eliminating mucus from the lungs; preventing and controlling lung infections; preventing and treating intestinal obstructions; and supplying sufficient nutrition. This includes antibiotics; mucus-thinning medications; bronchodilators to keep airways open; pancreatic enzymes to improve nutrient absorption; chest clapping by hand or mechanical device, inflatable vibrating vests, and breathing masks/tubes; breathing exercises and strategies; nutritional counseling; energy-conserving techniques; counseling, and/or support groups. Additional procedures include oxygen therapy to prevent pulmonary hypertension, endoscopy and lavage to suction mucus, surgical nasal polyp removal, feeding tubes for supplemental nutrition, surgical removal of bowel obstructions, and lung transplants.

describe some characteristics of the physical and motor development of children with Down syndrome in contrast to typical development

Children with Down syndrome show overall slower development in physiology and motor skills. They grow more slowly in physical size and also ultimately attain smaller full statures than typically developing children. They tend to have lower/weaker muscle tone, or hypotonia. They commonly start walking significantly later than other children. Even once they learn to walk, they may not develop physical coordination, balance, and proprioception as soon or ever as well as other children. The oral-motor skills components of motor development are also slower to develop in people with Down syndrome, compounded by having large, thick, often protruding tongues, which can interfere with eating and clear speech. Additional physiological signs of Down syndrome include small hands and feet; short, stubby fingers; short, thick necks; small heads, flattened in back; small noses; and Asian-appearing eyes with epicanthal folds. Down syndrome children are more likely to have celiac disease (gluten intolerance), gastroesophageal reflux, hypothyroidism, hearing and vision problems, and to develop senile dementias earlier than is typical.

relate some current research findings about the prevalence of studies on teaching the respective general education curriculum content areas of literacy, math, and science to special education students with severe developmental disabilities. identify some teaching strategies found effective for this by research evidence

Comprehensive literature reviews find nearly twice as much research exists about teaching literacy as math, and four times more about math than science. One commonality among these areas is that using behavior analysis principles is effective for teaching them all to severely developmentally disabled students. For example, using task analysis to break down the instruction of multistep (chained) task and using time delay for teaching separate tasks are both highly effective for teaching academic content. These techniques are used in systematic instruction, which studies show is an effective overall teaching strategy for these students. Systematic instruction has been used to teach feeding, toileting, dressing, safety, and many other functional skills, and academic skills as well. Systematic instruction procedures define observable, measurable target skills; collect intervention data to prove new skill acquisition; apply behavioral principles and techniques like systematic prompts and fading, error correction, and differential reinforcement to aid transfer of learned skills; and effect behavioral changes that can be generalized across skills, materials, people, and contexts.

identify a condition for which Depakote (divalproex sodium) may often be prescribed to children. identify some of its serious and less serious side effects. mention an important consideration for educators

Depakote is an anticonvulsive prescribed to control seizures. It can sometimes cause pancreatitis or liver damage. If so, symptoms include jaundice, low-grade fever, pale/clay-colored stools, dark-colored urine, loss of appetite, upper stomach pain, nausea, and vomiting. Emergency medical attention should be pursued if the child has these symptoms. Additional serious side effects include agitation, anxiety, depression, hostility, mental or physical hyperactivity, restlessness, suicidal or self-injurious ideation, confusion, fainting, weakness, bruising easily, blood in urine, body aches, swollen glands, other flu like symptoms, decreased urination, excessive sleepiness, incoordination, nystagmus, double vision, painful skin, burning eyes, rashes with blisters and peeling, and other symptoms. Allergic reactions to Depakote cause symptoms of breathing difficulty, hives, and/or swelling of the throat, tongue, lips, or face. Less serious side effects include mild sleepiness, mild weakness, upset stomach, constipation, diarrhea, tremors, changes in vision, hair loss, an unpleasant/unusual taste in the mouth, and others. Educators should always know when students are taking seizure medications. They should not first assume behavior or mental disorders or sleep deprivation.

give a few general tips for ESL teachers to approach having students with disabilities in their classes

Depending on the type and extent of a disability and the classroom situation, students with various disabilities can find everyday classroom activities difficult, e.g., active learning that involves getting up and engaging in different physical actions; making physical and oral presentations; or participating in group or class discussions. ESL teachers can exercise their creativity by adapting the activities they design and assign to allow more universal student access, while still attaining the same learning goals. When an ESL teacher has a student with a disability in the class, the teacher should communicate the same expectations and standards for academic achievement and personal behavior that they have for all students. The majority of students with disabilities appreciate being treated with the same educational standards and teacher expectations as a sign of respect from the teacher. ESL teachers should also ask their disabled students regularly for feedback about what things in class work and do not work for them, and how things that do not work may be adjusted or modified.

discuss some proactive measures that teachers of ESL (English as a second language) can take to accommodate students with disabilities in their classrooms

ESL teachers with disabled students should discuss their needs and accommodations with the students. They should also discuss these with their teaching assistants, aides, school office staff, and other support staff, and also request that they help with accommodations for these students. Teachers must observe privacy regulations and not disclose disability information with faculty, staff, or other students, except in regard to accommodations that are needed. In the United States, the law requires schools, agencies, and other organizations to provide the same accommodations to international students with disabilities as they do to U.S. citizens; ESL teachers in America should comply with this legal requirement. All world nations have organizations that provide access to local resources for people with disabilities. ESL teachers with disabled students can contact these groups for resources and advice. Regardless of the type of disability, teachers should concentrate on the individual student's abilities and strengths.

summarize some findings about the benefits of including students with disabilities in general education, for both students with disabilities and students without disabilities

Educational research has found that both students with disabilities and their nondisabled peers obtain significant benefits from inclusive educational programs. For example, students with disabilities experience more stimulating learning environments via inclusion. They benefit from nondisabled role models of adaptive, communication, and social skills and behaviors. They have more opportunities for making new friends and sharing new experiences with them. They gain greater peer acceptance from being included, and they have a greater sense of membership in a regular class and in the school. Students without disabilities benefit by learning greater acceptance of individual differences among people. They learn to feel more comfort around students with various disabilities. They learn to help their disabled peers, which generalizes to learning to be more helpful to others. They gain leadership ski lls by providing examples, help, and guidance. And they gain greater self esteem through modeling helpful leadership behaviors. Thus, inclusive education benefits all students.

describe some types of student activities teachers use that are found to promote student engagement in the long term

Educational research has found that students are more likely to experience and demonstrate greater classroom engagement over the long term of their education when teachers assign them to such hands-on, authentic activities as constructing models; planning, implementing, completing, and reporting on projects; participating in role-play exercises; participating in debates on topics relevant to school subjects and activities; and planning and conducting experiments, making conclusions about them, and reporting their results to their classmates and teachers. Studies have also shown that teachers can make the lessons that they teach more relevant and meaningful to students when these lessons draw from and build upon the students' existing background knowledge, cultural backgrounds, and experiences in the real world and life. When the material that they study is personally interesting to students and related to their lives, they both learn more effectively and also enjoy the learning process more.

in addition to identifying three primary components of crisis intervention and prevention, summarize how educators can demonstrate these in the days and/or weeks subsequent to crisis situations in schools and in efforts to prevent additional crises

Educator response to a crisis in school has three main areas: Communication, Direction, and Coordination, and Health and Safety. In the days and/or weeks following a school crisis, educators continue communication by supplying information and counseling to promote closure to students, school personnel, parents, and other school district and community members. They continue direction and coordination by monitoring and solving problems ensuing from the crisis. They continue health and safety by supplying case management, direct services, and/or referral for longer term treatments as needed to those involved. In efforts to prevent future crises, educators demonstrate communication by conducting debriefing meetings with school staff, parents, other community members, district personnel, and students as appropriate to make clear any deficits in their response to the recent crisis. They demonstrate direction and coordination by applying debriefing analysis to plan possible prevention of additional crises; limit the impacts of inevitable occurrences; and improve crisis response procedures and resources. They provide health and safety education to students, parents, and staff.

summarize some professional and ethical guidelines related to behavior management in special education programs and environments

Educators should always explore alternate behavioral interventions before considering any aversive methods. When considering/planning behavioral interventions, educators should first explore any possible injury or side effects these could cause. Before arranging contingencies to apply to student behaviors, educators should discern whether the student understands the contingency. Anyone implementing any behavioral intervention with a student must both have sufficient training in the procedures and feel comfortable applying the intervention. Interventions should be backed by empirical evidence of their effectiveness; be consistent with student programs and parental input; and have written informed parental consent. Behavioral intervention programs must be closely monitored and thoroughly documented. Procedures of legal due process and committee reviews should be followed. Behavioral interventions/programs should comply with the IDEA's Least Restrictive Environment requirement. Interventions should be commensurate with relative seriousness of the behavior; afford student opportunity to succeed; respect individual student worth and dignity; be fair; and address the principle of normalization (disabled students have rights to lives as close to normal as possible).

explain how educators use a cut score relative to interpreting assessment results. identify one method that is used to determine a cut score and summarize its procedure

Educators use a cut score to determine which scores are passing and which are failing. They set a particular number as the cut score; all scores above it are passing and all scores below the cut score are failing. Using methods developed for multiple-choice tests allows them to adjust for various factors, e.g., the difficulty of a certain test or assessing student population with special needs, rather than arbitrarily assigning the same cut score to all tests. One such method for establishing a cut score is the Nedelsky method: the assessor identifies a "borderline" group of students, i.e., those who do not always pass or fail, but tend to score on the borderline of passing/failing. The assessor estimates how many of these "borderline" students will probably answer a given test item correctly. A common number for this group is 10 students. the sum of the percentages of students estimated to respond correctly to each test item is rounded to an integer, yielding the cut score.

give some examples of how an elementary school teacher can create a safe, supportive, positive classroom and school climate with mutual student respect and a sense of belonging

Elementary school teachers realize that students will be more engaged in school and learning if it is fun and they are happy. Some teachers help students consolidate what they just learned and/or take a break from schoolwork with a group singing period in the classroom. A few weeks into the school year, once students have gotten to know each other and developed into a cohesive group, some teachers have them vote for an alliterative class name reflecting their interests, ambitions, and/or attitudes. The teacher calls them by this group name when they are lining up to leave the room and at other key moments to reinforce their feelings of belonging and ownership. To encourage and reinforce student responsibility, some elementary teachers assign a job to each student for the week, posting these on a chart on the wall, and all of the students take turns assuming different weekly job rotations.

discuss some aspects of the social and emotional development of students on the autism spectrum as contrasted with typical development

Emotional and social differences can be observed in autistic people from early childhood, when many of them avoid eye contact with others and resist physical contact with parents, like flinging themselves backward from being hugged/held or going rigid when being held. Many also engage in repetitive self-stimulating behaviors like rocking. S tudents with autism experience the same internal emotions as others, but may not express these typically. Moreover, they often have great difficulty noticing or understanding the emotions of others and their expression of them. As a result, their behavior in social situations can appear strange, especially from autistic individuals with above-average intelligence. For example, as autism expert John Gerdtz once related, "It's really strange when you're talking with someone who has a PhD in mathematics, and he suddenly turns and walks away in the middle of the conversation." Autistic people frequently fail to follow social conventions because they do not understand them.

discuss the process of vocational assessment and planning for postschool transitions for students with disabilities. identify seven main areas for vocational assessment. also identify three major goals for students with disabilities to enable vocational planning

Employment preparation for disabled students contains the same essential components as for nondisabled students: assessing and establishing skills; exposure to career possibilities; and awareness of aptitudes and interests. However, greater and more individualized supports for these components are involved with disabled students. Successful school-to-work transition programs require transdisciplinary, comprehensive vocational assessment to identify student skills and needs by teachers, psychologists, counselors, and representatives from vocational rehabilitation and social services agencies and community mental health/intellectual disabilities departments as well as the students, parents, employers, and business organizations. Assessment should cover academic, daily living, personal, social, occupational, and vocational skills (including performance tests and situational assessments); career maturity; vocational interests; and vocational aptitudes. A number of standardized instruments are available for assessing the latter two. Three major goals for students to learn in school activities for vocational preparation are: understanding themselves, their abilities, interests, and values; understanding the world of work; and learning good decision-making skills. These enable informed, realistic work-related decisions, and are also the main elements of career maturity.

discuss some advice to teachers for accommodations they came make to help improve communication ski lls for deaf/hard-of-hearing (HOH) students in their classes

Even deaf/HOH students who use spoken English are apt to have problems during class activities involving faster reaction times, like listen-and-repeat exercises. Teachers can give them more time to repeat, and also try to eliminate background noises- including cross talk from other students- as possible. Fire alarms, other audio emergency signals, and PA speaker announcements are not usually accessible to deaf students. Teachers can accommodate them by flicking the overhead lights on and off, waving a hand, or touching them on the shoulder to get their attention before announcements or during alarms. Viewing videos of movies and TV programs is an activity often used and enjoyed in classrooms in general and even more so in ESL classes. However, teachers should be sure the videos include English closed captions or subtitles. This benefits comprehension for both deaf/HOH students and ESL students. If captions/subtitles are unavailable for a video, teachers can procure sign language interpreters or speech-to-text note-takers. HOH students often comprehend video images better than audio practice.

give some examples of variations in test administration that are allowed by various U.S. states for modified assessments of students with special needs on standardized tests

Exclusive of actual test items, in some states the test administration instructions may be clarified or simplified. Other than item responses, students may be allowed to highlight or make other marks in their test booklets. Students may be tested in small groups rather than whole class settings. Test administrators may give students additional time within the testing day to complete a test. Individual students may be tested separately with direct examiner supervision. Students with visual impairments may use visual magnifiers for test text, and hearing-impaired students may use audio amplification. Individual study carrels/enclosures may be used as noise buffers for hearing-impaired or distractible students. Special lighting, acoustics, special furniture, or adaptive furnishings may be allowed. Masking or colored overlays may be used to sustain student visual attention. American Sign Language (ASL) or Manually Coded English (MCE) may also be used to give test instructions (but not test items) to deaf, hard-of-hearing, or nonverbal students.

give a description of some examples of icebreakers a teacher can use in high school grades to get acquainted with disabled and nondisabled students and vice versa

Experienced high school teachers find adolescents are primarily concerned with adjusting to the new setting and getting acquainted with new classmates, and teachers need to start the year by familiarizing themselves well with new students. To help both teacher and students get acquainted, teachers can use icebreaker activities. One involves using "matching" index cards based on common interests of the school's student body. For example, teachers make card pairs like Jeff Bezos and Amazon, Elon Musk and SpaceX, etc. Each student gets one card and finds the student with a matching card. Then they interview each other. Teachers can suggest questions, like the last school they attended, their favorite book genre, pet peeves, favorite things, embarrassing incidents, hobbies, etc. Following interviews, each student presents information about their partner to the class. Another activity groups and number students in fours; each student writes down adjectives describing themselves that are alliterative with their names (like "Shy Shannon" or "Observant Opal"), and take turns introducing themselves and another student using these.

identify three areas important to successfully relating to and instructing a high school class. describe some strategies that high school teachers use to develop rapport and positive working relationships with their students

Experienced high school teachers find that classroom success centers on three crucial areas: establishing rapport with the students; setting the teacher's rules and expectations for the class; and having strategies to promote students' motivation to learn. While teacher education students and new teachers observing experienced teachers may feel they seem to do it by some kind of magic, the experienced teachers say that strategic planning is actually at the heart of establishing a rapport and developing good working relationships with their students. For example, a high school teacher can help to build rapport with a new class of students by presenting oneself as having a "stern yet caring" (as one teacher puts it) presence; set class rules and conduct other activities together with the students rather than unilaterally, which helps to establish a classroom community; and communicating one's expectations to the students clearly on the first day of school.

briefly define expressive language development. identify several components of nonverbal expressive language in babies and young children

Expressive language is that language we produce in order to communicate with others, whether through spoken or written words, vocal sounds, facial expressions, physical gestures, and/or body language. Babies and children develop expressive language gradually and in a cumulative sequence. Nonverbal expressive language consists of all of that expressive communication that does not involve the use of words. For example, when a baby cries, that is a form of nonverbal expressive language. Smiling also communicates pleasure, recognition, and/or affection toward others. Laughing expresses amusement or delight. Frowning expresses displeasure, sadness, or anger. When infants and toddlers learn to wave "bye-bye," they are using nonverbal expressive language. When babies and young children point at things, they nonverbally communicate a variety of messages- like "I want that"; "look at that"; "what is that?"; "I see that." When young children throw objects, whether to express anger, protest something, or get an adult to retrieve it as a game, this is also nonverbal expressive language.

characterize some differential psychosocial effects on families of various aspects of disabilities, including a few examples of general disability types

Families are affected differentially by the degree of a member's disability: its type, i.e., whether it is a motor, sensory, or cognitive disability; how visible the disability is; how much pain or other symptoms are involved; the disabled member's life expectancy or prognosis; how much treatment and/or care is required; and whether the disability is progressive, constant, or relapsing in nature. Some experts believe these characteristics have more influence on a chronic condition's psychosocial impact than the diagnosis itself. Constant disabilities, e.g., spinal cord injuries, necessitate major initial family restructuring, plus long-term endurance and persistence. While the family can plan for a known future, they can still become exhausted, especially if community resources are lacking. Progressive disabilities, e.g., dementia or degenerative arthritis, cause grief over continuous losses, uncertainty about living arrangements and degrees of dependency, and increasing demands in caretaking. Relapsing disabilities, e.g., cancer or epilepsy, require less continual care but more ability to shift suddenly from normal to crisis mode and rapidly activate resources.

identify some general aspects of the family's role relative to their children with disabilities, including some common advantages and disadvantages

Families play a critical role by frequently serving as their disabled child's first case manager. In this capacity, they are the most consistent and know the most about their child's abilities and needs. Families help coordinate the services disabled children need. They help them explore career possibilities and interests. They supply housing, transportation, adaptive equipment, and other necessities. When young people with disabilities progress from high school to college or employment and community living, their families support the transitions they must make. Families can help their children achieve greater understanding of themselves and their disabilities. However, many families do not realize how crucial such self-knowledge is, and many assume the schools teach this when they seldom do. Also, when educators and families avoid directly discussing disabilities and focus instead on abilities and strengths, children can grow up not realizing their disability's impact and the accommodations to facilitate their success. Students who avoid identification as disabled for fear of labeling and stigma are frequently unprepared for self-advocacy.

identify five main categories of accommodations permitted on most standardized tests. discuss some accommodations that teachers can provide for students with disabilities when presenting them with classroom and standardized tests

Five main categories wherein accommodations are permitted on standardized tests are presentation, response, schedule, setting, and assistive technology. Insofar as they are legally allowed on standardized tests, students with disabilities generally need the same kinds of accommodations for classroom and standardized assessments. Accommodations enable students to demonstrate their mastery of skills and knowledge without their disabilities interfering. For students with reading deficits, teachers can read test items aloud to them (excluding reading tests). They can supply text-to-speech software to present students with test directions and/or nonreading test items. They can let students read test items to themselves instead of presenting them orally. They can supply Braille or large-print test forms, and/or visual magnifiers, auditory amplifiers, or other assistive technology. To aid in focusing visually on tests, teachers can have students use positioning tools, pointers, blank cards, templates, colored, blank overlays, or transparencies. To decrease auditory distraction, they can give students headphones and "white noise" machines.

summarize the importance of social and personal skills and the impact of disabilities on these. identify several components of self-awareness wherein teachers should instruct students with disabilities

For all people with and without disabilities, it can be challenging to get along with others. One of the most common reasons that adults are fired from jobs and students have problems in school is inadequate social and personal skills. Students with various disabilities that affect learning often do not learn through observation and imitation as others do. Teachers need to instruct them explicitly in areas like self-awareness. They must teach them to identify their own physical and psychological needs, abilities, interests, and emotions by asking them questions; showing them how to point to pictures representing various feelings, actions, events; or teaching them descriptive vocabulary. Teachers need to guide students to learn to identify and demonstrate knowledge of their physical beings and their relationship to and interaction with space, objects, and other people. They need to help students properly utilize, care for, and maintain hearing aids, glasses, braces, crutches, wheelchairs, or walkers. Teachers can also help disabled students learn appropriate strategies for coping with life stressors.

identify some of the accommodations allowed in various U.S. states for students with special needs to participated in standardized testing via modified assessments

For blind or visually impaired students or those with visual processing deficits, testers may provide Braille transcription of the printed test; large-print versions of the test; or, if the student needs larger type than the fonts used in large-print versions, test items may be enlarged. Students who require additional time and/or shorter testing durations (e.g., those with cognitive impairments, attention deficits, or behavior disorders) may be allowed to take a test normally administered in one sitting over more than one day and/or take supervised breaks during one test section. Medication effects and fluctuating attention and/or performance levels can be addressed by administering tests at the optimal time of day for the student. Examiners may test some students in homes or hospitals. Test items and answer choices may be presented in sign language, audio recordings, or read aloud. On math and science tests, like in fifth grade, some students may be allowed to use calculators and/or concrete math manipulatives.

