MGT 340 Study Guide - Final Exam

job stress

the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker

Behavioral component

the way we intend or expect to act toward someone or something

external locus of control

those who believe their performance is the product of circumstances beyond their immediate control possess this

OB concepts and theories can be classified into two broad categories:

person factors and situation factors

Ill-conceived goals

we set goals and incentives to promote a desired behavior, but they encourage a negative one Example: The pressure to maximize billable hours in accounting, consulting, and law firms leads to unconscious padding. Remedy: Brainstorm unintended consequences when devising goals and incentives. Consider alternative goals that may be more important to reward.

What are the two requirements of empathy?

1. Mindfulness 2. incorporate our understanding of another person's feelings and thoughts into our communications

Bullying is different from other forms of mistreatment or incivility in at least three ways

1.Bullying is usually evident to others 2. Bullying affects even those who are NOT bullied. 3. Bullying has group-level implications

How to prevent groupthink

Each member of the group should be assigned the role of critical evaluator. This role requires the active voicing of objections and doubts. Top-level executives should not use policy committees to rubber-stamp decisions that have already been made. Different groups with different leaders should explore the same policy questions. Managers should encourage subgroup debates and bring in outside experts to introduce fresh perspectives. Someone should be given the role of devil's advocate when discussing major alternatives. This person tries to uncover every conceivable negative factor. Once a consensus has been reached, everyone should be encouraged to rethink his/her position to check for flaws.

Gatekeeper

Encourages all group members to participate

4 Functions of organizational culture

Establish organizational identity. Encourage collective commitment. Ensure social system stability. Act as sense-making device.

High complexity situation

Examples are corporate reorganization or merger, they are ambiguous, hard to analyze, and often emotionally charged

These intuitive processes are influenced by two sources:

Expertise and feelings

Resilience

When beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond to attain success. Having the capacity to consistently bounce back from adversity and to sustain yourself in the face of the demands of positive events

presenteeism

When employees show up but are sick or otherwise in no condition to work productively

Schwartz's Value Theory

broad values motivate our behavior across any context. He categorized these values into two opposing or bipolar dimensions Dimension 1: Self-transcendence - Concern for the welfare and interests of others (universalism, benevolence) Self-enhancement - Pursuit of one's own interests and relative success and dominance over others (power, achievement). Dimension 2: Openness to change - Independence of thought, action, and feelings and readiness for change (stimulation, self-direction). Conservation - Order, self-restriction, preservation of the past, and resistance to change (conformity, tradition, security).

Dialetic method

calls for managers to foster a structured dialogue or debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision

Job rotation

calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another.

Open system

depends on constant interaction with the environment for survival

Process theories of motivation

describe how various person factors and situation factors in the Organizing Framework affect motivation

Crucial conversations

discussions between two or more people where (1) the stakes are high, (2) opinions vary, and (3) emotions run strong

Staff employees

do background research and provide technical advice and recommendations to their line managers.

An expectancy of zero means that the person

does not feel confident in his or her ability to do the job.

Task-oriented leadership should be most effective in

either high-control (situations I-III in Figure 13.3) or low-control situations (situation VIII).

Encounter phase

employees come to learn what the organization is really like. It is a time for reconciling unmet expectations and making sense of a new work environment. Many companies use a combination of orientation and training programs to socialize employees during the encounter phase. Onboarding is one such technique

Total rewards

encompass not only compensation and benefits, but also personal and professional growth opportunities and a motivating work environment that includes recognition, job design, and work-life balance.

Leaders increase their followers' psychological empowerment by

engaging in behaviors that enhance perceptions of meaning, self-determination or choice, competence, and impact

Decision making

entails identifying and choosing from among alternate solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs.

Characteristics of too much conflict

eroding performance, political infighting, dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork, aggression

Rational model of decision making

explains how managers should make decisions.It assumes that managers are completely objective and possess all information for their decisions. In this model, decisions thus demonstrate excellent logic and promote the organization's best interests.

What are the media of communication?

face-to-face conversations and meetings, telephone calls, charts and graphs, and the many digital messaging forms—e-mail, texting, voice mail, videoconferencing, Twitter, Facebook, Blackboard, and others

spending time discussing your vision is a form of social support

false

Integrating (Problem solving)

interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify it, generate and weigh alternatives, and select a solution.

Personality conflict

interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or disagreement

Decision making style

is the way an individual perceives and comprehends stimuli and the general manner in which he or she chooses to respond to such information

job characteristics model

is to promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics

Contingency theory of leadership

it is based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which the leader's style matches characteristics of the situation at hand.