relate some classroom strategies teachers can use to adapt the physical environment to facilitate learning for students with various disabilities

For students whose cognitive levels, attention spans, or other differences make large assignments intimidating, teachers can divide these into small, more achievable "chunks" so they are more willing to tackle them and experience some success daily. For students having difficulty taking notes from the blackboard, teachers can offer paper handouts/notes. Distractible students can be seated away from windows, noisy, high-traffic areas, and classmates who encourage chatting. Teachers must implement all adaptations in student IEPs, monitor their effectiveness, and discuss changes with the team if adaptations are not enabling best student performance. With students needing constant reminding of how to follow class practices, teachers can make an enlarged checklist of expectations for their daily assignments/routines and tape it to their binder/desktop, enabling more independent work tracking. Scheduling morning periods daily to check student homework and planners clarifies expectations and allows time to resolve problems and still have productive days. Assignments and assessments can use computers/scribes/time extensions/oral responses as alternatives for students with writing/printing difficulties.

identify a few examples of good interpersonal skills that students with disabilities need to learn to demonstrate in social interactions and a few ways that teachers can help them learn

For students with disabilities to interact well with their classmates and others, one key area is in social conversations as well as in class discussions. Students must learn both to listen to others, which includes not only refraining from interrupting them, but also listening attentively to what they say, and to respond appropriately to what others say. Students with intellectual disabilities may, for example, seem to change the subject completely instead of saying something that continues the topic. Teachers can give explicit instruction. For example, they can ask the student to repeat or paraphrase what another student just said; then ask the student what possible things they could say in return on the same topic; have them demonstrate; and give positive reinforcement. Another area is forming and maintaining close relationships and friendships with others. Teachers can counsel students by asking them who shares particular interests, activities, and/or personal characteristics with them; helping them identify and implement behaviors for establishing and keeping relationships and friendships; and monitoring their progress by inquiring periodically.

summarize some ways wherein a teacher can promote parental support for their children's education

Some teachers implement a practice of using a communication book for each student. These books are sent back and forth between the school and the students' homes for the teacher and parents to write correspondence to one another. Before calling the roll every morning, the teacher checks the communication books for new entries. (This practice works best with smaller class sizes.) Some elementary school teachers regularly send notes to parents with students. For example, one teacher noticed her young students became hungry at midmorning, and the class agreed to schedule a snack period. She sent parents notes asking them to send healthy snack foods, including a list of appropriate, easy-to-prepare snacks. This teacher reported their snack time soon ran smoothly, with children usually eating and doing schoolwork concurrently.

discuss the overrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education programs, including some overrepresented groups, areas of special education where they're overrepresented, and a formula for assessing overrepresentation

For the past 30+ years, court cases and other legal actions have been filed against the special education system over excessive placement of culturally and linguistically diverse students in disability programs. ESL, low-income, African-American, Latino, and Native American students are commonly overrepresented, particularly in programs for LDs, mild intellectual disabilities, and emotional/behavioral disorders. The National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCREST) advises parents to consult school administrators and/or parent advocates to investigate whether their school has this problem, because researchers disagree about formulae for assessing overrepresentation. However, they also offer one formula for calculating overrepresentation probability: using low-income students as an example, divide their number placed in (for example) LD classes by their total number in the school = percentage placed in LD; calculate the same percentage of average income students in LD classes the same way; and divide the low-income percentage by the average income percentage. A result of +1.0 indicates equal probabilities of special education placement; >1.0 indicates greater placement probability for lower-income students.

differentially define formative assessments versus summative assessments in educational testing

Formative assessments are given during a lesson, unit, course, or program. Their purpose is to give the teachers and students an idea of how well each student is learning what the teacher has planned and expected for them to learn. The teacher uses the results of formative assessments to explain to each student their strengths and weaknesses, and how they can build on the strengths and improve the weaknesses, and to report student progress to parents, administrators, and others. Summative assessments are given after a lesson, unit, course, or program has been completed. Their purpose is to determine whether the student has passed the segment of instruction. This determines whether they need to repeat the instruction or can move on to successive segments. Summative assessments apply to lessons or units within a class, to courses in a subject, to promotion from one grade level to the next, and to graduation.

explain how four identified elements of school-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) programs help achieve four processes that contribute to desired results. identify several positive results of SWPBS.

Four integrated parts of SWPBS programs are data, practices, systems, and outcomes. The data educators collect about students' academic and social behaviors support the decisions they make about the academic and behavioral interventions and practices to use. The practices educators choose have science-based evidence of being effective for achieving the educational outcomes they desire. These practices support the desired student behaviors. The systems that educators establish support the most effective and efficient implementation of their chosen practices. These systems support implementation by supporting the behavior of the school personnel. The desired outcomes educators identify are observable and measurable, and the data they collect supports these measurements. The students' outcomes in turn support the students' academic achievement and social competence. Well-implemented SWPBS makes learning environments less dangerous, exclusionary, aversive, and reactive, and more preventive, inclusive, engaging, and responsive. Disciplinary and classroom management issues like lateness, attendance, and antisocial behavior are addressed. Student behaviors needing more specialized interventions receive better support. And all students' academic motivation and performance are optimized.

summarize some of the early contributions to special education made by Édouard Séguin

French doctor Séguin had studied with Jean-Marc Itard, who insisted that children with disabilities could learn via special instruction. In 1848 Séguin came to America, where he developed influential principles for educating intellectually disabled and other special-needs children. In his programs, he emphasized presenting combined physical and intellectual tasks to help disabled children develop self-reliance and independence. He developed the physiological method, consisting of sensory training (particularly tactile) utilizing concrete materials, and also motor training, featuring movement from the simple to the complex, age-appropriate and functional activities, and activities involving both work and play. The major elements that made up the foundation of Séguin's educational philosophy and programs for instructing children with disabilities were: frequently changing activities; task analysis; discrimination between the senses and the intellect; sensory stimulation; physical education; and education with employment as an outcome. One can see from these elements the importance of Séguin's contributions, as these are all prominent aspects of special education today over 150 years later.

identify some of the less serious side effects of the medication gabapentin. also identify some side effects that are more likely in children taking this drug, and what to do if these occur. mention a consideration for educators regarding students taking seizure medications

Gabapentin is prescribed to children to control seizures. It is also prescribed to adults for Restless Legs Syndrome and for nerve pain secondary to shingles. It may be prescribed to some children for whom other anti-seizure medications have not been effective. Some less serious side effects of gabapentin include sleepiness, dizziness, weakness, fatigue; constipation, diarr hea, nau sea; blurred vision; headaches; swelling of the breasts; dryness of the mouth; and loss of coordination or balance. n children particularly, gabapentin is more likely to cause problems with memory, changes in behavior, difficulty concentrating, and restless, aggressive, or hostile behavior. If parents or caregivers observe any of these side effects in children who are taking gabapentin, they should always contact the prescribing physician. Educators should always ensure they are informed when students are taking seizure medications, especially younger children less likely to know/understand or volunteer this information. They should not automatically assume a child has an attention deficit or behavior disorder instead. They should also realize this is probably the reason if a student appears sleepy.

summarize some general adaptations to assessments for special needs students and some adaptations to assessments specifically for visually impaired students

General testing adaptations include using these oral directions interchangeably: "find," "show me," "point to," and "give me." Testers should place stimulus cards and manipulatives however the student is best able to perceive these. Concrete materials should be set on surfaces with boundary edges so they cannot roll away or fall down when students use them. Testers should arrange the test environment to eliminate or reduce distractions for students more susceptible to these. For visually impaired students, testers may enlarge stimulus cards as needed. They may replace visual stimuli with Braille, beeping objects or other auditory stimuli, or textured materials if the student is accustomed to using these regularly. Testing teachers can cut out the outlines of shapes or figures from stimulus cards. They may substitute spoken cues like "tell me" instead of "show me." As necessary, they may describe the content of pictorial stimuli. They should let students handle concrete objects as is needed. Students who wear corrective glasses should always wear these during assessments.

define the assessment terms of generalizability, compensatory grading, and noncompensatory grading, and also define a cut score, giving a couple of examples

Generalizability is related to reliability, i.e., the consistency of test scores over repeated administrations; but it moreover refers to the specific features of a certain test administration. It means the result on one test can be generalized to apply to other tests with similar formats, content, and operations. Generalizability can also refer to whether a test's results can be generalized from an individual or group to the larger population. Compensatory grading is the practice of balancing out lower performance in one area or subject with higher performance in another. Noncompensatory grading does not permit such balancing, but requires a similar standard of achievement in each area or subject. A cut score is a predetermined number used to divide categories of data or results from a test instrument. For example, a cut score can divide the categories of passing and failing scores. It can also divide the category of passing scores from a category of "honors" or "excellent" or "superior" scores.

discuss some differences in how deaf students learn versus how hearing students learn

Hearing children are surrounded by speech sounds from birth, and they absorb a great deal of their knowledge and understanding of language and speech through this immersion. However, deaf children do not benefit from sensory input in the auditory mode. Those whose parents use sign language and/or speech reading learn to comprehend and produce language through the visual modality instead. This is a major difference, because the main basis for communication among the majority of the population is auditory; and written language, with its relationship to spoken language, has the same auditory basis. Instead of auditory cues like tone of voice, grammatical inflections (verb tense and/or plural endings), or intonations like the rising end of a question, deaf students rely exclusively on visual cues like facial expressions, gestures, and body language; and in ASL (American Sign Language), built-in signs conveying grammatical information.

as a reflection of the evolution of special education and its philosophy, contrast the medical model versus the social model of disability in education

Historically, early models of special education were based on the medical model of illness. As special education developed, the medical model came to be gradually replaced by the social model. Some key differences in these models are: The medical model viewed the child as defective, whereas the social model values the child as a unique individual. The medical model focused on diagnosing and labeling children by their disabilities; the social model strives to identify children's strengths and needs. The medical model focuses on impairment; the social model focuses on identify obstacles and developing solutions. The medical model dictated segregation and alternative services for the disabled; the social model dictates making necessary resources available to the disabled within inclusive settings. The medical model resulted in being excluded permanently from normal schools and society, or inclusion only if the individual eventually seemed sufficiently "normal" in appearance and behavior; the social model welcomes diversity. The medical model effected no social change; the social model causes society to evolve.

describe some ways that the general education teacher contributes as a member of a special education student's IEP team

If a special education student participates in general education at all (which is almost always the case), at least one of the student's general education teachers must be included in the IEP team. This teacher can inform other team members about the general education classroom's curriculum, and also what kinds of services, changes in the educational program, and/or aids would help the student to learn and succeed best. They can also suggest strategies for managing classroom behavior if this is an issue. The general education teacher can also talk with the rest of the team about which supports the school staff will need to help the student progress toward annual IEP goals, engage in general education curriculum and succeed in it, participate in extracurricular activities, and be included in instruction with both nondisabled and disabled peers. Such school staff supports can include additional training, professional development, etc., not only for teachers but also administrators, cafeteria staff, bus drivers, and all others providing services to students with disabilities.

define the terms Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) and Standard Error of the Mean relative to educational assessment

If an individual student took a lot of tests that were similar in size or length (i.e., the number of items on each test), the assessors can estimate how much that student's scores wi ll vary. This estimate is called the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM). The SEM is calculated using the reliability coefficient that is established for a given test and the Standard Deviation (SD) that has been established for the group of scores that the student achieved. When a group of students takes a test, the assessors can estimate how much the mean or average score of that group would vary if they selected many samples with the same sizes and then calculated the means or averages of their scores. This estimate of variance around the mean of a group's test scores is called the Standard Error of the Mean.

explain using a real life example how school districts can take positive steps to prevent and/or address bullying in schools to provide all students with a safe and supportive learning environment

In April 2013, the U.S. Department of Justice arrived at a settlement agreement with the Metropolitan School District of Decatur Township, Indiana. This concluded a review of district practices and policies regarding bullying and harassment, prompted by 2011 reports of possible racial targeting at one school. The district arranged to collaborate with the federally funded Great Lakes Equity Center at bullying for disability, race, national origin, color, gender, or religion and promoting safe, supportive learning environments for all students. Actions include creating a district-wide antiharassment task force to review and revise district harassment/bullying and disciplinary policy and procedures; creating a coherent process to receive, investigate, and monitor bullying/harassment complaints, and trach repeating instances involving groups/individuals in special classes; and give students and staff at two district schools school climate assessments, training, and professional development. A Civil Rights Division spokesperson said these affirmative steps provide statewide and nationwide examples. Nationwide work against school bullying also aligns with federal civil rights legislation.

in the history of special education, summarize some general attitudes toward disabilities in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment. mention a few of the first developments in education for the disabled

In Medieval times (500-1500 CE), society had a rigid caste system with royalty at the top, and no education for the masses. Some people with disabilities were exterminated; others were exploited as clowns, "fools," or servants. Generally, the disabled experienced ridicule for their differences. During the Renaissance (1300-1700), when interest in knowledge was reborn, the Catholic Church made the disabled wards of the state, caring for them in isolation. They received more human treatment, but initially no education. By the Enlightenment (1650-1800), philosophers like John Locke believed all knowledge was acquired through the senses and all human beings were equal. Enlightenment philosophers believed humanity did not exist without education, increasing potential opportunities. During the Renaissance, in 1578, Spanish explorer Pedro Ponce de León first documented the education of royal deaf children. In 1760 during the Enlightenment, the French Abbé de L'Épée established the first institute for the deaf. In 1829 (the Regency era), Louis Braille invented his tactile reading/writing system for the blind.

describe some of the CEC's standards applying to special education professionals in the areas of credentials and employment

In addition to nine others, the CEC (Council for Exceptional Children) identifies standards for special education professionals that include: documenting and objectively reporting any deficits in resources, and offering solutions for these to their supervisors/administrators; evaluating employments applicants and grievances objectively, without discrimination; utilizing established procedures to resolve professional workplace problems; expecting their responsibilities to be conveyed to coworkers, and assuring their understanding and respect of those responsibilities; requesting clear written statements of their employment conditions, duties, and responsibilities; participating actively in planning, management, and evaluation of special education programs and general education programs, and in associated policy development; expecting sufficient support and supervision for special education professionals, and for programs delivered by qualified professionals in special education; and expecting there to be clearly defined chains of accountability and responsibility regarding the supervision and administration of professionals in special education.

describe some classroom accommodations teacher can use to provide more structure to students with disabilities who need support in exercising behavioral self-control

In addition to posting lists of classroom rules and consequences for breaking them and making sure all students know these, teachers can also make sure to supply students with activities to pursue during free time periods. Students requiring structure are apt to act out during unassigned times without the direction of something specific to do. To prepare students for transitions such as beginning new lessons, going to lunch, moving to other school areas, or changing classes, teachers should follow regular routines and give students prompts about the changes. Teachers may seat some students next to trained peers, teacher's aides, or volunteers to help them attend to lessons. They can also designate "study buddies" who know how to interact effectively with some students to help them when the teacher is otherwise occupied. For pupils who lack behavioral self-control without personal support and attention, the teacher can also conduct 1:1 instruction with certain students and work with others in small groups to address their needs.

describe some daily living skills that students with disabilities must learn through special instruction for successful adult community living

In addition to ski lls in dress, hygiene, other personal care, finance, household management, safety awareness, and food preparation, students with disabilities must also receive instruction, integrated into academic curricula in school, in how to purchase and care for clothing. They must be instructed in responsible citizenship, including knowing their own civil rights and responsibilities; obtaining legal aid; reporting crimes; for males, registering with Selective Service at age 18; knowing and obeying laws; knowing about federal, state, and local governments; and voting. Disabled students must also learn about community resources available; how to select and plan leisure activities, appreciate their importance; and participate in them; to plan vacation activities and social events; and practice music, arts, crafts, hobbies, and sports. Students must also be instructed in community navigation, including knowing right from left and front from back; safety and traffic rules; carpooling and other transportation; reading maps; and when applicable, learning to drive and obtaining a driver's license and automobile insurance. Special and regular educators, families, and peers provide instruction.

discuss some differences in the impacts of disabilities on families according to the age of disability onset and the age of the parents at onset or diagnosis

In contrast to disabilities manifested in late adulthood, which are more predictable and less disruptive psychologically to families, disabilities occurring earlier in life are perceived as less normal, affect development more, and require making more adjustments for longer times. Congenital disabilities shape the life of a child, so the child and family are not require to adjust to a sudden loss of function. An example is the difference between a child born with spina bifida versus an adolescent who sustains an injury and suddenly becomes paraplegic. Parental age at onset is also a factor in family response to disability. Adolescent parents have salient developmental needs themselves; plus, they usually have fewer resources and less maturity for coping with the additional demands of their child's disability. Older parents have greater chances of bearing children with Down syndrome and other disabilities, lesser endurance for caregiving, and more fears about who might care for their child after their deaths.

define the term "domain" in the context of educational assessment. additionally, explain briefly the premise of Item Response Theory and explain its application to educational testing

In educational assessment, the term "domain" is the identified scope of expected learning to be assessed. Tests typically present students with samples of assessment tasks. The results of these tests are then interpreted to generalize the performance on the full range of possible assessment tasks that would measure the domain of intended learning. Item Response Theory (IRT) posits that performance on a test item is attributed to three influences: the item itself; the test-taker; and the interaction between the two. In education, when large groups of test-takers are given many test items to produce large data sets, raters can use formulae to separate influences on test items from the test-takers' true ability, skills, or knowledge. However, the kind of assessment that is normally conducted within a given educational program does not afford enough data to calculate parameters according to Item Response Theory that would be stable enough to be meaningful.

summarize some reasons that students with disabilities can have difficulty following teachers' instructions. identify some accommodations that teachers can provide to these students to help them follow directions

In general, teachers speak, write, or demonstrate to students what they want them to do in school. Some students with disabilities have difficulty attending to spoken, written, or demonstrated information; some with remembering it; and some with both attending and retaining it. Moreover, some students with disabilities have difficulty comprehending and/or applying directions. When students find it hard to remember what they were instructed to do, teachers can provide accommodations by asking them to repeat the instructions in their own words or to demonstrate physically what they were instructed to do. They can also teach these students how to use personal planners or assignment notebooks for keeping track of assignments and tests. When students have difficulty comprehending the teacher's instructions, the teacher can provide accommodations by giving directions broken down into consecutive steps, and furnishing pictures or outlines of them. They can demonstrate for students how to complete sample tasks or problems, and combine oral instructions with pictures, diagrams, and/or printed words.

discuss some general principles of a school-based response to crisis situations

In immediate responses to crises in schools, educators should concentrate on restoring equilibrium for students. Their demeanor should be calm, authoritative, and nurturing; their behaviors direct, informative, and oriented to problem-solving. Educators should address student denial by providing them with accurate information and realistic explanations about what happened and what they can expect. Reassurance should never be untrue or unrealistic. Educators should encourage students to face the factual aspects of a crisis. They should invite students to cope with their emotional responses, and discuss with them their responses and defense mechanisms. They should communicate to students a sense of positive expectations and hope, in that although crises bring changes, they have means of coping with these. Educators can shift students' positions from victims to actors by helping them plan appropriate, realistic, and salutary actions to follow after they separate, building upon demonstrated student coping skills and techniques, and when appropriate, engage them in helping restore equilibrium. They should link students with peers, family, and staff for immediate social support.

differentially characterize norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced or domain referenced tests relative to assessments in educational programs, including general examples

In reference to testing large groups, like the entire student body of a school, district, or state, the high-stakes standardized tests given are typically norm-referenced tests; that is, they compare students' scores to a normative sample of students deemed representative of the general population. Criterion-referenced tests may or may not be standardized and compare student scores to a predetermined set of criteria for acceptable performance. In the context of educational programs, norm-referenced tests seek to determine the highest or lowest achievement rather than the absolute score achieved. For example, educators might determine the 10 highest student scores on a certain test to reinforce with "best in group" awards. In this context, measures of mastery learning are examples of criterion-referenced or domain-referenced testing. Educators establish a minimum performance level score that equates to passing. Student scores are compared against this score, so the students in a given class could all pass or fail the test.

describe some of the advantages and disadvantages of the segregated settings used in the history of special education for instructing students with special needs

In some cases, special schools and classes are used today; however, in America and many other countries, laws mandate inclusive education for students with disabilities. Before this legislation, segregation was more the norm than the exception, yielding both advantages and disadvantages. Some advantages include: giving students with disabilities more chances of success; fostering cooperation instead of competition; being able to learn physical and social skills in accepting, understanding settings; staff with specialized training, specialized equipment, and specialized services; more opportunities to improve skills needed for greater participation in more inclusive settings; easier student access to individual attention; and more opportunities to meet other students with the same disability. Disadvantages include: developed "disabled" values, attitudes, and behaviors; lowered expectations in students, parents, and educators; resistance to transferring learned skills to regular settings; depriving disabled and nondisabled children of the benefits of interacting; less preparation for future living; greater lifelong expenses; more interactions with adults than with children; and performance standards separate from "normal" standards.

summarize how the history and philosophy of special education changed during the 20th century. Identify four main periods in the development of special education from the 19th century to today

In the 1900s, the emphasis regarding disabilities was more biological than psychological or social. Hence many early pioneers of special education were both physicians and educators. Practitioners followed the medical model, and children with disabilities received institutional care. Between the 1900s and 1950s, laws made education compulsory, and educators created schools and classes for children who were blind, deaf, and mentally disabled. Following World War II, the special education system was established, with an organization parallel to the general education system. In the first of four main periods of special-needs education, children with blindness and deafness were most likely to receive instruction, while many children with other disabilities were still excluded from schools. In the second period, children with disabilities were segregated into homogenous groups and received medical care and rehabilitation. The third period focused on normalizing and integrating the disabled into the community. In the fourth period, laws have mandated educational equality and inclusion rather than segregation in educational services for all children.

describe some standards for the professional development of special education professionals

In the area of professional development, the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) has standards that include: systematically keeping individualized plans for their own professional development, designing these to increase their own skills, knowledge, and cultural competence to sustain high competency levels; keeping current in their knowledge of laws, policies, and procedures related to their practices; systematically and objectively evaluating themselves, their coworkers, and their programs and services to enhance their professional performance continually; advocating for effective, schoolwide professional development and individual professional development plans being provided by their employing agencies; participating in supervised, systematic field experiences for special education professional candidates as a part of their educator preparation degree and certification programs; and functioning as mentors for other special educators in whichever times, places, and circumstances that their doing so is appropriate.

summarize some key aspects of the first IEP meeting for a student determined eligible under law for special education and related services, including parents' rights under the IDEA

In the first IEP meeting for a student, the IEP team includes the student, the parents, the student's teacher(s), specialists, other school personnel who interact with the student; outside consultants if invited; and any others with knowledge about the student, invited by the parents. If a group other than this IEP team decides placement for the student, the parents must also be included in that group. Parents must give consent before initial provision of special education and related services. With this consent, services must commence as soon as possible following the first IEP meeting. When parents disagree with the content of the IEP and/or their child's placement, they can discuss this with other IEP team members and work toward solutions. If the parents still disagree, they may request mediation or the school can offer mediation services. Parents also have the right to file complaints with the state education agency and to request a due process hearing. Mediation must be made available at this hearing.

identify some ways in which the special education teacher participates in the IEP team for a student with a disability

Informed by their training and experience in special education, the special education teacher contributes to the IEP team by discussing various topics. These include how to make adaptations and modifications to the general education curriculum that will enable the student to learn in the general education setting; which supplementary services and aids the student is likely to require for succeeding in regular classrooms and other places; techniques for modifications of assessments that enables the student to better demonstrate what they have learned; and additional elements of individualizing the instruction according to the unique needs of the student. Special educators not only help write IEPs; they are also responsible for working with students to implement them. They may do this in special education classes or resource rooms; team-teach with regular education teachers; and collaborate with regular education teachers and other school personnel, contributing expertise to meet the student's individual needs.

name several international declarations that address children's rights to inclusive educations. also name some laws passed in the United States that have influenced special education and inclusion

Internationally, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights addressed rights to inclusive education, as did the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989. In 1990, the World Declaration for Education for All addressed inclusion. In 1993, the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disability established rights of disabled people to equal opportunities in education and employment. In 1994, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) issued the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on every child's basic rights to education, stating that educational systems and programs should address children's diversities; special-needs students require adaptations enabling regular school access; and inclusive regular schools must effectively fight and prevent discrimination and make society inclusive. Significant U.S. laws include Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act; the Education for all Handicapped Children Act (EHA) (1975/1986); the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990); the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997/2004); and the No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2001) Act.

Explain Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard's significance to the history of special education and summarize his most famous case study

Itard was a French doctor and educator, among the first to propose and prove special teaching methods could help educate children with disabilities. From 1801=1805, Itard used systematic instructional techniques to teach communication and daily living skills to a boy named Victor, discovered in the woods, seemingly without human rearing. Itard's work was made more famous by director/actor François Truffaut in his 1970 film L'Enfant Sauvage (The Wild Child). Itard's goals were to socialize Victor, improve his awareness of environmental stimuli, expose him to ideas, teach him to communicate, and advance his thinking from concrete/simple to abstract/complex. Some successes included increased regularity and control in Victor's eating, sleeping, and personal hygiene; improved senses of taste and touch; and increased range of interests. Victor learned to sequence objects and utter a few single-syllable words. However, he never developed connected speech or emotional attachments, and longed for his previous life. Some speculate Victor had an intellectual disability or autism, which would also explain why he was likely abandoned at an early age.

explain what item analysis is in terms of educational assessment, including what it indicates, its implicit orientation, and the characteristics of test items that it typically covers

Item analysis is often used to evaluate test items that use multiple-choice formats to show the quality of the test item and of the test overall. Item analysis has an implicit orientation of being norm-referenced rather than criterion- or domain-referenced. This means it evaluates test items using performance within the group of test-takers rather than an externally preset criterion for expected achievement. Characteristics analyzed in test items include how many high-scoring students got an item correct; how many low-scoring students got the item correct; the test item's discrimination index for separating high and low scoring test takers; the test item's difficulty index; how many test takers chose each of the answer choices on each test item; the quality of the correct answer choices; and the reliability of the test, i.e., how consistent its results are across separate administrations to the same test takers.

discuss the technological development of portfolio assessments into ePortfolios and the additional influence of social networking. identify some key processes involved in portfolios, social networking, and technology

Just as physical portfolios show a student's work and creative products accumulated over time, ePortfolios store documents and photos of products and can be shared with others; but given the advent of social networks, they benefit from additional advantages of immediate communication and reinforcement. Digital archives can portray a student's life, from birth through early childhood family learning via scrapbooks, and through formal schooling and into employment and professional development. In portfolios, key processes include collecting products for the digital archive; selecting those demonstrating certain standards or goals by creating hyperlinks for others, which leads to reflecting or metacognition, helping the student construct meaning from the words they selected, aided by new storytelling models generated by technology; directing or goal-setting; presenting ePortfolios; and getting feedback on them. Social networking includes processes of connecting with others; listening to or reading posts; responding by commenting on posts; and sharing via linking or tagging. Key processes technology enables include archiving; linking and thinking; digital storytelling; collaborating; and publishing.

explain briefly why central nervous system stimulants like amphetamines are often prescribed to children with ADHD. identify some serious and less serious side effects of amphetamines

Many adults do not understand why a child who is already hyperactive would be prescribed a stimulant drug, thinking this would only make them even more so. However, stimulants like amphetamines often have the effect of helping children with ADHD to focus their attention better for longer time periods. This compares to the effects of caffeine and controlled amphetamine doses in helping tired adults concentrate better. Serious amphetamine side effects include rapid, uneven, or pounding heartbeat; burning or pain with urination; increased talkativeness; other unaccustomed behaviors; extremes of depression or elation; muscular twitches/motor tics; physical tremors; hallucinations; and dangerous elevations in blood pressure, with symptoms like buzzing in the ears. severe headaches, shortness of breath, cardiac arrhythmias, chest pain, confusion, anxiety, seizures, and others. Less serious side effects include blurred vision, dizziness, weakness, moderate headaches, irritability, restlessness, agitation, insomnia, dry mouth, bad taste in the mouth, constipation, diarr hea, stomach ac he, nau sea, vo mit ing, fe ver, loss of appetite, weight loss, hair loss, loss of libido, and others.

describe an instructional strategy of modeling to help autistic, cognitively impaired, and younger students learn to use eye contact, vocal tone, and pronunciation appropriately in social interactions

Many autistic students avoid eye contact, as do some cognitively impaired students and even nondisabled younger students. Often they do not understand its importance and have no practice using it. Autistic people are often extra sensitive to sensory input, and as eye contact is a strong sensory input, many of them find it uncomfortable or even painful. For these students, looking just above or below the eyes of the person they're talking to or looking between their eyes can often satisfy the neurotypical person's need for eye contact and the autistic student's need for comfortable, painless social interactions. Some teachers with teaching assistants or aides find it helps to model through conversations with them: the teacher says to the assistant that they noticed how the aide's eyes were looking right at a student's eyes when they were talking; that this showed the student the aide was listening, and the aide could see the student was also listening; and praised the aide for "good eye contact." The aide replies that good eye contact during conversation is good manners. The same technique can be used to describe appropriate vocal tones for conversations and correct pronunciation. The teacher can follow up by asking students to demonstrate good eye contact when greeting another student. They observe and provide prompts as needed. This is most effective when the teacher immediately rewards the interaction with verbal praise and/or applause from the class.

summarize the rationale and procedure for using task analyses to teach everyday life skills to students with special needs. explain using examples how teaching these students such tasks can also be connected with necessary areas of the general education curriculum

Many of us take activities of daily living for granted. Because we have long ago learned to do them automatically, we do not realize how complex they actually are by involving many different steps. This complexity, however, can baffle special-needs students who have not achieved automaticity. Task analysis provides a solution by separating tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. Educators must also provide support, like going over each step with the student to ensure their understanding; helping with steps the student cannot do independently; answering student questions; and monitoring that they complete all steps correctly and in the right sequence. Daily life skills tasks can easily be connected with general education curriculum. For example, reading care instruction tags on clothing and directions on soap packages when doing laundry and discussing it with others connect with English. Measuring laundry soap, reading washing machine and dryer dials and numbers, sorting and counting clothes, and estimating washing and drying times connect with mathematics. This also applies to cooking, meal preparation, etc.

discuss some tools whereby special educators can engage in self-assessments of their own work

Many school districts and systems have created self-assessment rubrics or instruments for special educators. These instruments generally list specific standards for an array of required skills and knowledge, including operational definitions that describe what knowledge, skills, and behaviors the special educator should demonstrate. These descriptions are accompanied by incremental rating scales. The educator reads each competency and checks a box corresponding to whether they think that, for example, models it, adjusts upon reflecting, and is a resource for others (the highest score); or works independently to apply the competency across settings and self-initiates planning (the second highest); applies the competency with support and shows emerging self-initiation of planning (the middle score); understands and tries to apply the competency, and uses resources for improving their teaching (the second lowest); or is aware of the competency but has no experience in and/or does not demonstrate it (the lowest score). Another example states competence areas for self-rating as highly effective, effective, minimally effective, or ineffective.

describe some things special education teachers must consider when working with general education teachers regarding curriculum and volunteers regarding data collection

Many special educators, such as special education resource teachers, often teach students in multiple grades. To support their students' various educational needs, the special education teacher must know the general education curriculum. When this teacher works with multiple grade levels, they have to know multiple different curricula. This teacher must also collaborate with all students' general classroom teachers to ensure they support what they teach. This entails both making time and being organized to speak with each teacher individually. Special education teachers must also provide data for each student, to document instruction that implements the student's IEP and document their reports of student success or difficulty in each area. They must monitor data collection, analyze data, and adjust instruction accordingly. They need the cooperation of general education teachers in collecting data when they are not in the general classrooms with students. While parents/others may volunteer to help collect data, special education confidentiality laws can prohibit volunteers without permission from the parents of every student in class.

summarize some of the difficulties that students with special needs encounter in trying to complete activities of daily living (ADLs) and how using picture cards can support instruction in ADLs. give an example of picture cards for instruction in an ADL

Many special-needs students encounter difficulty processing information communicated verbally; initiating activities independently; maintaining attentional focus; and completing each step in a multiple-step task. When instructing special-needs students in ADLs, educators find a valuable resource in picture cards because these convey information visually instead of only verbally; they are naturally amenable to task analysis by using one picture card for each step in a task and arranging cards in the correct sequence; and they can be integrated into visual/graphic schedules, functional communication systems, and/or story strips. "Reminder strips" are short strips of picture cards that help students follow sequential steps when they cannot remember these without visual cues. For example, for hand-washing, a reminder strip placed above a sink can include individual pictures (with word captions) of turning on water, soap, lathering hands, turning off water, and drying hands on a towel, respectively. Many online resources offer printable cards, some designed for students to color themselves, which increases their engagement, enjoyment, and ownership in the learning process.

identify some components of self-confidence that disabled students commonly need to learn and how teachers can help them

Many students with disabilities are aware of their disability, which can undermine their self confidence. They often feel they are different and do not fit in socially, and have experienced rejection, ridicule, and bullying by other students. Additionally, experiencing failure at tasks their nondisabled peers complete easily can lower their self-esteem. Teachers can offer explicit instruction, asking students to identify good qualities they possess; help them develop positive affirmations they can understand, repeat, and believe; and provide plentiful positive reinforcement for every small success and for admirable efforts regardless of outcome. They can have students describe how they think others see them, and collaborate to develop strategies to improve their own and others' images of them. They can teach students to accept and offer praise and criticism appropriately with others. Students may also need training in wearing clothing appropriate to different social situations and answering and using telephones properly. The more students master such social skills, the more self-confidence they develop.

define several elements of attaining independence for students with disabilities that educators can help with by providing instruction

Many students with disabilities have had things done for them that they could not accomplish alone and may have become habituated to passively waiting for others to initiate activities. Educators can help them achieve more independence by first explicitly teaching a student needed skills, giving prompts for each step, and then systematically fading the prompts so the student gradually performs tasks/activities with less and less help, direction, and guidance. Depending on the disability and activity, some students ultimately achieve full independence, while others can do more than before with less assistance. Students must also learn to take responsibility for their behaviors. Teachers/specialists can help students navigate the community by teaching orientation, mobility, street directionality, how to use public transport, or strategies for coping with getting lost or with timetable changes when traveling. They can also teach them to follow safety procedures. They can counsel them in choosing friends and provide behavioral procedures for choosing clothing and getting to school on time.

discuss some considerations for teachers regarding students with disabilities and accommodations they may need in the areas of scheduling and time demands within programs, courses, assignments, and assessments

Many students with disabilities learn and/or work at slower speeds than their nondisabled peers. Others perform better without the pressure of rigorous schedules. Teachers can provide them with time and schedule related accommodations. For example, some high school students may be given an Incomplete course grade and finish the course in summer school or the next semester. On practice assignments with multiple similar items, students who have the cognitive ability to learn without excessive repetition but need additional time and/or perform poorly under time pressure may be permitted to complete only every other item. Another educator consideration regarding students with disabilities is that in middle school and high school programs, it is particularly critical to assign these students to classes appropriate for them. Teachers of special education are advised that they may facilitate this process by working with their school administrators to ensure that the schedules of assigned classes are able to accommodate the special needs of any students who have disabilities.

identify some difficulties with expressive language that impact disabled students' abilities to complete written assignments and assessments, and identify some classroom accommodations to address here

Many students with disabilities may have good ideas, but have difficulties with expressing these in writing and/or speech. Teachers can provide them with accommodations that can facilitate their use of expressive language. For example, they can allow students to use a thesaurus to look up words that express the ideas that they want to convey, and to find additional synonyms and antonyms for words if their actual vocabularies and/or their access to retrieving words they know are limited. Teachers can allow and provide to students specialized word-processing software programs that predict the words that students are trying to express. They can allow students to make use of electronic spelling aids and/or spelling dictionaries to support correct orthography. Teachers should also grade the content of written assignments separately from the writing mechanics in academic subjects (other than English composition, grammar, or spelling). They should additionally allow students with disabilities to correct their grammatical and spelling errors when they are completing written assignments or assessments.

briefly explain the rationale for integrating affective, social, and life skills into academic curricula for students with disabilities. give some examples of daily living skills such students must learn to live successfully and independently in the community

Many students with disabilities need special education and support to learn daily living skills. With proper instruction, they can obtain and keep meaningful jobs and live in the community; but without specialized instruction, they frequently lose jobs and/or home placements. Life skills include proper attire, grooming, and hygiene; acceptable table manners; financial decision-making; and utilizing transportation to employment. Instruction in financial skills is required by some states, including counting money and making change; managing bank accounts; keeping personal budgets and records; making personal financial decisions; spending and using credit responsibly; estimating and paying taxes; paying bills; and renting/leasing. Household management includes housekeeping; meal preparation; doing/hiring home maintenance/repair; and new appliance warranty registration. Personal care includes obtaining health care, eschewing substance abuse; recognizing common ailments, knowing prevention and treatment; and nutrition, physical fitness, and weight maintenance. Safety awareness includes recognizing safety/hazard signs, rules, and procedures; unfamiliar sounds and/or smells; and knowing emergency evacuation procedures. Buying, storing, planning, preparing, and eating balanced, appropriate meals are included.

discuss the nature of classroom difficulties encountered by many students with disabilities in reading textbooks and other printed learning materials and following instructional methods

Many students with various disabilities have difficulties in the classroom due to problems they experience with following the instructional methods and reading and applying the textbooks and other printed or written learning materials used in regular education programs. Educators can help these students to work around such difficulties by providing them with accommodations. One of the most important skills to enable success in school is being able to read. However, many students who have disabilities are not reading at their grade level because of various impediments to their reading skills. Some are still in the process of acquiring fundamental skills in phonics (i.e., the relationship between speech sounds and the alphabetic letters that represent them) and word recognition. Some students are still in the process of learning how to apply techniques to assist them in comprehension of printed words, phrases, and sentences. In addition, plenty of textbooks, worksheets, and similar learning materials are not well-organized or clearly articulated, constituting further challenges to these students.

summarize some of Maria Montessori's important contributions in the history of special education

Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian doctor and educator, developed an entire philosophy of education with procedures based on its principles. Today there are many Montessori schools worldwide. While the Montessori method is intended for the general education of all children, it has many benefits for children with disabilities and inclusive education. It is based on the way children naturally learn through exploring and experiencing. Montessori aimed to enable children's optimal exploration and independent learning. To this end, she proposed the concept of the "prepared environment," a learning environment designed to facilitate this learning process. This environment features an uninterrupted continuum of learning experiences. Montessori schools divide classrooms into multiple-age groups: parent and infant for ages 0-3, preschool, ages 3-6; lower elementary, ages 6-9; and upper elementary, ages 9-12; and middle school, ages 12-14. However, this series of classrooms comprise a "flow" experience, wherein the child continuously constructs and builds upon his/her learning throughout the program. Classroom materials each isolate various single qualities/concepts like color, shape, or size.

identify some key members of the IEP team. explain some aspects of the role of parents as IEP team members

Members of a student's IEP team are not limited to, but include: the student; the parents; the special education teacher(s); specialist(s) or other service provider(s); the general education teacher(s); someone able to interpret evaluation results; a representative of the school system; a representative of a transition services agency; and others having special expertise/knowledge about the student. (Sometimes an individual member can be more than one of these people.) Parents are important team members for knowledge of their child, including the child's strengths and needs and their ideas about how to improve the child's education. Parents can contribute insights about their child's learning style and processes, what academic and life areas are of particular interest to their child, and other things only parents know about their children. Parents can consider other team members' recommendations about areas to focus on in school and can share their own suggestions. Additionally, parents can report to the school whether their child is applying skills they have learned in school, at home, and in other settings outside school.

identify some signs of atypical development in the area of gross motor skills for a child between the ages of 3 and 12 months, and between 12 and 36 months

Motor development follows a hierarchical pattern. In other words, for example, if a child cannot stand, they cannot walk, and if they cannot walk, they cannot run. When a baby is between 3 and 12 months old, some signs of atypical gross motor skills development include that the child does not open their hands during the normal age range; that the child has trouble holding their head up; the child cannot sit up without support; and the child doesn't begin to pull up on furniture or stand up during this age range. Between 12 and 36 months, signs of delayed/atypical development include problems with walking and/or running; with ascending or descending stairs; with rolling, catching, and throwing a ball; and with jumping and hopping. Children with atypical motor development may demonstrate higher or lower muscle tone than normal and problems with motor planning, motor coordination, balance, and proprioception.

discuss some of the medical needs associated with muscular dystrophy in children

Muscular dystrophy, a genetic condition, makes muscle fibers unusually vulnerable to damage, causing progressive weakness. Symptoms include breathing/swallowing difficulties and limb contractures. Some forms affect the heart and other organs. Among at least seven forms of MD, the Duchenne type comprises roughly half of all cases and is most common in boys. Children learning to walk may fall often; have trouble getting up, running, and jumping; waddle when walking; and have enlarged calf muscles. They also often have learning disabilities. With no cure, treatment focuses on decreasing/preventing spinal and joint deformities and enabling mobility as long as possible. Prednisone and other corticosteroids can slow progression of some forms of MD and enhance muscular strength, but also weaken bones, elevating fracture risks, with long-term use. Surgeries can loosen contracted joints, correct spinal scoliosis to ease breathing, and install pacemakers for MD-related heart conditions. Range-of-motion exercises improve flexibility. Braces support weak muscles, stretch muscles and tendons, and preserve flexibility, slowing contracture progression. Some patients need C-PAP sleep apnea devices or ventilators.