Network-level politics

networks are loose associations of individuals seeking social support for their general self-interests. Politically, networks are people-oriented, while coalitions are issue-oriented. Networks have broader and longer-term agendas than do coalitions.

What are the two basic types of negotiation?

position-based or distributive, and interest-based or integrative

Linguistic style

refers to a person's characteristic speaking pattern.

Intensity

refers to the amount of effort that we invest in an activity.

Big data

reflects the vast quantity of data available for decision making. It also encompasses "the collection, sorting, and analysis of that information, and the techniques to do so

Soft skills

relate to human interactions and include both interpersonal skills and personal attributes

High-commitment work systems

rely on selective hiring, comprehensive training, comparatively high pay, pay contingent on performance, and good benefits.

Paraphrasing

rewriting or restating another person's ideas or thoughts into your own words

Electronic brainstorming

sometimes called brainwriting, allows participants to submit their ideas and alternatives over a computer network.

ive key contingency factors when making decisions about organization design:

strategy and goals, market uncertainty, decision-making processes, technology, and size

Detached listeners

tend to withdraw from the interaction. They appear inattentive, bored, distracted, and uninterested. They may start using mobile devices during the speaking-listening exchange. Their body language will reflect lack of interest, such as slumping and avoiding direct eye contact.

Social media policy

that describes the who, how, when, and for what purposes of social media use, and the consequences for noncompliance

value attainment

that satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important values.

Social support is

the amount of perceived helpfulness we derive from social relationships

Global mindset

the belief in one's ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context

Power

the discretion and the means to enforce your will over others

Voice is

the discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization

Procedural justice is

the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions

Sender.

the person or group wanting to communicate information—the message.

The receiver is

the person, group, or organization for whom the message is intended

Artifacts

the physical manifestation of an organization's culture. They include: Acronyms. Manner of dress. Awards. Myths and stories told about the organization. Published lists of values. Observable rituals and ceremonies. Special parking spaces. Pictures and images handing on walls

Pay for performance is

the popular term for monetary incentives that link at least some portion of pay directly to results or accomplishments.

Crowdsourcing

the practice of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people" typically via the Internet

position power

the source of influence is associated with a particular job or position within an organization legitimate, reward, and coercive power

Hard skills

the technical expertise and knowledge required to do a particular task or job function

Social loafing is

the tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases

Escalation of commitment bias is

the tendency to hold to an ineffective course of action even when it is unlikely the bad situation can be reversed

Reward power

they can obtain compliance by promising or granting rewards. Pay-for-performance plans and positive reinforcement practices rely on reward power.

The primary purpose of task-oriented behaviors is

to assist others in accomplishing their goals and those of the work unit.Although a host of behaviors fall under this category, such as planning, clarifying, monitoring, and problem solving, researchers have mainly studied two: initiating structure and transactional leadership

Idealized influence

to instill pride, respect, and trust within employees. Managers do this by sacrificing for the good of the group, being a role model, and displaying high ethical standards.

Social media

use web-based and mobile technologies to generate interactive dialogue with members of a network

Goal specificity means

whether a goal has been quantified.

Influence tactics

conscious efforts to affect and change behaviors in others

Individualized consideration

consists of behaviors that provide support, encouragement, empowerment, and coaching to employees. To enact these behaviors, leaders must pay special attention to the needs of their followers and search for ways to help them develop and grow. Spend time talking with people about their interests and identify new learning opportunities for them.

Empowerment

consists of efforts to "enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes

Intuition

consists of judgments, insights, or decisions that "come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues."

intermittent reinforcement

consists of reinforcement of some but not all instances of a target behavior.

Information distribution

consists of the processes or systems that people, groups, or organizational units use to share information among themselves.

Internal virtual structures

coordinate the work of geographically dispersed employees working for one organization, such as those at Automattic Inc. This structure primarily relies on the use of information technology, but it also requires managers to consider three key issues: 1. Do i have the right people? 2. How often should people get together? 3. What type of technology should be used to coordinate activities?

Market uncertainty

helps determine the level of formalization it needs

Brainstorming

helps groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems

Humble leaders tend to display five key qualities valued by employees

high self-awareness, openness to feedback, appreciation of others, low self-focus, and appreciation of the greater good.

Positive reinforcement

The process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing

Leadership

"a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal

Practical problem solving techniques

(1) brainstorming, (2) the Delphi technique, and (3) decision support systems

Task or Project Goals

-best for jobs that are dynamic, but in which nearer-term activities and milestones can be defined -similar to SMART goals ex. complete your portion of the team project by Tuesday

What are the 3 determinants of intention?