discuss some legal requirements related to decisions the IEP team must make regarding a student's placement within the continuum of special education and related services available

Once an IEP team has developed and written a student's IEP, where this program is to be implemented- i.e., the student's placement- must also be decided. In some U.S. states, the IEP team is also the group that makes placement decisions. In others, a different group may decide student placements. However, in every instance the parents have the legal right to participate as members of the group deciding placement. Placement decisions must abide by the IDEA's requirements for the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): students with disabilities must be educated together with students without disabilities to the maximum degree possible and fitting. In addition, the IDEA specifies that students with disabilities may only be removed from the regular school setting- to special classes or separate schools- if the severity and/or nature of the student's disability makes education in regular classes, including the use of supplementary services and aids, impossible to attain with satisfactory results.

give an overview of implementing an IEP, including progress measurement and IEP review

Once the IEP team has met and developed an IEP for a student and the parents agree with it, the school must give them a copy of the IEP. Each teacher and service provider working with the student can access the student's IEP and must know their specific duties in implementing the IEP. The school must ensure that the IEP is implemented as it is written, including providing all accommodations, modifications, and supports to the student as specified in the IEP document. As outlined in the IEP, the school must measure the student's progress toward yearly IEP goals. The school regularly informs the parents of their child's progress and whether it is sufficient for meeting the annual goals. Progress reports must be provided at least as frequently as those reporting nondisabled students' progress. IEPs are reviewed at least annually- more if the parents or the school request it. The IEP is revised if needed. Parents must be invited to review meetings, can suggest changes, and agree/disagree with IEP goals and/or placement.

identify some spoken verbal expressive language skills that children develop as they grow older, starting after toddlers' two-word phrases and continuing through full sentences

Once they can speak using more than one-word expressions, young children begin to ask questions and answer others' questions. They progress to correctly using words expressing qualitative concepts, including opposites like big and little, tall and short, etc.; and quantitative concepts, including opposite and relative quantities like all, none, a lot, or a little. As their expressive language skills develop, they reflect children's receptive understanding of the concepts underlying the words. The toddler's basic "she walk" phrase gives way to the more advanced present progressive verb tense "she is walking" in preschoolers. Children begin to use pronouns like "I" and "you," rather than using no pronouns or only "me" or "mommy." They then develop possessive pronouns like "mine" and "my." They start including prepositions like on, in, over, and under. They use past tenses, both regular and irregular ("gave") and future constructions like "will/is going to." They progress from two-word to three- and four-word phrases, and then full sentences with subject, auxiliary verb, verb, and object.

summarize several main areas of behavioral differences observed in individuals on the autism spectrum

One area of behavioral difference among the autistic is language: some people with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) have few or no verbal skills; others have limited speech and language; others have more functional, but odd-sounding speech and language; and others have highly functioning verbal skills. Some are able to speak extensively on favorite topics but cannot start or continue social conversations. Another area is social and emotional: those with ASDs have difficulty observing, interpreting, and using socially accepted behaviors indicating emotions. A common autistic deficit is tolerating interruptions, changes, or transitions in activities. Autistic people frequently display narrowly limited interests and activities, and rigid thinking and behavior. Some engage in repetitive behaviors; some focus intensely on a single activity for long periods but don't shift or divide their attention. Some autistic people react to sudden changes, or sensory input they find painful due to hypersensitivity, with panic reactions including screaming, self-injurious behavior, and/or withdrawing into rocking, counting, or other repetitive self-soothing actions.

identify several learning problems associated with reading for students with disabilities and several related classroom accommodations teachers can use to address these

One common problem for students with disabilities is isolating the main ideas in a book they are reading and/or which parts are important to remember. Teachers can highlight the important concepts and instruct students to read these first. They can give study guides to students for independent reading. They can offer students books on the same subjects at lower grade levels to make the main ideas easier to identify. Some students comprehend information when they hear it, but cannot read it. Teachers can supply audiobooks; videos or movies of the information; computer text-to-speech software programs; and/or assign classmates to read printed versions aloud to students. Students with blindness or visual impairments may need specially produced materials and/or equipment to access class information. Teachers can supply audiobooks or texts with large print; books and other materials in Braille or embossed formats; and give students equipment like magnifying devices or optical enhancers.

identify and describe three factors in the educational setting that especially influence students' motivation to learn

One factor that is found to increase students' motivation to learn is a sense of belonging in their school settings and a sense of having caring relationships. This includes the students' feeling that their families and friends support them and their education, and in school particularly, that their teachers are supportive. Individualizing and personalizing their instruction is one way that teachers accomplish this. Teachers also create caring, supportive social environments in school by demonstrating interest in their students' lives, inside and outside school. Students experiencing such positive interpersonal relationships are found to display more positive attitudes and values regarding school, and more satisfaction with it, and to attend school more, learn more, and report more academic engagement. Another factor is clearly defined, high, consistent, and realistically attainable teacher expectations of student performance. A third factor promoting students' cognitive engagement is teachers' use of active pedagogical strategies challenging students to tackle new ideas, explain their thinking, defend their decisions, and/or explore alternate methods and solutions, especially through peer collaboration.

give some examples of ways a sixth-grade teacher might establish rapport with students at the beginning of the school year, which also help the student plan differentiated and effective instruction throughout the year

One way a sixth-grade teacher can get acquainted with new students is to give them surveys about their interests and surveys of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences to get ideas of students' preferences, strengths, needs, and learning styles. To assess student writing abilities and styles, a pre-assessment can involve writing a letter to the teacher about themselves. The teacher gives no pre-instructions on the steps of writing to discern what they already know how to do independently. The teacher may use their district's model for assessing writing. As icebreakers, teachers can assign as homework writing and il lustrating a "Me" page, guided by teacher-given questions. They can have each student create a poster using the letters in their first name, putting large "bubble" letters on the page, and putting information, drawings, or photos in the letters. Then the teacher can display these in the classroom, integrating technology by adding printed digital photos of students to their posters. They can have students create PowerPoints and revise them at the end of the school year to add what they have learned.

discuss some ways that individuals who have special expertise or knowledge about a student can contribute as members of the student's IEP team

Parents and/or school system employees can invite individuals to participate as members of a student's IEP team based on their especial expertise and/or knowledge about the student. For instance, parents may know a professional with specific experise in the student's particular disability; an advocate who has a relationship with the student; or a vocational educator who has been working with the student on employment ski lls. Such individuals are able to discuss the student's individual strengths and needs. The school system may also invite individuals, like paraprofessionals or professionals specializing in related services, who can contribute special expertise and/or knowledge about the student. A significant aspect of IEP development is the related services a student often needs; therefore, professionals specializing in such related services are frequently members or participants in the IEP team. These professionals can include physical therapists; occupational therapists; adaptive physical education instructors; orientation and mobility specialists; ASL interpreters; speech-language pathologists; psychologists; and others.

discuss some factors to consider in the eligibility determination and placement in special education programs/services of culturally and linguistically diverse students

Parents of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds should become involved in all stages of the special education process if their children are referred. In addition to being included on referral and assessment teams, parents as well as cultural diversity experts should be included in decision-making for eligibility determination and placement. This team should consider whether a student's difficulties are caused by a possible disability, cultural/social differences, or both. Immigration, switching schools, and school absences should be considered. Evidence of different sources of student difficulty should be provided. If a student is identified with a disability, parents should determine whether the school has specific plans for reviewing the student's circumstances in the future, determining whether the student might be reclassified. If a student is determined eligible for special education, parents should know whether team members work for placement in the least restrictive environment and seek proof/evidence of such efforts. They should find out if students with the same disability type and age are placed in similar programs and why.

comment on some differences and similarities between physically disabled students and others

Physically abled students, and sometimes even educators, may not realize that even navigating through a school building-a seemingly simple everyday activity they take for granted- is not the same for the physically disabled. For example, buildings with traditional construction frequently include doorways too narrow for wheelchairs, solid obstacles impossible or difficult to move around, or stairs and grades not safely traversed using crutches. Federal legislation protecting the rights of the disabled has now mandated that all new constructions be accessible to them; however, this does not address old/existing buildings that often cannot be retrofitted. Also, physically disabled students have the same needs and desires to compete, win, and play as others, which should not be discounted. For example, wheelchair basketball and races are popular alternatives. In some schools, students in wheelchairs are also included in sports teams and games that typically only include abled students.

summarize some typical characteristics of a child in Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, including the stage's name, its age range, some descriptive terms Piaget coined, and some examples of those terms

Piaget called his second stage of cognitive development, commonly occurring between the ages of 2-7, Preoperational, because children haven't yet developed the ability to perform mental operations (manipulate information mentally) and do not understand concrete logic. Piaget called children in this stage egocentric, i.e., they cannot assume another's perspective. For example, Preoperational children can select a picture matching a scene they just saw, but cannot select a picture matching what someone else could see from a different physical location/position. They do not understand what Piaget termed conservation, the concept that quantities remain constant regardless of shape or appearance. For example, children judge the same amount of liquid differently by its appearance in differently shaped containers (short wide vs tall narrow), even when seeing it poured from one to the other. Piaget identified additional characteristics of Preoperational thinking as animism (attributing human qualities to inanimate objects) and magical thinking (attributing external events to one's internal thoughts).

describe typical cognitive development in infancy according to Piaget's theory, including his names for the first stage, some of its characteristics, and its substages

Piaget defined four stages of cognitive development. He called the first stage sensorimotor to characterize infants' cognitive processes: they perceive sensory information from their surrounding environments and respond to these by engaging in motor activities, e.g., rooting, suckling, looking, listening, reaching, and grasping. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages: Reflexes, from 0-1 month; Primary Circular Reactions from 1-4 months wherein infants find accidental actions like thumb sucking pleasurable and then intentionally repeat them; Secondary Circular Reactions from 4-8 months when infants intentionally repeat actions to evoke environmental effects; Coordination of Reactions from 8-12 months, featuring obviously intentional actions, comprehension of cause and effect, and combining schemas (concepts); Tertiary Circular Reactions from 12-18 months, when children experiment with trial and error; and Early Representational Thought from 18-24 months, when children begin representing things or events with symbols. A significant sensorimotor development is Object Permanence, i.e., realizing things still exist when out of sight.

name and briefly describe some normal developments during the fourth stage identifies by Piaget in his theory of cognitive development

Piaget termed his final stage of cognitive development, from around age 12 into adulthood, as Formal Operations. This reflects the individual's ability to understand and manipulate completely abstract concepts without needing to refer to concrete objects. This stage also features the development of logic, the addition of deductive reasoning to the inductive reasoning children develop in the previous stage of Concrete Operations, and systematic planning. Children/teens/adults can now consider hypothetical situations; apply general principles to predict specific events (deductive reasoning) as well as make generalizations from multiple specific details (inductive reasoning, which typically develops during Concrete Operations); and plan organized, systematic approaches to problem-solving. They are more fully able to consider another's viewpoint and feelings, and can understand abstract concepts like liberty, justice, democracy, truth, and beauty.

describe two common approaches to prereferral interventions

Prereferral interventions are a frequent practice intended to better the process of identifying students with disabilities by decreasing referrals to special education services and giving general education teachers more assistance and advice. Rather than first referring a student for evaluation to diagnose a possible disability, teachers initially try to address behavior or learning problems in the classroom through modifications. Only if modifications are found inadequate to the student's difficulties, and the teacher believes special services may be required, do they initiate the referral process. Most states in the U.S. require or recommend prereferral intervention in some form. One approach uses Teacher Assistance Teams (TATs). TATs usually comprise four members: the referring teacher and three other teachers. These teams provide teachers with a forum to meet, discuss, and brainstorm ideas to instruct students and/or manage them. Another approach is collaborative consultation. Specialists like speech-language pathologists work directly with referring teachers in planning, implementing, and evaluating instruction for students identified in regular education classrooms.

identify the official legal precedent for including school-to-work training in education. identify some areas where students with disabilities may need help in related school and community settings. describe several key issues that determine success or failure in workplace functioning

President Clinton signed the School to Work Opportunities Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-239) into law. This law is a joint initiative by the U.S. Department of Education and Department of Labor. In transitions from school to work (STW), students with disabilities may need help with environmental accommodations; job accommodations; assistive technology devices; and additional supports for full participation in STW programs based in schools and/or communities. Key issues affecting success or failure in the workplace are related to social skills, for both disabled and nondisabled workers. In fact, 75 percent of job loss within the nondisabled population is attributed to poor social interactions. Disabled students also need good awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses to succeed at work, and skills for compensating for their deficits and making the most of their talents. Survey research with employers hiring disabled workers indicates that they want employees who are dependable, on time, can follow basic directions, and get along with their coworkers.

describe the Ebel method for determining a cut score for passing or failing a given test instrument

Rather than arbitrarily setting the same pass/fail cut score for all tests, several methods exist for determining an appropriate cut score for a particular instrument. The Ebel method considers the importance and difficulty level of each test item in establishing a cut score for a test. First the testers divide all test items into six categories: High, Medium, and Low importance; and High, Medium, and Low difficulty. Then, after selecting a group of "borderline" students who do not always pass or fail tests but are about equally likely to do either, they estimate how many of these students would probably get each item correct in each of these six categories. They add up their estimated percentages for each test item and round the sum to an integer, which is the cut score. The assessors can also then modify their estimations based on data they may obtain from a student class or group's actual test results.

summarize some evidence-based strategies for teaching core concepts and content in science according to state standards to disabled students, both in high school and elementary grades

Recent educational research studies have shown that teachers, when trained in a specific task analysis, could teach developmentally disabled students to conduct science experiments. Some researchers have used graphic organizers to teach science core content to students with autism in middle school. Others taught science vocabulary and concepts to similar students using explicit instruction of descriptors. And some have taught the steps of scientific inquiry lessons, and science concepts that the learners generalized to new materials, to students with moderate intellectual disabilities. Research has shown that time delay and similar strategies for special educators to teach math and science vocabulary across multiple academic content areas is effective with high school students having moderate and severe developmental disabilities. Other researchers have recently investigated teaching early science concepts and vocabulary to elementary school students with severe DDs. They find even at lower ages/grades and more severe disabilities, students learned comprehension of both scientific vocabulary and concepts, meeting the criteria of state standards for progress through science lessons in the general education curriculum.

briefly discuss receptive, expressive, and pragmatic language. identify several signs of delayed or atypical development of receptive language milestones at various ages during childhood

Receptive language is comprehending language we hear and read. Expressive language is our production of spoken and written language. Pragmatic language is our using receptive and expressive language to facilitate social interactions. Expressive and pragmatic language depend upon receptive language, which precedes them. If a baby is not imitating others' vocal sounds or behaviors or responding to hearing his/her name called and/or seems not to be listening to others' speech by the age of 12 months, this can indicate delayed/deficient receptive language development. By three years, if a child does not follow instructions and/or does not learn to speak "normally," this can indicate receptive language delay. When children frequently ask others to repeat and/or have trouble answering questions by five years old, they may have receptive language delays. By seven years, signs of receptive language deficits include having trouble understanding stories told/read aloud; avoiding participating in social activities; and having trouble processing or making sense of verbal information. Having trouble reading sentences by nine years old is another sign.

relate some tips for special and general educators who collaborate in classrooms to make the most of their co-teaching in meeting student needs

Regardless of which co-teacher is leading a lesson/activity at the time, both should be actively interacting with students, which includes physical movement: one's viewpoint is narrowed when sitting at one's desk/in a classroom corner, whereas moving about enables a global view. Co-teachers should determine shared organizational goals and periodically review these. During the school year, considering organization is often sacrificed under time pressures; however, small enhancements in organization can have major influences. Co-teachers can examine their total classroom environment for smooth flow of activities and how well students stay organized. Special educators can contribute techniques to establish regular external structures for students with deficits in executive functioning who do not generate such structure internally. They can help general education teachers with monitoring students and supporting their organizational needs through simple structures incorporating task analysis for following step-by-step routines, visual cues, and instruction in self-monitoring routines. Co-teachers should reflect on their entire process, analyze it, and respond. They can experiment with co-teaching methods they could not use individually.

briefly define the assessment terminology of reliability and validity, and explain the difference between the two. name three subtypes of reliability and five subtypes of validity

Reliability is consistency of an assessment instrument's data across repeated administrations. For example, reliable test scores are similar when the same test-taker is given the test two/three times at two-week intervals. Internal consistency reliability is consistency of test items with one another by measuring the same quantity/construct. Inter-rater consistency is reliability among individuals scoring the same test. Intra-rater consistency is an individual's consistency in rating responses to various test items. Validity is whether a test measures what it claims/intends to measure. Content validity means a test includes items representing the complete range of possible terms. Construct validity means a test's cores measure the construct they are meant to measure, like intelligence. Criterion validity means a test's scores effectively measure a construct according to established criteria. Concurrent validity, a type of criterion validity, means a test measures the criterion and the construct at the same time. Predictive validity, another type of criterion validity, means test scores effectively predict future outcomes, as when aptitude tests predict future subject grades.

describe some strategies for special educators to reflect on their own effectiveness in their work

Research finds viewing video recordings of their teaching practices in combination with collaborative professional development courses and activities helps teachers enhance and change their practices. In one pilot study (Osipova, et al, 2011) teachers viewed many video recordings of themselves teaching throughout the school year. They self-reflected, noting what they did effectively, generating suggestions for future teaching, and rating their instruction. The researchers found this process altered teachers' initial self-reflections overestimating their practices to more critical self-examinations. It changed teachers' self-reflection comments, vague at first, to more specific description. Teachers particularly realized they attended to certain students and not others. Because not all teachers apply what they learn in professional development to their classroom practices, researchers find guided/coached critical self-reflection instrumental for changing teacher beliefs about learning and teaching, which are frequently unspoken and even unconscious. Teachers are more likely to change their practices one they change their beliefs, and also when they view themselves as learners. Video self-reflection affords self-analyses with multiple foci, and also repeated self-analyses of teaching practices.

identify a few sources of variation in the impact of disabilities on families. identify some general negative and positive outcomes for families with disabled members

Research shows the functioning and health of family members can be compromised by disability's additional demands. This includes elevated risks of behavioral and psychological symptoms in other family members. Despite this greater risk, studies also find that the majority of children and adults in families with a disabled member do not demonstrate such behavioral or psychological problems. This is attributed to the family members' adaptive abilities: they find and apply various coping skills to address the additional stressed caused in their life by the disability. Even though having a disabled member can cause families to experience grief, fatigue, depletion of resources, and other stressors, many families have also reported experiencing greater family closeness, acceptance of other people, new friendships, deepened spiritual faith, greater self-efficacy and sense of competence, more respect for life, and becoming stronger as a family. Thus, both negative and positive consequences are associated with having a family member with a disability.

discuss some differential impacts of children's cognitive or intellectual disabilities on their families

Research studies have show that families appear to have more difficulty coping with cognitive or intellectual disabilities. Mental impairments can limit the disabled member's ability to assume responsible roles or to live independently, and/or increase the demands on families to be more vigilant to protect the disabled member. In cases of severe or profound intellectual disability, families may experience additional stress caused by boundary ambiguity- i.e., the disparity between the disabled member's physical and psychological presence makes their membership in the family unclear to the other members, as the disabled member is present as a part of the family in some ways, but in other ways is absent or only partially present. The ambiguity of this situation causes families more stress, as it can be more difficult for them to plan the roles of other family members when they do not know what they can expect.

discuss how some factors related to teacher attitudes and behaviors interact with student attitudes and behaviors, and how these affect student achievement outcomes

Research studies show that when teachers establish supportive relationships with their students; communicate clearly and consistently enforce high expectations of their students academically and behaviorally; and deliver a high quality of pedagogy and instruction to their students, the students are more likely to develop attitudes and behaviors of engagement in their learning, and perceptions of their own academic competence. These student attitudes and behaviors are found in turn to augment student achievement in key academic areas like reading and math. Experts define students' engagement as how much inherent interest they demonstrate in school, and the quantity and quality of their participation in schoolwork. This engagement and participation include both attitudes, like positive values about learning, motivation, interest, enthusiasm, and pride in succeeding, and also behaviors like attention, effort, and persistence. Therefore, students who are engaged pursue activities in and out of classrooms that further learning and/or succeeding. Additionally, they demonstrate curiosity, desire for more knowledge, and emotionally positive responses to school and learning.

comment on some considerations for educators regarding their expectations and student behavior, using urban educational settings as an example

Researchers have found that teachers are often unprepared for problem behaviors from both nondisabled and disabled students in urban school settings. Some reasons for such problem behaviors include the higher proportions in urban school populations of students from lower socioeconomic levels; of students from families who do not speak English; and of students with special needs. Some researchers have experimented with elementary-level urban schools by introducing a "good behavior" game. Teachers were directed to identify acceptable and unacceptable behaviors clearly to their students. Then they were to observe the students during specified periods of time and count the numbers of unacceptable behaviors. The individual student or group of student receiving the smallest number of recorded unacceptable behaviors would win the game. The researchers found that using this technique both increased on-task behaviors and decreased disruptive behaviors in the students. This approach is considered to be generalizable to schools in nonurban settings.

define the school-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) program/system. identify six main principles that guide how these programs are structured. also identify four elements of SWPBS

SWPBS is not a practice, intervention, or curriculum per se. It is rather an operating framework for decision making, toward the goal of assuring access for all students to the most effective possible teaching and behavioral interventions and practices. It guides a school's choice, integration, and application of evidence-based best practice to realize all students' best academic and behavioral outcomes. Six principles guiding SWPBS are: establishing a continuum of behavioral and academic supports and interventions based on science; utilizing real data for problem solving and decision making; organizing environments to prevent problem behaviors form occurring or developing; encouraging and teaching pro-social behaviors and skills; accountability and fidelity in implementing evidence-based behavioral practices; and universal screening and continuous monitoring of student performance and progress. Four interrelated elements of SWPBS are: data for making decisions; measurable outcomes, which data evaluate and support; practices backed by evidence they attain from the outcomes; and systems that support implementing the practices with effectiveness and efficiency.

summarize the levels of behavior support and intervention for all students and students with disabilities in a typical school-wide positive behavioral support system

School-wide positive behavioral support programs are typically divided into tiers along a continuum, based on how students respond behaviorally to intervention. In the first tier, all students in the school/system/district are given positive behavioral supports, such as giving positive rewards to reinforce exemplary and acceptable academic and social behaviors, which are implemented by all staff members in all school settings. This universal tier is known as primary prevention. The second tier of secondary prevention is for students whose behaviors do not respond to the behavioral supports given in the first tier, putting them at risk for disciplinary issues. These students are placed in a specialized group, where they receive more intensive behavioral measures. The third tier of tertiary prevention is for students identifies as being at high risk of antisocial behaviors resulting in disciplinary problems and possible harm to themselves and/or others. These students receive individualized behavior management plans that are the most specialized and utilize the most intensive interventions.

discuss several aspects of the screening process as a part of the overall process of identifying students who need special education services. include some characteristics of school-based screenings

Screening is the important first step of the assessment process mandated by federal laws. All newborns should be screened for developmental disabilities, and children should continue to be screened through early childhood, preschool, and school years. While more obvious disabilities like spina bifida, cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, autism, multiple disabilities, or severe sensory impairment are detected early, others like learning disabilities, ADHD, and some behavior disorders often go unidentified until school. Public schools typically conduct periodic screenings of large student groups from grades K-3. Very low standardized achievement test scores can lead to referral for formal evaluation- only with written parental consent- to identify possible disabilities. Also, students' parents, teachers, and other school staff may identify students with suspected disabilities, as when they evidence behavioral or academic difficulties in classrooms. Some students are not identifies with disabilities until higher grades, due to ineffective screening, referral, assessment, and/or identification procedures; to disabilities acquired later through injury, illness, etc.; or to problems not apparent until school demands surpass student coping skills.

differentiate between the meanings of sensitivity and specificity with regard to educational testing. summarize the purpose and procedure of the KR20 formula with educational assessment instruments

Sensitivity refers to how well a test identifies every member of a defined group. The more sensitive a test is, the more likely it can include some individuals who should not be in that group. Specificity refers to how well a test identifies only those members of a defined group. The more specific a test is, the more likely it may omit some individuals who should be included in that group. Among many KR formulas used to estimate statistically a test's reliability or consistency, the KR20 is one that assumes the relative difficulty of items on a test, and the correlations among those items, are basically equal. The KR20 formula deducts the variances of all individual test items from the total test's variance, which produces an estimate of the test's internal consistency reliability. When a test has items of dissimilar difficulty, the Horst's modification can be used to correct for this by estimating the maximal variance possible within a given range of item difficulties for that test.

describe the procedure used in the Hofstee method to determine the cut score for a particular assessment instrument

Several methods have been developed to set a cut score, the score above which all scores are passing and below which all scores are failing, for a particular test with a multiple choice format. The Hofstee method is also called the compromise method. It addresses the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests, i.e., tests that compare individual student scores to the average scores of a normative sample of students found representative of the larger population versus tests that compare student scores to a pre-established criterion of achievement. Educators estimate an acceptable number of students who would fail the test and the largest number of test items a student who fails the test would answer correctly. They then plot the answers to this number of items plus two more on the cumulative score distribution. This allows them to determine how many items students could miss and how many failed test items would affect the number of students who could fail.

identify some common subjects taught in school-to-work (STW) curricula. identify a number of ways wherein students with disabilities can acquire vocational experience and training through opportunities connecting school and work

Some common STW curriculum subjects include employment-related functional academics; independent living skills; and interpersonal skills; since social skills are critical for nondisabled and disabled workers alike to get and keep jobs. Many opportunities connect schools with work so students gain employment experience. Students can get unpaid/paid work experience through internships, structured for practically applying academic knowledge in jobs; job shadowing in one-day workplace visits and observing an employee in a specific job; or adult mentors, who serve as role models by communicating information about workplace norms, giving consistent, caring guidance and support, reviewing progress regularly, and establishing high expectations. Co-op programs combine technical and career classwork with part-time work during school years, with expectations for employers to provide and students to learn defined in training agreements. Community members visit schools on Career Days to share their experiences with interested students. Teachers can learn of academic job preparation through unpaid/paid workplace programs. Additional opportunities include apprenticeships, on-the-job training, field trips, class speakers, school-sponsored enterprises, and health care "clinicals."

relate some instructional considerations related to communication skills for teachers, including ESL teachers, when their classrooms include deaf and hard-of-hearing students

Some deaf/hard-of-hearing students learn written English and speech reading to understand hearing people, but communicate using sign language and do not learn speech. Others want to learn speech and have pronunciation difficulties due to their hearing loss. For students who want to use spoken English, teachers can find technological help. For example, microphones equipped with FM systems not only amplify speech sounds, but also send them directly to the student's hearing aids. Teachers can also repeat what other students say if they are out of microphone range, which benefits all students. For deaf students who communicate using sign language, teachers can engage the services of sign language interpreters; they can additionally learn several simpler signs themselves to facilitate basic communication with these students. Interpreting can be challenging for international students, because sign language is not universal and varies among countries. In this case, speech-to-text services may be better. Teachers should always directly address the student rather than the sign language interpreter/STT assistant.

give some examples of a couple of strategies teachers can use to engage disabled and younger students in paying attention to directions

Some experienced teachers use techniques like rhythmic clapping and/or chanting to engage student attention. For example, the teacher demonstrates a loud, rhythmic hand clap and tells the students that when they hear the teacher do this, they should stop what they are doing and imitate the hand clap. The teacher tells the students that the hand clap means the teacher has something important to share with them and to copy clapping when the teacher's hands go down, and the teacher will know they are done when they make eye contact (or perform an agreed-upon alternative if the student is autistic or blind). Teachers can chant directions, like "If you hear me, put your hands on your shoulders. If you hear me, put your hands on your hips. If you hear me, put your hands on your tummy." Teachers enhance students' attention by modulating their voices. For students who do not pay attention, teachers instruct them aloud to be sure their hands are empty and they are looking at the teacher's eyes. Teachers may need to wait for all students to focus.

explain some ways that high school teachers can motivate teens to read, especially students with reading-related learning disabilities, ESL/ELL status, and others having literacy difficulties

Some high school teachers experienced in teaching teens who struggle with reading meet such challenges by getting students excited about reading. They find books their students can relate to and enjoy, and they can begin the school year by reading these books aloud to students. Only after they have stimulated student enjoyment and enthusiasm for reading do they assess students' current reading levels, using instruments like the Scholastic Reading Inventory. Teachers can use a Book Pass activity to help students become familiar with books in their class library and select books with topics interesting to them at suitable levels for independent reading. Small groups (like five each) designate one student timekeeper. Seated in circles, each group member previews the front and back of the book and begins reading that book. The timekeeper announces when 2 to 3 minutes elapse; students write down the book title, pages read, comments, and whether they would like reading it further. Students then pass the books to their right, repeating with another book. They finish with group sharing of individual book comments.

paraphrase some standards for the credentials and employment of special education professionals

Some of the Council for Exceptional Children practice standards for special education professionals in credentials and employment include: represent oneself accurately, legally, and ethically regarding their expertise and knowledge to prospective employers; assure that those representing themselves and/or practicing as special education administrators, teachers, and related service providers have the qualifications of professional credentials; operate within their limits of professional skills and knowledge, and appropriately seek consultation and/or support form sources outside themselves as necessary; comply with contractual terms of employment; comply with policies and contracts of local education agencies for notifying them when terminating their positions; advocate for supportive and suitable educational conditions, and for staffing resources sufficient to keep absences of support staff or substitute teachers from causing special education services to be denied; and get professional help for personal problems affecting work performance.

describe some ways that a teacher can specifically communicate their expectations of students and regular routines to their students for learning, behavior, and self-management

Some schools use acronyms like BEST, representing Be respectful, Enjoy learning, Stay safe, and Totally responsible, to help students remember these principles. Some teachers have students negotiate their classroom expectations, keeping them generally consistent with school expectations, and on reaching consensus, they display pictures and words on the walls reflecting these. They also discuss choices and how expectations keep everyone safe. They set routines, posting their daily schedule on the wall and discussing it. Some teachers institute weekly lessons involving behavioral tasks explicitly teaching behavioral expectations aligned with school values, and they post these on the wall. Some teachers use a token economy. For example, each student gets a smiley face on a chart for making good choices; upon accumulating 10, the student can select a prize, which the teacher reports schoolwide to record all recognition of positive behaviors. When students do not meet expectations, some teachers explicitly model and teach expected behavior, like teaching how to apologize sincerely for hitting/kicking, with the victim choosing whether to accept the apology.

describe some examples of the accommodations that may be allowed in some U.S. states for modified assessments of students with special needs on standardized tests

Some states allow students to mark their test responses in their test booklets, and then the school personnel transfer these onto the standardized answer form used by other students to be electronically scored. For students with vision, hearing, manual, or motor impairments, they may dictate their responses to multiple choice test items aloud or in American Sign Language (ASL) or Manually Coded English (MCE) to a designated scribe who writes, types, or fills in bubbles, circle choices, or otherwise marks the student's answers on a form. For essay questions, some students may be permitted to use word processing software programs, with the spell-check and grammar-check features disabled. Other students may be allowed to dictate their essay answers orally to a voice recorder or scribe, or manually in sign language to an interpreter/scribe, or using speech-to-text computer software. In these cases, students supply all writing conventions of spelling and grammar in their dictation. Assistive devices that allow independent student work may be used.

describe several examples of unusual or unique accommodations required by some students with disabilities to participate in state testing that are not already identified by their state's education department

Some students can have disabilities that necessitate more unusual accommodations in order to participate in state standardized achievement testing. Testing accommodations identified as unique usually entail some changes in the existing assessment materials. Typically, states allow such unique assessment accommodations if their Commissioner of Education has previously approved their use. Parents and teachers can look to the program of educational services to exceptional students in their school district to assist them with making a request for approval of such accommodations. Several examples of unique or unusual accommodations that may be approved for students with disabilities to participate in standardized assessments include: test forms with fewer items on each page; test forms with modified or tabbed pages to enable students to turn pages more easily; and having test question and response forms attached to the student's work area to prevent their falling, sliding, or shifting to facilitate reading and writing or marking on them.

discuss some considerations for teachers working to further communication skills when their classes include students with chronic health and mental health disabilities

Some students have different conditions like diabetes, asthma, seizure disorder, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or bipolar disorder. Individual differences in symptoms complicate such chronic disabilities. Due to the condition, medication side effects, and/or the environment, students may feel/perform better/worse at certain times of the day/on certain days. This can influence attendance, attention, and memory. Teachers should permit students flexibility in taking breaks, extend time for finishing assignments, allow note-takers, adjust schedules, and let students make up missed tests as necessary. Some students with chronic conditions need rest at home for days/weeks, but may be able to study and do homework there. Teachers can design and adhere to a good syllabus to inform students of what to do if they miss class. Some students have sensitivities to sensory stimuli like temperature changes, lights, or sounds, or they have other conditions affecting classroom participation and/or social interactions. Teachers should make time to acquaint themselves with each student's unique circumstances and which accommodations help them most.

describe some strategies that teachers can use in teaching communication skills to students' with speech disabilities who are included in their classrooms

Some students have difficulty controlling their speech muscles secondary to cerebral palsy; some progressive illnesses cause speech problems; and traumatic brain injuries can cause aphasia, a language processing problem. Some students stutter, and some have voice disorders secondary to cleft palate/lip, vocal nodules/polyps, etc. Students who cannot speak functionally use electronic voice synthesizers or visual-manual communication boards/books. Others can speak, but less quickly, clearly, and/or fluently than others. Many students have milder articulation disorders that affect their communication. Teachers not understanding a student should not say/pretend they do, but allow them to repeat; they are accustomed to it. Teachers should not finish their sentences for them, but give them time for self-expression, promoting self-confidence. Teachers must adjust their expectations for oral assignments/tests. They can also seek alternative means for students to attain class goals, like hand-raising, writing, or group-texting question answers and slower discussion speeds. For students with communications assistants, teachers should address the student, not the assistant.

relate some recommended strategies for teachers to accommodate students with disabilities in the areas of adapting class schedules and time constraints

Some students who have disabilities can handle the same course content as their peers, but they need more time to do so, or they need their work to be broken up into shorter time periods with breaks in between. Some students with disabilities suffer deterioration in their performance when they feel pressured by time limits. Some also require more time to complete assignments and assessments due to the adaptive equipment they must use in order to participate. Some strategies teachers can use include keeping schedules flexible to allow students with disabilities more time to finish a course. This can include completing the requirements in summer school. Teachers can allow students with disabilities extra time to complete their classwork and take tests. They can assign work further in advance to allow students with disabilities a chance to begin their assignments earlier. Teachers can also supply students with clear schedules of all units, assignments, and tests, and include periodic checkpoints within these schedules to help students monitor their progress.

describe a few problems that students with disabilities may encounter in learning mathematical concepts and processes. identify a few accommodations that educators can use to help in this area

Some students who have various disabilities have deficient ski lls in basic arithmetic and may sti ll depend on counting on their fingers longer than is typical. Some students with disabilities have major problems with remembering fundamental facts related to math. For students who have trouble with understanding mathematical concepts and solving math problems, teachers can provide accommodations such as giving them concrete objects and materials to assist in learning math concepts. Many students who cannot understand abstract ideas solely through mental processes can succeed better when they can process them using concrete, tangible things they can see, touch, and manipulate. Teachers can also highlight or color-code the important words in mathematical word problems for students. They can allow students to utilize charts to plan how they solve math problems. And they can permit students to use basic fact charts and/or calculators to follow formulas and compute numbers for solving math problems.

summarize some highlights in the ancient history and history of the philosophy of special education

Special education is a relatively new development in human history. Historically, people with disabilities received little or no education and were frequently placed into asylums or hospitals. The ancient Greek and Roman civilizations viewed disability as an evil omen, punishment from the gods. They viewed people as unable to change. Plato and Aristotle recommended euthanizing disabled infants. Cicero cited need for military superiority as a reason to rid society of "defectives." The city/state took charge of soldiers disabled by combat. Due to ancient Greek and Roman philosophies, children born with disabilities were often drowned, "dashed against the rocks" as Homer described, thrown off cliffs, left to die on hilltops, chained up, or locked away. And fathers had the right to end a disabled child's life. The Old Testament states views that God created man in his own image and referred to disability as an "impurity." The disabled were banned from sacred locations. In the New Testament, Jesus healed the disabled, emphasizing their need for help and the helper's winning salvation.

describe some things that students with disabilities need to learn and demonstrate that constitute socially responsible behavior and some ways teachers can help them learn these

Some students with cognitive disabilities may not have a good sense of personal possessions and boundaries. Consequently, they may take others' belongings; not take turns with others; or go ahead of others in lines. One facet of socially responsible behavior is respecting others' property and rights. Teachers can point out other students' showing such respect; explicitly show intellectually disabled students how to do the same; and give ample positive reinforcement whenever they do. Students with behavior disorders like Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) may defy/ignore authority and directions. Teachers can establish behavioral contracts with them whereby they gain rewards meaningful to them for complying with clearly defined terms of what to do and not do. Students with ADHD easily act on impulse and become distracted, interfering with hearing and following directions. Behavior modification techniques or cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), sometimes in conjunction with medication, can help. Students also must learn to recognize valuable personal characteristics (like honesty, kindness, or bravery); their personal roles in society; and social etiquette and proper behavior in public.

describe some sources of difficulty for students with disabilities in completing assigned work, and some accommodations teachers can provide to assist them

Some students with disabilities can do the same work as others, but slower. This can cause them to run out of time to finish assignments. Other students have trouble remembering to assemble the materials and resources they need to complete assignments. For students who have trouble keeping track of their class assignments, teachers can provide accommodations by dividing longer assignments into portions and giving students separate due dates for each portion. Teachers can instruct students to mark their assignments' due dates on a calendar they can see. To accommodate students who work more slowly that others, teacher can assign a smaller total amount of work, while ensuring that the items or tasks they choose are those necessary for meeting all the learning objectives they have identified. Teachers can allow these students to use instructional materials and resources outside of class. Until students can complete assignments on time, teachers can provide them with reinforcement via partial credit for incomplete or late work.

explain about some accommodations to make in school for students with disabilities if they have difficulty with self-control of their behavior

Some students with disabilities can require alterations in the learning environment to assist them in managing their behavior. For some, behavior management plans and/or counseling services may be required. There are also classroom accommodations educators can make for students whether or not they have such behavior management plans and/or counseling services. For example, teachers can let students use study carrels or other enclosures to work independently with less distraction. Teachers can assign work that students are able to finish in shorter time durations. Teachers can also allow students to use timers to help them monitor how much time they have to finish assignments and how much more time they need to complete their work. For students needing structure to promote behavioral self-control, teachers can positively reinforce following classroom rules, list consequences for breaking rules, and ensure students' knowledge of rules and consequences.

discuss some accommodations that teachers can make for students with disabilities who have trouble attending, following concepts, and interpreting information that is delivered via oral presentation, as in lectures and discussions

Some students with disabilities have trouble deciphering what they are meant to learn from an oral lecture of discussion on an academic topic. Teachers can make such accommodations as visual aids, like supporting their oral presentations with overhead projectors, large charts, or blackboards. They can give students an overview of a lesson's content before presenting it, and also introduce students to new vocabulary words prior to the lesson. Immediately following an oral lesson or lecture, teachers can give a printed summary of its important points, accompanied by a list of questions for them to answer. To help students with difficulties following ideas in oral lectures and discussions, teachers can break up lectures with discussions or other activities in small groups, and also maintain student engagement by inviting their questions. They can identify the primary parts of steps in the information. They can write important ideas on chalkboards/whiteboards, emphasizing parts using different colors.

describe some testing accommodations that can be allowed for students with disabilities related to the test schedule for typical state standardized tests and a couple for classroom assessments

Some students with disabilities need additional time to finish taking a test. Students who work very slowly, those who can work for only briefer periods at a time, and those using certain types of assistive technology may need alterations in testing schedules. Accommodations when administering typical state standardized tests include allowing longer times for students to take the test; dividing a test into smaller portions and allowing students to take each portion on a different day if necessary; permitting students to take short breaks during the testing period; and allowing students to take a test at different times of day if physical conditions and/or medications affect their alertness and attention. Teachers may provide additional accommodations not allowed on standardized tests for classroom assessments. For example, the teacher can give disabled students fewer test questions, as long as they cover all the same skills and content being assessed. Teachers may also let students review and correct their test answers from the day before.

discuss some accommodations that students with special needs may require for taking tests related to the setting of the assessment, including an important assessment consideration related to assistive technology

Some students with special needs are so easily distracted that they cannot perform to their ability if they take a test in a large group. Accommodations to address this problem include administering the test to the student in isolation or in a smaller group; allowing the student to take the test in a study carrel or other enclosure; or having the student take the test in another room free of distractions. Other students have physical or sensory disabilities that have an impact on their ability to take a test. In such cases, schools and teachers need to allow these students to use whatever adaptive equipment or furniture they require to be able to participate in the assessment. One important consideration in allowing the use of assistive technology is that it does not alter the performance of the actual skills being tested. For example, if a test measures skills in reading printed language, a student could not use text-to-speech software for that particular test.

discuss some general aspects of professional development for special education professionals

Special education professionals cannot allow their training, knowledge, and expertise to remain at the same level throughout their working lives as when they received their degrees and certification and began working. They must continually update, improve, and expand their skills, both to remain current in this dynamic, changing profession and to grow as educators. Special education professionals acquire and apply knowledge about developmental levels and readiness for various instructional interventions. They learn about research evidence-based instructional strategies, and then apply these for teaching fundamental skills in literacy and numeracy to students with special needs. They know how to individualize their instruction for each student and they continue to learn new strategies and techniques to improve this individualization process. They assess student progress on an ongoing basis and refine their assessment techniques to increase their accuracy and applications to adjustments and modifications in their instructional approaches. They make use of data and continually inform themselves of newer data from emergent research to apply to their problem-solving endeavors. They prepare students to become independent.