1. Attitude toward the behavior 2. Subjective norm 3. Perceived behavioral control

What are the 3 types of innate needs?

1. Competence 2. Autonomy 3. Relatedness

How are LMX relationships formed?

1. Follower characteristics -Leaders tend to create higher LMXs with employees they perceive as possessing competence, positive personalities, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion 2. Leader characteristics - Leaders who use transactional and transformational leadership tend to have higher LMXs. Not surprisingly, so do extroverted and agreeable leaders. 3. Interpersonal relationship variables - High LMXs tend to occur when the parties: Trust each other. Perceive themselves as similar in terms of interests (both like sports or action movies), values (both value honesty), and attitudes (both want work-life balance). Like each other.

What are three reasons we miss things we hear?

1. High cognitive capacity 2. Noise 3. Motivation to listen, listening style

What are the 4 stages of rational decision making

1. Identify the Problem or Opportunity—Determining the Actual versus the Desirable 2. Generate Alternative Solutions—Both the Obvious and the Creative 3. Evaluate Alternatives and Select a Solution—Ethics, Feasibility, and Effectiveness 4. Implement and Evaluate the Solution Chosen

4 agility techniques of innovation

1. Place more emphasis on people than on processes and tools. Innovation initiatives or projects should be built around motivated individuals who are empowered to get the job done and have the resources to do it. 2. Be responsive to change rather than following a detailed plan. It helps to create project plans, but don't spend large amounts of time trying to identify each and every task to be completed. Tasks frequently change as situations evolve. Teams thus need the freedom to diverge from project plans if the situation or customer requires it 3. Develop and test prototypes rather than focusing on documentation. People learn more and are happier when they observe their ideas being applied in real market conditions. Teams should experiment with products and services on a small scale to see whether customers like them. If they do, keep the new ideas; otherwise, it's back to the drawing board. 4. Collaborate with customers rather than adhering to rigid contracts. Customers often don't know what they want. Adhering to fixed contracts and deliverables rather than adjusting to customer preferences can reduce innovation when employees get too focused on budgets and specifications. Constant collaboration with customers will keep work focused on what they ultimately value

Common influence tactics

1. Rational persuasion Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts. 2. Inspirational appeals Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values. 3. Consultation Getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes. 4. Ingratiation Getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request. Being friendly and helpful and using praise, flattery, or humor. A particular form of ingratiation is "brownnosing." 5. Personal appeals Referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request. 6. Exchange Making explicit or implied promises and trading favors. 7. Coalition tactics Getting others to support your efforts to persuade someone. 8. Pressure Demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats. 9. Legitimating tactics Basing a request on authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or explicit/implied support from superiors.

What are the three general criteria for distributing rewards?

1. Results 2. Behavior and actions 3. Nonperformance considerations

What are the steps of the communication process?

1. Sender encodes message 2. Sender selects channel, transmits message 3. Receiver decodes message 4. Feedback returns to sender

4 Main conclusions about the trait theory of leadership

1. We cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits. Traits play a central role in the way we perceive leaders, and they do ultimately affect leadership effectiveness. 2. The positive and "dark triad" traits shown in Table 13.1 suggest the qualities you should cultivate and avoid if you want to assume a leadership role in the future. Personality tests, discussed in Chapter 3, and other trait assessments can help evaluate your strengths and weaknesses on these traits. 3. Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and promotion processes. 4. A global mind-set is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait. As more companies expand their international operations and hire more culturally diverse people for domestic operations in the United States, they want to enhance employees' global mind-set

What are the 4 listening styles?

1. active 2. involved 3. passive 4. detached

When is the obliging style in/appropriate?

A:You believe that you may be wrong. Issue is more important to the other party. You are willing to give up something in exchange for something from the other party in the future. You are dealing from a position of weakness. Preserving relationship is important. I:Issue is important to you. You believe that you are right. The other party is wrong or unethical.

4 characteristics of an apology

Acknowledgment of wrongdoing. Acceptance of responsibility. Expression of regret. Promise that the offense will not be repeated. It also is helpful to consider that a failure to apologize, or to do so in a timely manner, can turn a bad situation worse and damage how others see you

Deception

Acts and statements may include promises or threats, excessive initial demands, careless misstatements of facts, or asking for concessions not wanted.

three-phase model of organizational socialization

Anticipatory socialization Encounter Change and acquisition

Prosocial behaviors

Are positive acts performed without the expectation of anything in return

Availability bias

Because the information is recent, we overestimate its importance. The problem, of course, is that recent information is not necessarily the best or most accurate. The availability bias can be fueled by news media, which emphasize negative or unusual events like plane crashes and high-school shootings and often cause us to overestimate their frequency

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)

Behavior that harms other employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers

Behavioral goals

Can be used in most jobs. Most relevant for knowledge work. Ex: Treat others with professionalism and respect, communicate clearly.