describe some common medical needs of students with spina bifida

Spina bifida is a neural tube defect: the neural tube that becomes the baby's brain, spinal cord, and enclosing tissues does not close completely. Of its several types, spina bifida occulta frequently needs no treatment. Spina bifida meningocele requires surgery to replace the meninges back into the spinal column and close the vertebral opening. Spina bifida myelomeningocele needs surgery within 24 to 48 hours of birth to lessen infection risk and protect the spinal cord from further trauma. Surgeons sometimes install a shunt in the infant's brain during surgery to control hydrocephalus, a buildup of fluid in the brain. Fetal surgery, before 26 weeks of gestation, reduces children's needs for brain shunts, crutches/walkers/braces, etc., but it is risky for mothers and highly elevates premature birth risk. Despite early surgery, children with myelomeningocele often have lower-body paralysis and bladder and bowel problems. Treatment includes exercises preparing for later assisted walking. Myelomeningocele complications include tethered spinal cord from postoperative scar tissue, inhibiting growth. Surgery can restore some function and mitigate the extent of disability.

explain what the standard deviation is and how it relates to assessment results. include the formula for calculating the standard deviation. define the standard score. define what a scaled score is and give an example

Standard deviation measures variability within a set of numbers. In interpreting assessment results, it measures how much scores among a group of test-takers vary around the mean/average. For example, a bell curve shows a normal distribution of test scores: the high center represents the majority of scores closest to the mean, while the lower sides represent standard deviations above and below it. SD is calculated by obtaining the square root of the sum of deviations of each score and the mean, and dividing this figure by the number of scores in the group. The standard score, or z score, represents the amount whereby an individual score deviates from the mean, measured in SDs. For example, a common SD unit for IQ tests is 15 where the mean is 100. A scaled score is obtained by converting a group of test scores to a scale/distribution with a designated mean and SD. For example, the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) has a mean of 200 and a SD of 20.

explain the meaning and purpose of the term Confidence Interval with respect to educational assessment and give an example

Statisticians use the Confidence Interval to express the range wherein a "true" or "real" score is situated. The purpose is to acknowledge and address the fact that the measurement of a student's performance contains "noise," i.e., interfering/confounding variables that influence the measure of pure ability/achievement, akin to static in a radio, phone, or other sound signal. Giving a Confidence Interval shows the probability that a student's true score is within the range defined by that interval. For example, a student might take a test and receive a score of 80%. If that student took several other similar tests, most likely the student's scores would not all be exactly 80%; they would be similar, but vary. The assessors might give a Confidence Interval of +2 Standard Deviations, 95% of the time. Computing Confidence Intervals does not use Standard Scores (z scores), but literal scores to show the upper and lower limits of the range of likely scores.

discuss some ways the technology enabling ePortfolios and social networks supports the educational, psychological, and social goals of autonomy, mastery, and purpose

Students can be internally motivated (intrinsically, self-directed by inner goals) or externally motivated (extrinsically) by outer rewards. ePortfolios enabled by technology can support students' internal motivation and autonomy by establishing online environments wherein others feel good about participating, keeping systems relatively open, and giving users freedom to participate. Social networks support student autonomy by giving them choices and voices in the content they post and view; opportunities to share and give feedback; and far greater immediacy in all of their interactions. Students can experience academic and personal mastery through social networking, which affords the motivational factors of what Csikszentmihályi called "flow" (energized, positive, task-aligned, spontaneous, single-minded, focused, immersed, joyful, deep, and total engagement in an activity); the ability to showcase their achievements; and the benefits of enhanced self-insight and self-awareness. Via choice and personalization, students find their passions and voices. Constructing ePortfolios also helps students develop senses of purpose by engaging in something beyond themselves, understanding the relevance of what they learn, and seeing the "big picture."

define the terms "Discrimination Index" and "Difficulty Index" relative to educational assessment

The discrimination index is a measure of how well a specific test item can separate students who generally score high on the test from students who generally score low on it. Educators obtain a point biserial correlation between high total scores and low total scores with correct or incorrect item responses. Typically, they use total test scores to select the top 27% and bottom 27% of test takers to magnify the variation between high and low test performance. When analyzing standardized, norm-referenced tests, the preferred discrimination index is .50. The difficulty index is a simple measure of how difficult a test item is considered. It is obtained by calculating the percentage of all students taking a test who answered a certain test item correctly.

describe some variations some U.S. states allow in administering standardized tests using modified assessment procedures for students who are English language learners (ELLs) or learning English as a second language (ESL)

Students whose native language is not English are allowed some variations by the U.S. states to participate in standardized testing in the English language on a more equable footing with native English speakers. For example, they may hear the printed test instructions translated into their native language and read aloud. They may be allowed to ask questions in their native language to clarify test instructions. ESL/ELL students may be granted additional, supervised breaks during a testing day or test portion, providing they complete the portion within the testing day. (Standardized tests typically display a "STOP" sign to indicate the ends of test portions.) Students learning English may be allowed to take tests separately in groups with other ELL/ESL students, under supervision by school personnel cleared for test security, particularly if their regular instruction and/or testing have included similar flexibility. ELL/ESL students taking math and science tests may be permitted access to word lists or glossaries translated from English to their native language, excluding formulae or definitions.

discuss some of the kinds of difficulties encountered by students with disabilities in writing for classroom assignments and assessments. identify some classroom accommodations to address motor problems with handwriting

Students with a number of different disabilities can have difficulty with the fine motor control involved in handwriting. In general, the same kinds of classroom accommodations are required to address disabled student needs for both written assignments and written tests. For example, if a student needs to complete a written assignment using a word processor, they are also going to need the word processor to complete a written test. For students having difficulties with fine motor control, teachers can allow them to write straight into their workbooks instead of on separate paper or on photocopies of the workbook pages. They can permit students to type on typewriters, word processors, or computer keyboards. They can arrange for students to dictate their assignment and/or test responses to scribes, like classmates or teaching assistants, who write down their dictations. Teachers can also allow and provide adaptive equipment for students, such as special pen/pencil holders or grips, pens with erasable ink, and special paper featuring raised/embossed lines or color-coded line ruling.

discuss some difficulties with organization encountered by students with disabilities, and some applicable accommodations teachers can provide to them

Students with attention deficits, cognitive impairments, and other disabilities can be distracted more easily than usual, causing them to confuse or forget the teacher's instructions. Students who find it hard to pay attention to more than one thing at a time frequently encounter difficulty completing complex assignments. Compounding these, some instructional materials are unclear by nature, and materials with excessive details can cause disabled students great confusion. Additionally, many disabled students have trouble storing, finding, and keeping track of classroom materials. Teachers can provide accommodations for confusion with complexity in materials and instructions by color-coding different materials or tasks to help students identify them. They should arrange tasks in clear, uncluttered formats with obvious beginning points and step sequences. To help students keep their materials organized, teachers can provide them with special binders or folders with dividers and different colors for each subject and unit. Teachers can also provide students with checklists of the materials they need for each class, which students keep in/on their binders, desks, or lockers.

describe some teaching strategies for educators to foster communication skills when their classrooms include students with cognitive and learning disabilities, including for ESL teachers

Students with learning and cognitive disabilities are increasingly common in today's classrooms and quite common in ESL classrooms where they can substantially affect how students learn English. Standard instructional methods for language are usually less effective for students with learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and various other neurological differences. Teachers are responsible for modifying their teaching styles to facilitate learning, and ESL teachers to facilitate learning a new language. In ESL, students with LDs must not only process words and symbols; they also contend with various difficulties remembering/retrieving words, articulating speech sounds, fluency, organizing thoughts, constructing sentences, and thinking abstractly. Teachers should focus not on student deficits, but strategies many students have developed independently to compensate. Teachers can provide accommodations like more time for activities and tests; note-takers; and tutors. Neurological deficits that affect social skills, as with ASD, can make group/pair activities challenging. Teachers should provide structure and lead classes deliberately, clarifying the goals and purposes of each segment of the class.

describe some accommodations in student responses to test items, including on standardized tests, which teachers can provide for students with disabilities

Students with various disabilities can have difficulty handwriting test answers, circling or checking multiple-choice answers, filling in bubbles, or solving problems and explaining their solutions. Accommodations often allowed on standardized tests in some states include giving students extra space to handwrite their answers; allowing students to answer questions orally instead of in writing, to dictate their answers into a sound recorder, or to a scribe or test proctor; or allowing the student to sign their test responses to a sign language interpreter. Students may also be permitted to use word processors or computer or typewriter keyboards to answer test questions, although state standardized tests typically prohibit their using spell check and grammar check software when typing. Students may write into their test booklets instead of on separate sheets, create Braille answers on separate paper, or record their answers using speech-to-text software programs. Students are often allowed to use outlines, charts, and/or diagrams for planning essay or open-ended question responses on tests.

give some examples of assistive technology that students with disabilities can use as accommodations to respond to assessment tests

Students with various disabilities may need assistive technology to acquire the information they are expected to learn and/or to communicate what they have learned. A long as the purpose of assessment is not defeated, the skills being assessed are not changed, and the student's responses reflect their independent efforts, students can generally use the same assistive technology they use during classroom instruction to complete assessments. For example, a student with a disability might be given an accommodation allowing them to use an adaptive calculator for solving mathematics problems on a test. Some state standardized achievement tests allow students in seventh through tenth grades to use calculators, for example. Another example involves completing answers to essay questions and/or long explanations or answers to questions on tests. Students with disabilities may be permitted to use assistive technology, such as voice recorders to dictate their responses or word processors to type them.

relate some research evidence regarding the use of text-to-speech technology for reading by students with learning disabilities. identify a few assistive technology (AT) programs for reading support

Studies suggest that reading technologies that use audio or digital formats can enhance the reading process for students with learning disabilities. When students simultaneously see words and sentences highlighted on the screens of computers, tablets, or other devices and hear them read aloud via text-to-speech (TTS) programs, this is described as "multisensory" or "multimodal" reading. With digital education widespread today, students may learn at home or while on the go as well as in the classroom. In this environment, AT programs are compatible with student learning processes. Some high-quality programs include Read Write Gold by TextHelp; Read: OutLoud by Don Johnston; and Kurzweil 300 by Cambium. For iPads and other Apple devices, the large online digital library Bookshare offers an application called Read2Go, which enables its members to download and read its digital books on their devices. GoRead is Bookshare's Android app. Students can digitally navigate through books' tables of contents, chapters, pages, and paragraphs.

describe some general examples of adaptations teachers can use to facilitate the assessment of hearing-impaired, nonverbal, and sensorimotor-impaired students

Teachers can allow students to use augmentative communication devices for receiving and responding to test stimuli. For students who use American Sign Language (ASL) or manually coded English, teachers should use these languages or have an interpreter use them instead of spoken instructions or stimuli whenever appropriate. Nonverbal students should be allowed to give test responses using vocalizations, gestures, or movements instead of speech. Some students may draw pictures instead of writing, (This can also apply to students with dyslexia.) As is appropriate, teachers may accept eye gazes as responses instead of speech or gesture. Students who wear hearing aids must wear them during assessments; teachers should check that they work first. Students with sensorimotor impairments should be given longer times to initiate responses. Teachers should accept changes in facial expressions or muscle tone as observed behaviors. Teachers should stabilize and position students to afford the most controlled possible motions. Teachers should also let students direct others to perform physical tasks.

describe some considerations for teachers in arranging their physical space to accommodate students with needs like limited mobility, ADHD, and LDs, and teaching 1:1 in small and large groups

Teachers must consider all learning community members' needs, including students, teachers, specialists, paraprofessionals, and volunteers. When community members change, last year's arrangement may not work. Teachers must also consider size and layout of their classroom/space, including attached equipment/furnishings, classroom location in the school, and instructional materials. Depending on curriculum and teaching philosophy and approach, teachers may want to arrange space for large and small groups, teams, cooperative learning groups, and individual instruction. If any students use wheelchairs, teachers must consider accommodating their movement in the room. They must consider preventing distractions for ADHD students. They may lower chalkboards, bulletin boards, and pencil sharpeners, and add bathroom grab bars for wheelchair students, and they may procure more electrical outlets for computers, language masters, and tape recorders for students with LDs or visual impairment. They may place carpet in areas for students needing to sit/lie on the floor periodically. Insurmountable obstacles may dictate extensive remodeling or relocation to different classrooms. Advance planning is hence necessary to allow budgeting and work without interrupting school-year instruction.

give some examples of how teachers can establish rapport with students in early elementary grades

Teachers report warm lighting helps create a cozy, "at-home" atmosphere. Many elementary teachers assign a theme for the school year, like bugs, birds, fish, or rocks. They display posters showing the theme, including catchphrases expressing their learning strategies; incorporate the theme in first-day handouts, student folders, and parent letters; devise activities around the theme like reading books to the class about the theme and assigning students pairs/small groups to design an original bug. On first days, teachers assign activities enabling students to move around, become comfortable with the classroom, get acquainted with each other, work collaboratively, and think creatively. They use games like searching for all classmates' names in puzzles or physically finding each classmate and collecting their signatures. Teachers use "brainteasers" to engage students in creative problem-solving. They take inventories of student interest on first days. And they assign students artistic activities- like cutting out and illustrating paper "t-shirts" identifying their preferences, interests, future dreams, past experiences, and adjectives describing themselves.

discuss some teacher considerations regarding instruction for differentiated group sizes, separating areas, guiding traffic, and compensating for less than ideal classroom locations

Teachers should allocate areas within their classroom for individualized teaching, and also small and large groups. The teacher and/or learning specialist might need a small group instruction space. Teaching stations, learning centers, and areas for partner/pair work are good whenever possible. Teachers need to separate/designate noisy and quiet areas, and spaces free of distractions. Wheelchairs require at least 36'' to maneuver. Student coats and backpacks must be placed to avoid blocking traffic. Some experts suggest having students turn their desks so the lids open away from them, to keep them from accumulating unwanted/forgotten things inside. If a classroom faces the playground, a busy road, student cafeteria lines, and/or steady streams of traffic- especially since classroom relocation, even when available, can take extreme effort and a lot of time- teachers can adapt existing spaces by putting curtains over windows, closing the door, and hanging visual displays from the ceiling that absorb sound.

describe some teaching strategies educators can use to improve communication ski lls in classrooms with deaf/hard-of-hearing students

Teachers should seek means of utilizing visual aids as supplements to all their lessons. They should wait to allow time for students to view both the signs of a sign language interpreter or the text of speech-to-text software programs, and also the visual aid the teacher presents. Teachers should be mindful whether they are standing between the student and interpreter. Teachers can also use color-coding, e.g., different pen colors to represent different parts of a sentence- like red for subjects or blue for verbs. They can use geometric shapes to adapt concepts visually and use their fingers to represent different subjects or different tenses when conjugating verbs. Since some deaf/hard-of-hearing students speech read, teachers should not stand in front of windows or other places that interfere with this. Seating in front of the room or circular seating wherein students can see both the teacher and classmates can help hearing-impaired students always see who is speaking. Decreasing background noise from open windows, large groups, fans, or cross-talk helps students follow class discussions.

discuss some recent and current trends in the special education field related to technology, inclusion, and early intervention

Technological progress has afforded increased opportunities for both students and teachers in special education. Computer software programs enable students with speech and language and visual disabilities to convert text to speech; hearing-impaired students to convert speech to text; and ESL students to read translations in their native languages. Websites offer students more independent schoolwork at their own pace; multimodal presentations for LD students; and the ability for ADHD students to alternate among shorter units and topics. Students with auditory processing difficulties, and teachers needing more instructional materials, can access more graphic/visual stimuli online. The internet also facilitates student/parent/teacher access to advocates, support groups, and organizations. Trends are increasingly toward inclusion, with students more mainstreamed than ever. Special classes and schools exist when needs require/parents prefer, but the IDEA's LRE requirement moves more students into regular education classes/curricula/schools. Whereas learning disabilities were previously identified and services recommended in upper elementary grades or later, today screening, assessment, identification, and intervention are advised by early childhood or even earlier.

identify a principle related to behavior management in special education. discuss some ethical considerations regarding behavior management in special education

The Council for Exceptional Children's Code of Ethics states this principle: "Special education professionals participate with other professionals and... parents in an interdisciplinary effort in the management of behavior." No one approach works with all students in all situations. While classroom management interventions may be ideally designed and implemented, not addressing individual children's needs and wants limits their effects. Hence one/several students in a class/setting may need behavior management strategies targeting specific behaviors. Cognitive interventions can affect emotional behaviors and psychomotor interventions can influence cognitive and affective development. Educators, parents, and others frequently ask about changing individual and group student behaviors; whether to punish or ignore behaviors; whether to discuss behaviors with students; and whether interventions are ethical, harmful, or effective. CEC suggests an educator activity like the following. Small groups list target behaviors and individual/group interventions, discussing whether these treat students with dignity, teach new skills, and support/need environmental analysis; whether student responses are clear to everybody, including students; whether educators respond sequentially to target behaviors (e.g., the second time a behavior occurs).

discuss some considerations for educators related to prioritizing areas of the general education curriculum for students with disabilities

The IDEA and NCLB require all students' access to general education curriculum. Educators can help disabled students by connecting academic content to real-life activities. Achievement standards include the same academic content, but utilize alternate performance indicators fitting content standards for reading and math. While alternative assessment methods and definitions of achievement standards vary considerably across states, educators in all states must provide instruction effective in helping students with disabilities meet standards. Teachers in some states select which responses are assessed to document progress toward state standards- e.g., portfolio assessments; specific choice making; sight words; task analyses; generalized responses, like requests; problem-solving; and self-initiation responses. Systematic prompting with feedback, reinforcement, correction, and fading is an instructional support method. In general education settings, systematic instruction to small mixed-ability groups; cooperative learning groups; trials embedded in general education lectures/lessons; observational learning; peer tutors; and self-instruction and problem-solving materials are options. Assistive technology aids symbol use, and can reduce behavior problems and increase social interaction. Special and general educator planning collaboration is vital.

identify how federal laws regarding students with disabilities address physical education and how they define physical education. summarize the LRE requirement relative to physical education

The IDEA and other federal legislation for students with disabilities mandate that these students be provided physical education. Federal law defines physical education as the development of physical and motor ski lls; fundamental motor ski lls and patterns like catching, throwing, walking, running, etc.; and ski lls in individual and group sports, including intramural and lifetime sports, and in dance and aquatics. The IDEA mandates instruction in the least restrictive environment (LRE) possible. Regarding PE, this involves adaptations and/or modifications to curriculum and/or instruction as it does regarding academic education. In PE, adaptations/modifications assure each student's success in a safe environment. A student's IEP defines placement, which can include one or several options among the general physical education setting alone; this setting but with aid from teaching assistants or peers; a separate PE class setting with peers; a separate PE class setting with assistants; and/or settings with 1:1 student-instructor activities.

expand the acronym NIMAS. explain its relation to the federal special education law and its purpose, and some implications for parents of students with learning disabilities

The IDEA incorporates the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard or NIMAS. The stated purpose of this standard is to "facilitate the provision of accessible, alternate-format versions of print textbooks to pre-K-12 students with disabilities." This standard provides information to assist school IEP teams in deciding how they can electronically provide access to textbooks and other reading materials to students who have dyslexia and other LDs with reading. Parents who have children with reading disabilities should look at their children's IEPs and/or 504 plans to discover whether they contain anything about eligibility for accessible instructional materials, or AIM. If a student was determined not to be eligible for AIM, parents have the legal right to talk with their school personnel about why not. Parents can advocate for their children with schools by initiating conversations about how their children learn best, and how alternative formats, digital software, and/or readers can sometimes strikingly improve their learning and their motivation and confidence in it.

discuss some general criteria for setting postsecondary transition goals for students with disabilities

The IDEA requires all students with disabilities to have postsecondary transition plans included in their IEPs when they are age 16 and older. When setting goals for students with disabilities to make transitions from school to work, job training, and/or higher education, and community living, a few general criteria include that the goals should reflect expectations that are both high and realistic for the student. These goals should also reflect an approach for some kind of forward progress rather than a dead-end situation. When establishing postsecondary goals, the goals and objectives may be of mixed character, reflecting the ability, endurance, and stamina levels of the individual student. The transition plan can and should include external supports as needed. Transition plans can begin with more general goals and incorporate more specific details as the student comes closer to graduation. These goals may change from one school year to the next. Changes can range from minor alterations to major differences, depending on the individual student and situation.

summarize the information a student's IEP legally must include about current performance, annual goals, and special education and related services