Decision making processes

Centralized decision making occurs when key decisions are made by top management. Decentralized decision making occurs when important decisions are made by middle- and lower-level managers.

Information seeker/giver

Clarifies key issues

Encourager

Fosters group solidarity by accepting and praising various points of view

Self-managed teams

Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domain

Efficacy

Having the confidence to take on challenging tasks and put in the effort necessary to succeed

3 types of followers

Helpers show deference to and comply with the leadership. Independents distance themselves from the leadership and show less compliance. Rebels show divergence from the leader and are least compliant.

Compromiser

Helps resolve conflict by meeting others halfway

Positive psychological capital (PsyCap)

High levels of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism (HERO)

Customer perspective

How Do Customers See Us? Many companies view customers as one of their most important constituents. The balanced scorecard translates this belief into measures such as market share, customer acquisition, customer retention, customer satisfaction/loyalty, product/service quality, response time—the time between order and delivery—and percentage of bids won. Part of Amazon's success, for example, is its response time and pricing. The general idea behind the customer perspective is that companies will acquire and retain more customers, thereby growing market share, when they provide high-quality products and services people want, and in a timely manner.

What are social media's benefits to employees?

Increased job satisfaction and better work-life balance. Performance and retention. More creativity and collaboration. Digital media is searchable, so productivity increases

virtual structures are classified into two types

Internal and networked

Monitoring performance

Involves measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate performance

Orienter

Keeps group headed toward its stated goal(s)

What are individual causes of incivility at work?

Lack of character and ethics Past experience as a target of incivility Sensitivity to injustice and harassment Different goals Incompatible personalities Biases/stereotypes

Optimism

Making a positive attribution about succeeding now and in the future

What are the content theories of motivation?

Maslow's hierarchy of needs and related content theories such as McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, acquired needs theory, self-determination theory, and Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

What are the three basic needs in the acquired needs theory?

Need for achievement, the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others. Need for affiliation, the desire to maintain social relationships, be liked, and join groups. Need for power, the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.

What are the four key communication skills that affect your communication competence?

Nonverbal communication Active listening Nondefensive communication Empathy

What are the 2 Nonrational models of decision making?

Normative and intuition

3 Levels of organizational culture

Observable artifacts. Espoused values. Basic underlying assumptions

Procedural technician

Performs routine duties (handing out materials or rearranging seats)

Energizer

Prods group to move along or to accomplish more

What characteristics of followers do leaders want?

Productive Reliable Honest Cooperative Proactive Flexible

What practices foster employee positivity?

Providing decision making discretion Share information Minimize incivility Provide feedback

Coordinator

Pulls together ideas and suggestions

Virtuousness

Represents what individuals and organizations aspire to be when they are at their very best

Four psychosocial functions of mentoring were:

Role modeling Acceptance and confirmation Counseling Friendship

3 Considerations for decision making

Routine and frequency: If the decision occurs frequently and is of a routine nature, such as deciding on promotions or who qualifies for a loan, use groups because they tend to produce more consistent decisions than do individuals. Time constraints: Given time constraints, let the most competent individual, rather than a group, make the decision. Information and communication: In the face of environmental threats such as time pressure and potential serious effects of a decision, groups use less information and fewer communication channels. This increases the probability of a bad decision.

What do followers want from leaders?

Significance Community Excitement

Disdvantages of group decision making

Social pressure. The desire to look good in front of others, particularly the boss, leads to conformity and stifles creativity. A few dominant participants. The quality of a group's decision can be influenced by a few vocal people who dominate the discussion. This is particularly problematic when the vocal person is perceived as a powerful individual. Goal displacement. When the group is evaluating alternatives, secondary considerations such as winning an argument, getting back at a rival, or trying to impress the boss can override the primary goal of solving a problem. Groupthink

Five career functions of mentoring that enhanced career development were:

Sponsorship Exposure and visibility Coaching Protection Challenging assignments

How to make an influence plan

Step 1: Set a goal and get a clear idea of what you want to achieve. Step 2: Identify the person or persons who can help you achieve that goal. Step 3: Decide what type of influence outcome—compliance or commitment—you want or need from the person(s) identified in Step 2. Step 4: Decide which bases of power and tactics are most appropriate for the influence outcome you desire. (Be realistic about which are available to you.) Step 5: Explicitly describe how you will apply the bases of power and tactics you chose.