The IDEA requires the IEP to state the student's "present levels of educational performance," i.e. the student's current progress in school. Results of evaluations made to determine eligibility for special services; classroom tests and in-class and homework assignments; and observations contributed by parents, teachers, related service providers, and other school personnel provide the information for the statement of the student's current school performance. This statement includes the impacts of the student's disability on their progress and engagement in the school's general education curriculum. Annual goals are those the student can reasonable attain within a school year. These are subdivided into short-term objectives, or benchmarks. Goals can be academic, behavioral, social, or physical. Goals must be measurable to show if the student has met them. The IEP must name all special education and related services to be provided to or on behalf of the student, including supplementary services and aids; changes to the program; and training, professional development, or other provisions supporting school staff in providing services to the student.

briefly describe some of the contributions of the IEP team member who can interpret the student's evaluation results and of the IEP team member who represents the school system

The IEP team member who can interpret evaluation results can not only explain to other members what test results signify, e.g., the type of disability and deficit areas, but moreover how to design instruction appropriate to the student and characteristics identified by evaluation results. Skillfully interpreting test results informs the team how the student is currently faring in school and helps them pinpoint areas of particular student needs. This member's role is not only understanding and explaining test results, but furthermore explaining the instructional implications of those results and helping plan accordingly suitable instruction. The school system representative contributes extensive knowledge about teaching students with disabilities and about the special education services available in the school system. This member can discuss the school resources the student and educators need. It is also important for this individual to have the authority for committing school system resources, and the ability for assuring all services specified in the IEP are actually provided to the student and staff.

identify a principle and its subsection in a special education ethical code addressing confidentiality. identify four main pieces of U.S. legislation governing the confidentiality of student information

The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET)'s Code of Ethics contains six principles. Principle 5 states: NASET Members collaborate with parents of children with special needs and community, building trust and respecting confidentiality." Under this principle, subsection 5-E states, "NASET Members respect the private nature of the special knowledge they have about children and their families and use that knowledge only in the students' best interest." (2006/2007, NASET) The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA, 1974, aka Buckley Amendment) is the primary legislation delimiting accessibility and disclosure of student records. Privacy regarding student participation in evaluation, analysis, and surveys is defined by the Grassley Amendment (1994) to the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994. Records of student drug and alcohol treatment kept by any entity receiving federal funding have protection under the Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act (1976). In addition to these laws, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997/2004) protects the confidentiality of records for students receiving special education and related services.

relate some considerations related to the assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students regarding eligibility for special education services

The assessment stage is when professionals collect data used to determine or rule out disability; therefore, parents and cultural diversity experts should be included in the assessment team. Assessment plans should always include multiple instruments and settings to be comprehensive and reflect multiple perspectives and approaches. How student difficulties are addressed and what consequences result across various settings should also be considered. Suspected disabilities in ELLs should be assessed in a student's dominant language. Educators should gather data on student proficiency and educational achievement in both their first language and English. Assessment teams must obtain parental perceptions, beliefs, values, and expectations about children's learning/behavioral challenges. Schools should avoid interpreters and test translations. However, if these are unavoidable, they should document interpreter skills; ensure multiple formal and informal assessments and information sources; use peers form normative groups; and, if tests are invalidated, seek performance patterns rather than absolute scores. With behavioral referrals, educators should consider obtaining more information to corroborate interpretations of projective instruments, which can be subjective.

comment on some of the financial and service challenges of disability on family systems

The challenges and demands on family systems are compounded when a member has a disability, and such challenges are typically long-term. Regardless of the type of family, the age of the disabled member, and the type of disability, many of the family demands are the same. For example, obtaining appropriate health services, social services, and educational services of sufficient quality often entail significant economic burdens, as do modifying the home to accommodate a disability and procuring adaptive equipment, medications, and special diets. Although families may qualify for public funding, e.g., from Medicaid, Social Security SSI, or private health insurance, additional challenges are not only to discover which programs and services their child is eligible for, but moreover to interact with various bureaucracies to confirm such eligibility, frequently on a repeated basis. Another major problem is service coordination among providers, like doctors, teachers, counselors, physical and occupational therapists, social workers, and dieticians. Frequently providers are not informed of one another's actions and may give contradictory information.

summarize the importance of early language development in children and its relationship to other developmental domains. define receptive language and distinguish it from expressive language. respectively identify the main features of nonverbal, verbal, and written, receptive language

The development of language skills is critical to the development of cognitive, emotional, and social skills. These are all interrelated, so problems in any one area usually cause problems/delays in others. Receptive language is the ability to understand spoken and written language. Receptive language develops before expressive language; children must understand what they hear before they learn to speak, and to read and comprehend written language before they learn to write. Hence a child's receptive vocabulary typically exceeds their expressive vocabulary: they can understand more words than they can use. Nonverbal receptive language includes understanding what others say; understanding qualitative concepts like big/little and tall/short and quantitative concepts like a lot, a little, all, none, etc.; understanding and following simple directions; listening to stories; understanding and following complex/multiple directions to do a series of things; and understanding others' questions. Written receptive language includes identifying upper and lowercase letters and numbers, and also reading and comprehending simple and complex sentences and paragraphs.

describe some ways that a high school teacher can develop class rules for disabled and nondisabled students on the first day of school

The high school teacher can first establish basic, vital "ground rules" based on what the teacher needs in the classroom. For example, students must arrive on time and be prepared; respect both classmates and classroom materials; and follow directions the first time the teacher gives them. After conveying these rules, the teacher can involve students in collaborating to create class rules. This helps build a class community. The teacher can integrate the opinions and viewpoints of students by asking them simple questions, like why they are there and what they need to achieve their goals. The teacher records student answers, incorporating these in expanding on the ground rules. Involving students gives them a sense of a democratic class community instead of a dictatorship and stimulates processes of critical thinking. Teachers should also give students lists of daily materials needed and examples of acceptable versus unacceptable work, and inform students how they assess their work (rubrics, etc). Teachers should communicate their expectations orally, in print/writing, and visually.

identify some special student factors whose consideration by the IEP team and inclusion in the IEP document are required by law if they exist

The law requires a number of "special factors" for the IEP team to consider as applicable with individual students. If a student's behavior impedes their and/or other students' learning, the team must consider effective, positive behavioral supports and intervention techniques to manage, control, or change the behavior. If the student has limited English-language proficiency, the team must consider the student's linguistic need relative to their IEP. If a student is blind or visually impaired, the team must provide Braille texts or instruction in Braille, or determine through evaluations the student does not need such instruction. In the latter case, the team must specify any other methods and/or devices the school needs and provide these. The team must consider any communication needs a student may have. For deaf or hard-of-hearing students, the team must consider their communication and linguistic needs, including opportunities for communicating directly with peers and staff in ASL or their other customary communication method(s). The team must also consider any student needs for assistive technology services and/or devices.

differentially define the terms mean, median, and mode relative to educational assessment, including examples

The mean is the average of a group of numbers, e.g., scores within a group of students taking the same test. Among six students, if one scores 50%; one 60%; one 70%; one 80%; one 90%; and one 100%, the sum of scores = 450; divided by 6 (students/scores) yields an average/mean of 75%. The median is the centermost score in a group. For example, if the range of student scores on a test is 65%, 75%, 80%, 85%, and 95%, then 80% = the middle/median. When there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two most central scores. For example, with four scores of 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%, 60% and 70% are averaged for a median of 65%. The mode is the most frequent score in a set. If in a group of students, one scored 100% on a test; one 95%; two 90%; three 85%; four 80%; three 75%; two 70%; and one 65%; the mode = 80%.

identify three main elements of crisis intervention and prevention. summarize what these entail respectively during and immediately after an emergency in terms of intervention

Three main elements of responding to and preventing crises in schools are: Communication; Direction and Coordination; and Health and Safety. During a crisis, educators communicate: they sound alarms if needed; clarify next steps; give information about the occurrence and first-aid station locations, etc.; control rumors about the event; interact with the media as needed, and with the school district and community; respond to parent concerns; and keep track of the students and staff. Direction and coordination during a crisis including monitoring and solving problems and directing emergency operations centers. Health and safety during the emergency include directing evacuation, security, search and rescue operations; providing first aid for medical and psychological injuries; and reducing hazards to students and staff. Immediately after a crisis, communication includes dispelling rumors, clarifying crisis sources and impacts, and supplying information on medical and psychological resources available. Direction and coordination include continuing problem monitoring and solving. Health and safety include continuing activities begun during the crisis.

describe the (modified) Angoff method for determining a pass/fail cut score for a multiple choice test

To determine which scores on a given test are passing or failing, educators can use several established methods. In the Angoff method, one or more assessors select a group of "borderline" students (i.e., those not always passing or failing but with equal chances of either) and estimate which choice(s) in a multiple choice test item these students could eliminate as an incorrect answer and what percent of the choices left these students would guess as correct. For example, if they might eliminate one choice of five as wrong, their probability of guessing the right choice from the four choices left is 25% (1/4). The assessors add up the percentages for all of the test items and round the sum to an integer, which would be the cut score for that test. In the modified Angoff procedure, the assessors also estimate how many of the students would fail the test, and if they deem it necessary, they modify their estimations to produce a number of failures they find more reasonable.

identify some kinds of material the IEP team reviews to determine what kinds of special education and related services a student needs, including some specific information about the individual student and some general goals to guide team discussion

To develop the IEP, the team reviews evaluation results including individual tests given to the student to determine eligibility for services; classroom tests the student has taken; and the observations of parents, teachers, related service providers, paraprofessionals, administrators, and others involved. These help the team characterize the "present levels of educational performance" of the student, i.e., how they are currently functioning in school. They develop yearly goals targeting areas of educational need identified through this information. Information specific to the student they discuss includes the student's strongest assets; recent evaluation and/or re-evaluation results; parents' ideas to improve the student's education; and the student's performance on district-wide and statewide standardized examinations. The team's discussion of what the student needs should be guided by how they can help the student progress toward meeting yearly goals; engage in the general education curriculum and make progress it in; be included in participation and education with other students, both with and without disabilities; and participate in nonacademic and extracurricular activities.

list some activities of daily living (ADLs) for which special educators need to teach skills to students with special needs. describe a task analysis for instruction in ADLs, using one task as an example

To function independently in the home or community, special-needs students must learn such ADLs as selecting clothes suitable for the day's weather and activities; doing grocery shopping for the week; performing personal hygiene like toileting, bathing, brushing teeth, etc.; organizing and doing household chores; managing money and paying bi lls; taking out garbage and retrieving trash/recycling bins; cooking a simple meal; doing laundry; and others. Task analysis breaking a task down into individual steps is effective for special-needs students who otherwise have difficulty remembering all a task's parts and sequence. For example, doing laundry can be broken down into 10-12 steps. Before giving all steps to the student and supervising following them, the educator must follow these steps: Write down the steps, in chronological sequence. Assess what parts of steps the student can already do independently. Assess what steps/partial steps the student can do partly or with some adult assistance. Teach the student the steps that they cannot already do. Evaluate whether the instruction was effective for the student's learning.

identify some examples of jobs that educators can create in and around grounds to help teach students with disabilities about career awareness

To help prepare students with disabilities for futures in the workplace, educators can provide work experience in/around school. They can instruct them in doing laundry for the art room, gymnasium/pool, or lower grades' classrooms. Students can learn to sweep, vacuum, mop, wipe chairs and tables, and refill condiments containers in the cafeteria. Teachers can instruct students, sometimes with assistance from the custodial staff, in janitorial tasks like taking out garbage, dusting, cleaning, floor-waxing/buffing, painting, or refilling soap and paper towel dispensers. They can also enlist groundskeeper staff to help teach students seasonal outdoor tasks like weeding, mulching, mowing grass, and raking leaves. With the cooperation of office staff, teachers can instruct students in clerical tasks like preparing mail, making copies, filing, and data entry. Students can learn to help maintain school buses by vacuuming and washing. They can learn to restock vending machines; collect and count the money and deliver it; recycle materials; or construct and paint scenery and run lights for school plays/assemblies.

describe a procedure for teaching conflict resolution that educators can use with students functioning at grade levels 3-8

To help younger and disabled students learn how to resolve conflicts, the teacher can first teach them a three-step problem solving approach consisting of defining the problem, brainstorming solutions, and choosing and implementing a solution. The teacher then gives students a script for a "fight"/conflict and puppets if appropriate for the students, and then has some students volunteer to act out the conflict script. Then they review the problem solving approach. Once students agree on one or more solutions, have the volunteer players act out their choice(s). Students who are able may then work in small groups to create and perform their own conflict resolution sketches for the class. The teacher then leads a class discussion, asking the students: (1) Which things in the sketches caused the conflict to escalate; (2) Which things people can say to each other to show they want to stop fighting and solve the problem; and (3) Whether any of the students have experienced similar conflicts in their own lives and how they resolved those conflicts.

describe some adaptive behavior ski lls that are helpful to teach students with disabilities, particularly those with autism, before they finish high school when possible

To increase progress toward independent living, two of many important areas are time management and hygiene. While parents commonly wake their children, when they get older teaching them to use an alarm clock/clock-radio frees them from depending on parents. For students with autism, parents may need some trial-and-error experimentation with different loudness, sounds, (e.g., beeps or buzzes or music, and music types) as many are hypersensitive to sensory stimuli. For those capable, advanced skills include setting the alarm independently and deciding when to set an alarm for estimating the time they need. Parents/educators can also teach students to use a watch/clock to manage home/school task completion. Students having difficulty with numbers can benefit from graphic visual timers. Students also need to develop hygiene routines for bathing, using deodorant, grooming, and dressing. Many autistic students naturally have "rigid" behavior, find routines comforting, and are amenable to daily bathing/showering (which is easier long term than showering every 2-3 days) and specific instructions, like washing each area four times.

identify some potential modifications to games played in school physical education that can integrate special needs children

To level the competition, PE teachers can modify activities. They can let special needs students hit or kick instead of pitching a ball. In volleyball games, they can let students catch and throw the ball and/or let it bounce. Teachers can permit longer time periods equal to student ability for moving to a goal/base. When possible, they can schedule games inside the gym on smooth floors to facilitate movement instead of outdoors in a field. When modifying rules for disabled students, teachers can involve them in the decision-making process. Teachers can reduce distances by moving bases closer together; letting students get closer to the net/goal/target; and letting them serve from midcourt in volleyball/badminton/tennis. Teachers can provide more scoring opportunities by substituting four for three strikes/ten arrows for six/three for two foul shots/etc. They can assign disabled students to be pitchers/goalies/first basemen, or other positions requiring less mobility. Adaptive equipment they can provide includes bigger bats/racquets; bigger/lighter/softer balls; and bigger baskets/goals/bases.

describe a teacher strategy integrating technology to motivate disabled and nondisabled high school students to being learning in the first week of a new school year

To prepare and motivate adolescents to learn right away, high school teachers can integrate technology, yet need no more than a video camera and books when they assign projects the first week of school. For example, the teacher can ask the students to choose a book they have recently read and/or is their favorite. The teacher can lead a class discussion about characteristics in commercials that make the viewer remember the commercials best, like musical jingles; vivid visual imagery; strong slogans or tag lines; or humorous/incongruous situations. The teacher can then have the students make their own commercials advertising their chosen books. Another example of a project is to assign students to make their autobiographies, using videos about five minutes long. The teacher can guide the students to incorporate details related to their early childhoods; pets, friends, their home lives; their hobbies, what things interest them most, and what their major goals in life are.

discuss some examples of ski lls it helps to teach students with autism and other disabilities, beginning in early childhood and progressing to postsecondary school ages, to prepare them better for independent daily living

To prepare children with disabilities for more independent living as they grow up, parents and educators can start teaching young children responsibility for their belongings. For example, when young children bring their toys with them in the car or to others' homes, they can be taught a routine to find the toy before leaving, take it to the car, and bring it inside when arriving at home. As they get older, this routine can be transferred to backpacks, school supplies, digital devices, and phones. Adults can also teach young children to employ visual cues for remembering duties. For example, they can keep medications in specific locations as reminders to take them at the specified times. They can use sticky notes on their backpacks reminding them to pack lunch and/or bring permission slips and completed assignments to school. Adults can begin teaching food preparation and how to make noncooked snacks and sandwiches to young children. As they grow, adults can teach them to follow recipes, safely utilize kitchen tools, and cook.

identify some useful features of assistive technology programs that allow students with reading/learning and other disabilities to read books digitally

Today, students can download and read books digitally on tablets and other devices from online digital libraries, which even offer apps for downloading to digital devices. Students can interact with, manipulate, and change settings in digital reading matter, including the size and color of the font, both in the text and in hypertext links; choosing between male or female voices in audio text; turning on and off the read aloud function in books with both visual and audio text; setting bookmarks in books; and changing the appearances of background displays in digital books. Some software programs and portable devices incorporate graphic organizers to aid comprehension and studying; note taking tools to aid in essay writing; build-in scanners to copy and upload/download documents and pictures; support tools for outline writing; dictionaries, spell-checkers; keyword searches; bibliographers; voice recorders, voice recognition; and Acapela Voices, which reads text aloud translated into Spanish and other languages for ESL/ELL students.

summarize the purpose and value of the overall transition planning process for students with disabilities. explain what indicator 13 of the idea entails, including a summary about data collection

Transition planning helps students with disabilities and their families consider students' lives after high school; identify long-term goals; tailor high school learning for acquiring skills and contacts they will need to meet those goas; and with allocation to local school districts of funding and services supporting transition processes. Students and adults invest in students' future well-being by planning for postsecondary life. The IDEA's Indicator 13 is a provision that students with disabilities age 16 and above must have IEPs including postsecondary transition plans. The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) requires states to develop six-year State Performance Plans, based on about 20 indicators, and submit indicator data in Annual Performance Reports for Indicator 13 by February 2011. The National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center (NSTTAC) has developed the I-13 Checklist to aid state data collection. States may use their existing monitoring systems; however, this checklist can be used instead, or to evaluate those systems, or as a supplement, and is approved by the OSEP.

identify a couple of resources that provide books in accessible digital and audio formats that facilitate reading for students with LDs and other disabilities

Two organizations whose specialty is providing accessible text formats are Bookshare at bookshare.org and Learning Ally at learningally.org. Bookshare is an online library of over 150,000 digital versions of copyrighted textbooks and other books. Learning ally is an online library of more than 70,000 audio versions of literary works and textbooks, with both recordings of human voices and digitally synthesized voices reading the material. These organizations both have approval from the U.S. Department of Education for providing accessible instructional materials (AIM) to school districts and individual schools. Schools and/or districts can request digital formats or files from these groups for qualifying students with reading or print disabilities. Due to their cooperative missions, qualified members of either organization can more easily gain membership to the other. Some school districts or schools even pay for memberships in both organizations or either one for students who are found eligible.

describe some legal requirements of school districts regarding special education and some of the legal rights of the parents of students regarding special education

Under current federal laws, all public school districts are required to invite parental participation in meetings regarding the evaluation, identification, and placement of their children in special education; notify parents in writing of any intentions to identify/assess/place their child in special education or change their identification/assessment/placement; notify parents in native languages/formats they understand; inform parents of resources available to help they understand written school notifications; and give parents copies of their legal rights and responsibilities and all procedural safeguards. Parents have the right to give written consent for referral, evaluation, re-evaluation, and placement in special education of their children; review all educational records regarding these; have interpreters supplied when they are not native English speakers; contribute input to all assessments, conversations, and decisions, initially and/or subsequently; request independent evaluations not paid by them if they disagree with district evaluation/diagnosis; participate in eligibility determination and placement; receive copies of evaluations, reports, and eligibility determination documents; and receive regular progress reports during their children's special education program placement.

paraphrase some ethical guidelines for behavior management in special education settings

Under its ethical principle regarding behavior management, the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) includes the following: (1) Professionals must use only behavioral procedures and disciplinary techniques they have been told to use, and that do not compromise individual student dignity or exceptional students' fundamental human rights (e.g., corporal punishment). (2) Professionals must specify clearly in the student's IEP any goals and objectives related to behavior management. (3) Professionals must comply with rules, statutes, and policies of state and local agencies regarding appropriately applying behavioral and disciplinary practices. (4) When they perceive a coworker's behavior as detrimental to special education students, professionals must take sufficient measures for preventing, discouraging, and intervening with those actions. (5) Professionals must avoid using aversive methods, unless repeated uses of other techniques were ineffective, and then only after consulting with parents and applicable agency officials.

summarize the portions of the special education process related to identification through Child Find, referral, or request for evaluation under the IDEA

Under the federal IDEA law, each U.S. state is held responsible for locating, identifying, and evaluating all children in that state as having disabilities and in need of special education and related services. To carry out this mandate, the states engage in Child Find processes. This is one way that children are identified with disabilities. The state's Child Find system may ask a child's parents for permission to evaluate the child, or parents can contact the Child Find system themselves and request evaluation of their child. Another way children are identified is by referral. A teacher or other school professional suspecting a student might have a disability may request, in writing or orally, the student's evaluation. Parents must give consent before the evaluation can be made. The law also stipulates that a requested evaluation be within a reasonable time after receiving parental consent. Parents who suspect disability in their child may also request that the school evaluate the child.

define and give some examples of vocal and spoken verbal expressive language as demonstrated by babies and young children

Verbal expressive language can be spoken or written. In infants, early forms of verbalization also include vocalizations. For example, babies "coo" by repeating prolonged vowel sounds; "grunt" or make guttural sounds expressing satisfaction/contentedness; and soon begin to babble by repeating consonant-vowel combinations like "bababa," "dadada," etc. Babies also imitate adults' vocal sounds and facial expressions. Their first words are often parent names like "dada" and "mama," which coincide closely with babbling sounds. As their speech develops they echo/repeat others' utterances. In the holophrastic stage, toddlers use single words to express phrase concepts, like "up" to mean "pick me up" or "look at the bird up there." They combine pointing with nouns to identify people, animals, and things, like "baby," "doggie," or "car." They soon learn to use the socially conventional utterances "please" and "thank you." Toddlers then learn to combine two words to express phrase concepts, like "daddy go" or "mommy shoe," which can also convey a variety of meanings.

discuss some ways that disabilities can affect family resources, social roles, lifestyle, leisure time, and the family's interactions with the community

When a family member has a disability, it can deplete the family's resources in terms of money, time, and energy far out of proportion to other demands. This often detracts from meeting other needs of the family and its other members. The family members find they must change their lifestyle, for example, spending less money, time, and energy on leisure activities and staying at home more. Families may abandon their plans and dreams for the future because they no longer have enough of these resources to pursue them. Community members may exclude the disabled member and family; avoid them; and/or denigrate them with looks or comments. Though federal legislation mandates inclusion, many communities do not have the resources, facilities, and programs to enable full inclusion. Many families state they feel burdened not by the disabled member, but by rejection, judgement, stigmatization of the member and family, and other negative behaviors and attitudes- from not only strangers, but also service providers, friends, and relatives.

briefly describe what the law requires be included in the IEP regarding a student's needs for transition services, what transition services are needed, the student's reaching the age of majority, and progress measurement

When a student reaches the age of 14- or sooner when applicable- the student's IEP must include in its pertinent sections which courses the student must take to attain their postschool goals. Every IEP following this must also contain a statement of the student's needs in transition services. Transition may be to postsecondary education; job training; and/or community living. When the student is 16 years old- or before if appropriate- the IEP must define which transition services the student needs as preparation for exiting the current school program/system. At least one year before the student reaches the age of majority, their IEP must state the student has been informed of any rights that will transfer from parents/caregivers to them. This only applies in states where rights are transferred when minor children reach majority age. Law requires the IEP to state how the school will measure the student's educational progress and how it will inform the student's parents of their child's progress.

identify some testing accommodations that students with disabilities may receive for completing state standardized tests when they have trouble sustaining their attention and effort, and some not allowed by standardized tests but permitted in classroom assessments

When administering state standardized tests, teacher may provide some accommodations to disabled students who struggle to maintain their attention and energy during testing. For example, teachers may monitor student answer sheets to see whether they are putting their responses in the right places. When student responses to extended response items are partially correct, teachers may give partial credit as designated by the rubrics for these items on state standardized achievement tests. In classroom assessments, teachers may furnish students with prepared outlines, charts, diagrams, and/or webs to help them plan essay or open-ended question responses. Students may demonstrate their skills and knowledge via alternate formats like role-plays, oral interviews, or physical demonstrations. They may be allowed references like thesauruses, dictionaries, or almanacs. They may be allowed concrete manipulatives to do and/or check calculations. Students may retake tests and get credit for improving. Also, some state standardized tests even allow certain grades to retake them.

discuss some general advice for teachers to enhance communication skills for students who have mobility disabilities

When assigning group activities, teachers may need more flexibility and time for assembling groups and moving furniture. Teachers should consider this in assigning groups/pairs, without restricting variety among student partners/classmates. Students with limited/no use of their arms cannot perform common classroom behaviors like jotting down new vocabulary words, looking words up in dictionaries or encyclopedias, or even raising their hands. Teachers need to provide them with alternative methods, like a scribe to take notes, orally saying yes/no instead of raising hands, etc. Teachers can collaborate with students on alternative means to get teacher attention. Students in wheelchairs may arrive late and/or need to leave early because of weather, transportation service, architectural barriers, or other factors outside their control. Teachers should discuss with students whether their disability requiring accommodation or behavioral factors cause late arrivals/early departures, defining expectations and resolving issues accordingly. Teachers should ensure other students realize wheelchairs/other adaptive equipment constitute personal space and respect it. Teachers and students should sit when interacting with students of shorter stature or students in wheelchairs.

describe some general characteristics of atypical social and emotional development in children, including some associated categories of disability

When children experience developmental delays that are manifested in the social and emotional domain, one characteristic is being too trusting of others, which allows others to take advantage of them. This is often associated with intellectual disabilities. Another characteristic of some children with atypical social and emotional development is not reading or understanding others' nonverbal cues during interpersonal interactions, preventing them from responding appropriately. This is commonly associated with autism spectrum disorders. Autistic children also may show excellent verbal skills in monologues, but be unable to initiate and maintain conversations and have difficulty with turn-taking. Some children don't develop the ability to consider others' viewpoints at typical ages, remaining egocentric; this interferes with social interaction. This is common to various conditions, including intellectual disabilities, autism, and behavior disorders. Children with ADHD tend to have difficulties with impulse control, emotional self-regulation, and sustaining attention, interfering with social interactions as much as with academic performance.

discuss some mutually beneficial behaviors related to planning, communication, and observation that special educators collaborating with general educators can exercise

When collaborating, teachers must schedule at least one weekly planning session, even if it must be after school. Co-teachers fail through unmet expectations and lack of communication without such planning. As in any relationship, co-teachers do not know everything about one another. They must share their ideas and experiences, not only to succeed in teaching their students, but to understand their own teaching and learning processes and to experience job satisfaction. Teacher collaboration processes undergo changes, just as students discover new concepts over time through their teachers and their instructional methods. While these changes mean that co-teachers and students alike encounter surprises and adjustments, they also mean that teachers develop better ways of meeting student needs. Collaboration also affords teachers new perspectives. They can take advantage of these by making focused observations and asking reflective questions whenever not directly occupied in instructional delivery. Taking brief but specific notes helps co-teachers discuss observations later, troubleshoot/problem-solve, fine-tune instruction, and communicate student successes.

discuss some challenges and considerations for special education teachers in working with other professionals, teaching aides, assistants, and paraprofessionals

When educational research investigates high turnover rates among special educators, some researchers have thought the voluminous paperwork in special education was responsible, only to hear from some special education teachers that they attribute turnover more to being appreciated less than general education teachers. Special education teachers often must coordinate their schedules with art teachers, music teachers, physical education teachers, and 10-20 other teachers, and also show consideration to physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech-language pathologists, as well as accounting for lunch and recess when making resource schedules. Even minor changes in general education teachers' schedules can alter the special education teacher's whole day or week. Most special education teachers are enormously grateful to their aides, assistants, and paraprofessionals; however, the reality is they must also devote significantly more time and effort to train them and create daily schedules for them. A teacher's aide differing in opinion from the teacher's, especially if the aide is older/more experienced than the teacher, presents an additional challenge to teamwork, for which the teacher is responsible.

relate some considerations to guide postsecondary transition planning for students who have significant disabilities

When planning postsecondary transitions for significantly disabled students, adults should consider whether the student is able to express their interests. If not, educators should obtain information from parents/caregivers for planning transitions. They should consider the student's special health care needs. They must account for any challenges or needs that keep the student from working outside of home. Transition planners must determine who can provide training and/or education to help the student's transitions. They must determine what the student can already do without others' assistance. And they must also consider what the student could do if they had help from a habilitation training specialist, a job coach, a caregiver, or other service provider(s). Additional ideas for transition planning include connecting students and their families with other students who have similar disabilities and their families; identifying peer mentors for students; supplying the resources the student needs; and inviting others who can make valuable contributions to join the transition planning team.

describe some strategies and accommodations that teachers can use to ensure that students with low vision or blindness have equal access to classroom content

When school assignments involve large amounts of reading, students with low vision often experience eye fatigue and need to rest their eyes frequently. Teachers can permit them breaks during class and/or give them extensions on due dates for reading assignments. Teachers should ensure student access to alternative media formats like Braille, audio recordings, or large print. Some students bring laptops or other computerized devices with text-to-speech, large print, or Braille conversion software; teachers should provide their teaching content in electronic formats for these students. They should also discuss with them whether any websites the teacher uses as lesson supplements are incompatible with students' special software, and and consider adjusting their curriculum to use compatible sites. Teachers should also keep classroom layout consistent to facilitate student orientation and navigation. Teachers sharing classrooms can try to enlist the other teachers' cooperation and assistance. Tactile and/or audio rather than visual cues more effectively get these students' attention. Teachers can also instruct other students to say their names before speaking during group discussions.

discuss some considerations for special educators in communicating and collaborating with community agencies

When special education students have already had interactions with some government departments like the juvenile justice system, the mental health system, or the department of social services, those agencies may initiate contact with schools/teachers. In other cases, educators may need to contact them. Community agencies dedicated to children with disabilities and all those working with/for them serve as liaisons/links to public and private schools and government departments, local officials, and legislators. Some community agencies offer services like direct representation; educators can invite them to IEP meetings and due process mediations and hearings on behalf of disabled students and their families to ensure effective advocacy, information, and support. Teachers can help get parents training on their rights and special education services from community agencies. Community agencies can provide professional educators and families with consultations on technical assistance for students with disabilities. If parents and school districts disagree, educators can enlist mediation services from some community agencies to prevent escalation into court cases.

explain some ways teachers can provide accommodations to students with disabilities when they have difficulty understanding or applying test directions as they are typically presented. give some examples of accommodations for this that are usually not allowed on standardized tests, but can be given for classroom tests

When students with disabilities are not sure what to do on tests, teachers should avoid hinting at right/wrong answers but accommodate them verbally by encouraging them (to answer each question and continue working), and they should give them additional examples of test items for practice to ensure they know what to do during actual testing. Most standardized tests prohibit accommodations in presentation that alter the assessed skill; for example, if a test measures reading, teachers cannot read items aloud to students. However, certain accommodations are permissible for classroom assessments. For students having difficulty switching among task types, teachers can group similar items and place easiest items first on tests. They can divide matching tasks into smaller groups of 4 to 5 items each. For essay/fill in the blank items, they can provide applicable word lists. Whenever memorization is not required, teachers can let students take open-book tests. On multiple-choice tests, teachers can remove one choice from each question. Teachers can select test questions covering all content required but give fewer total questions.

describe some accommodations that teachers can provide in their presentation of classroom or standardized tests to students with disabilities to help them follow directions

When students with disabilities are taking classroom and/or standardized tests, they can often have difficulty with accessing, understanding, and/or following the directions in the tests. Teachers can provide classroom accommodations to these students to facilitate test-taking. For example, they can provide answer forms or test forms with visual symbols, like stop signs, arrows, etc., to guide students in following directions. Some standardized tests already include such symbols for all students. When test directions are presented orally, teachers can provide sign language interpreters for deaf or hard-of-hearing students. When test directions and writing prompts are presented in print, teachers can read these aloud for students with visual impairments, cognitive disabilities, and reading-related learning disabilities. For students that need it, teachers can reread test directions or further explain their meaning. Teachers can also highlight or underline the most important words in test directions and/or test items for students with disabilities.

give some examples of accommodations teachers can use to help students with disabilities when they have trouble taking notes on and remembering ideas in orally presented lectures or lessons

When students with various disabilities have trouble with taking notes on the teacher's oral lectures or lessons, the teacher can distribute printed copies of their lecture notes to accompany the oral presentation. They can allow these students to record orally presented class lessons, lectures, and discussions for their review and study. Teachers should repeat important concepts, paraphrase them to express them in more than one set of words, and provide students with summaries of all the most important points. It is especially helpful if teachers repeat, paraphrase, and summarize at the end of a lesson, lecture, or class discussion. Teachers can help students with taking notes by giving them copies of their overhead projector documents, diagrams, and/or outlines of their lectures. To reinforce the information in oral presentations, teachers should supplement them with charts, diagrams, written/printed text, and/or pictures, and repeat as frequently as needed. Also, for deaf or hard-of-hearing students, teachers should procure a sign-language interpreter or a note-taker.

comment on how the interaction of medical advances with some disabling conditions can affect families emotionally, ethically, and practically, including a couple of examples

When the life expectancy of a disabled member is unclear, the family finds it harder to plan its members' future roles in life; to know future care costs; or, when the member needs help with daily living activities, to decide on optimal living arrangements. For example, individuals with Down syndrome often have congenital heart defects and died younger in the past, but with improved medical care, they now live longer. And between 1970 and 1991, the survival of American children with cystic fibrosis increased by 700%, from a median life expectancy of 8 years to 26 years. This opens up new questions about marriage, procreation, and other difficult family choices. Ethical problems are also presented when medical advances can extend the lives of those with serious medical conditions. Considerations include weighing benefits versus costs, when and/or why to intervene and how aggressively. Family members may disagree about these. Moreover, courts and/or hospitals may prohibit chosen family actions. Such cases provoke much controversy (such as the case of Terri Schiavo).

define the terms positive skew and negative skew in terms of test scores. briefly comment on the relation of a normal distribution or normal curve to data typically obtained in educational assessments

When the majority of a group of numbers, such as test scores, is concentrated toward the high end of the range/distribution with the minority "tail" of scores near the low end, this group of numbers is said to be positively skewed. When the majority of scores is bunched near the lower end of the distribution, with a minority "tail" near the higher end, the set of scores is negatively skewed. A normal curve is called a bell curve because it resembles the shape of a bell, with the largest number of scores collected around the center mean or average score and the number of scores descending as they move away from the center and mean. Parametric statistics assume a normal distribution. However, in typical educational assessments, the data obtained as scores on testing instruments are not usually found to be distributed normally.

describe some ways that teachers can introduce elementary age students with disabilities to career awareness, including what young students should become aware of and learn, and how teachers can use workplace field trips

When working with students with disabilities at the elementary school level, career development includes making students aware of workers in the community, and also helping them comprehend individual uniqueness, work's role in life, and fundamental knowledge about various jobs. Teachers can develop programs engaging students in activities involving adult workplaces and familiarize students with the kinds of social interactions they may experience after leaving school. Educators can also teach young students skills related to employment in the classroom, and then reinforce those skills in situations that expose them to workplace experience. Teachers can plan 1 to 3 hour field trips to visit different workplaces in their community. To prepare students, teachers can make them familiar with basic career information. After field trips, teachers can ask students questions like: What are the working environment and conditions? What abilities and skills do the jobs require? Do jobs observed primarily involve things, people, ideas, or information? Where/how can you learn skills for this occupation? Are you interested in this occupation? Why/why not?

summarize some examples of delays in cognitive development that represent atypical development in young children

Whether caused by neurological deficits or damage, deprivation, or other environmental factors, or a combination, some children do not develop cognitive skills typically. They may develop them much later than others or not at all. They may also demonstrate differences in the quantity and quality of their cognitive skills. Children with cognitive developmental delays, for example, can have significant difficulty with learning colors, shapes, and similar basic concepts. They often have trouble learning more advanced concepts, such as counting numbers, reading printed language, and writing language. In addition, children with delayed and/or deficient cognitive development can demonstrate a failure to generalize things they learn to other situations or contexts. Moreover, when children have problems with adjusting to new situations and changes in their environments, this can be a sign of delayed or deficient cognitive development.

explain some problems and solutions in school-based screening for disability and give one example of established procedures for systematic screening

While school screenings are vital and the process of identifying students with disabilities has a basic structure, there are no uniform or standardized sets of checklists, procedures, or testing instruments to identify disabilities in most students. The kinds of referral processes and tests utilized vary, both across and within states. According to educational experts, two main problems with screening procedures are over-identification and under-identification of disabilities. Research studies have shown that students have been over-identified with learning disabilities, while students with behavior disorders are under-identified, especially compliant students who are not aggressive or disruptive but have problems like social isolation, depression, or school phobia. Educators have been improving screening procedures to resolve these problems. For example, Walker et all (1990) created the Systematic Screening for Behavioral Disorders with three steps: first, teachers rank students according to designated criteria; then select the three highest ranked students and complete checklists to quantify their observations about them; and school psychologists/counselors observe identified students prior to any formal evaluation referrals.

describe some instruction teachers can give all their students to prevent obstacles for disabled students and to help all students make effective use of common spaces within the school building

While teachers have little or no control over their school building's commonly shared spaces, they can instruct their students to work with these. For example, they can teach them the common courtesies of walking quietly on the right side of the hall, and of speaking quietly in the library, cafeteria, and auditorium. This helps students adjust to large spaces inside the building. Teachers can also instruct all students to allow sufficient space for students using wheelchairs to go around corners and not to crowd wheelchairs. This not only helps the students in wheelchairs; it also prevents ambulatory students from being injured by coming too close to wheelchairs. Students in both special and general education programs must be taught to take special care in adhering to rules and guidelines on the playground and in the school gymnasium. Students make successful adaptations to school building spaces when they have learned how to navigate from one place to another, and how to behave in each school area.

describe some considerations for teachers regarding communication skills and instruction in general for students who are blind or visually impaired

While teachers routinely use visual aids like pictures, flash cards, graphs, charts, and pointing at objects in the room while saying "this" or "that," they must realize these are not accessible to blind or visually impaired students. They must provide them with additional tactile versions and/or verbal descriptions. Students with low vision may not be able to see writing in workbooks, on blackboards/whiteboards/SMART boards, etc. They should be seated at the front of the room and allowed to bring their own magnifying devices. Before class, teachers can provide handouts to these students in Braille, large print, audio formats, or electronic formats depending on their preferred format, and/or give students additional prompts during class. When presenting visual information, teachers should spell new vocabulary with words aloud; print using large, clear letters; use larger sized fonts in overheads and handouts; and read aloud as they write, which benefits all students. When drawing or displaying pictures, teachers should verbally describe their contents.

name some content that school systems and states may include in students' IEPs in addition to what is always required by law

While the IDEA federally mandates certain content in students' IEPs, individual states and school systems have much flexibility regarding what other information they require. Since federal law dictates that school districts document their compliance with federal requirements, some states and school systems choose to add information in their students' IEPs that serves to document their compliance with body federal and state laws. In general, some examples of additional elements IEPs can contain that document this compliance include: documentation that the school held the meeting(s) for writing, reviewing, and revising when necessary the student's IEP on a timely basis; documentation that the school furnished the student's parents with a copy of their legally mandated procedural safeguards and rights; documentation that the school has placed the student in the least restrictive environment possible where they can experience adequate learning and progress; and documentation that the school received parental consent to provide their child with evaluations, special education, and related services.

identify some medications prescribed with psychotherapy to treat childhood schizophrenia, and some of the side effects of one class of antipsychotic/neuroleptic drugs

While the symptoms of childhood schizophrenia can differ from adult symptoms, the same antipsychotic medications are prescribed to children as adults (though in different dosages), in conjunction with psychotherapy. A few of these drugs include Haldol, Thorazine, Stelazine, Mellaril, Risperdal, Loxitane, Moban, and Lithium, which is also often prescribed for bipolar disorder. Antipsychotics in the phenothiazine class, such as Thorazine, Stelazine, and Mellaril, have significant risks of side effects like tardive dyskinesia, which refers to repetitive, involuntary movements that can be irreversible even upon discontinuing treatment; dystonias, like involuntary tongue thrusts, muscular rigidity, etc.; and extrapyramidal syndrome, involving muscle rigidity, which are usually reversible on discontinuing treatment but may need other treatments to resolve when they are serious or interfere with breathing. Another side effect is pseudoparkinsonism, which mimics the symptoms of Parkinson disease including pi ll rolling finger tremors, masklike flat facial appearance, a shuffling gait, and muscular rigidity. A very serious side effect is neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Thorazine and other phenothiazines can also themselves cause psychiatric side effects.

identify several fundamental need for students with disabilities as they grow up, in terms of understanding, communication, and disclosure of disability. name an example of one resource that has published a guide on disability disclosure for youth

Young people with disabilities benefit by learning to understand themselves more fully; to understand their disabilities more completely; and to explain their disabilities more effectively to others. They often need help from experts to make decisions whether to disclose their disability to others and to become more prepared for such disclosure. Even more importantly, young people with disabilities need to gain a better comprehension of how their opportunities in social, educational, and employment contexts can often be enhanced by disclosing their disabilities in certain situations. Where appropriate, disclosure of disability can give them access to services and accommodations they would not be entitled to if they were not disabled. Experts have prepared informational publications to support them in this issue. For example, the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD-Y) has published The 411 on Disability Disclosure: A Workbook for Youth with Disabilities to help youth and parents make informed decisions about disclosure and its various impacts.