Factors of internal alignment

Strategy. Structure. Organizational culture. Internal processes. Human resource practices, policies, and procedures. Employees' human and social capital.

Empowerment inputs

Structural empowerment is an input to psychological empowerment. This makes sense because job characteristics, policies, and practices can either facilitate or impede feelings of empowerment for individuals and teams the extent to which employees have positive self-evaluations, such as core self-evaluations and positive psychological capital, likely enhances their sense of empowerment job characteristics that generate intrinsic motivational states (sense of meaningfulness and responsibility) clearly can help, as can leadership. Finally, if teams have access to resources such as the people and ideas in other teams, then they too are more likely to be empowered.

Technology

Technology consists of the information technology, equipment, tools, and processes needed to transform inputs to outputs. It allows products and services to be created and distributed and lets companies use big data in making decisions. Experts suggest that the use of big data "will change organizational structures as organizations pursue the opportunities presented." This implies that the technology a company uses is a key consideration in deciding the best way to organize in pursuit of strategic goals.

Evaluator

Tests group's accomplishments with various criteria such as logic and practicality

Social support

The amount of perceived helpfulness derived from social relationship

Mindfulness

The awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment

Well-being

The combined impact of five elements—positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA)

two additional ways of impressing your boss.

The first is to associate yourself with so-called stars, those on the fast track who already have the attention of management. The second is to work on key projects that need help or refinement.

What is the feedback process of communication?

The first round of feedback occurs when the original receiver expresses a reaction to the sender's message. Once the initial sender has obtained this feedback, he or she is likely to decode it and send corresponding feedback. This process continues until sender and receiver believe they have effectively communicated.

Motivation

The psychological processes that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought

Information interpretation

This step is all about making sense of the information organizations have acquired and distributed

Strengthening one's own position

This tactic includes building one's own resources, including expertise, finances, and alliances. It also includes presentations of persuasive rationales to the opponent or third parties (e.g., the public, the media) or getting mandates for one's position.

Leniency

To consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.

Contrast effect

To evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.

Halo effect

To form an overall impression about a person or object and then use that impression to bias ratings about same.

Positive emotions broaden your perspective and build on themselves

True

Respondent behavior

Unlearned reflexes or stimulus-response (S-R) connections

Expert power

Valued knowledge or information gives an individual

Internal business process perspective

What Must We Excel At? The internal business perspective focuses on "what the organization must excel at" to effectively meet its financial objectives and customers' expectations. A team of researchers has Page 613identified four critical high-level internal processes that managers are encouraged to measure and manage: Innovation. Customer service and satisfaction. Operational excellence, which includes safety and quality. Good corporate citizenship. These processes influence productivity, efficiency, quality, safety, and a host of other internal metrics. Companies tend to adopt continuous improvement programs in pursuit of upgrades to their internal processes

Coaching is

a customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change

Charisma

a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance, devotion, and enthusiasm

Apologies are

a form of trust repair in which we acknowledge an offense and usually offer to make amends

Laissez-faire leadership

a general failure to take responsibility for leading. Examples include avoiding conflict, failing to provide coaching on difficult assignments, failing to assist employees in setting performance goals, avoiding performance feedback, ignoring bullying, and being so hands-off that employees have little idea what they should be doing.

Negotiation

a give-and-take decision-making process between two or more parties with different preferences

Decision tree

a graphical representation of the process underlying decisions, and it shows the consequences of making various choices

Learning organization

a group of people working together to collectively enhance their capacities to create results that they truly care about." A practical interpretation of these ideas results in the following definition. Proactively creates, acquires, and transfers knowledge and changes its behavior on the basis of new knowledge and insights.

Conceptual style

a high tolerance for ambiguity and tend to focus on the people or social aspects of a work situation. They take a broad perspective on problem solving and like to consider many options and future possibilities. Conceptual types adopt a long-term view and rely on intuition and discussions with others to acquire information. They also are willing to take risks and are good at finding creative solutions to problems. On the downside, however, a conceptual style can foster an idealistic and indecisive approach to decision making.

Vision

a long-term goal that describes what an organization wants to become

Leadership prototype

a mental representation of the traits and behaviors people believe leaders possess

Groupthink

a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action happens when members fail to exercise sufficient reality testing and moral judgment due to pressures from the group. If they passively ignore the danger, modern managers can all too easily become victims of groupthink

Adhocracy culture

an organization with less structure and bureaucracy. It also reflects a management team focused on responding to problems rather than avoiding them. Companies with this culture have an external focus and value flexibility. Creation of new products and services is their strategy, which they accomplish by being adaptable, creative, and fast to respond to changes in the marketplace. They do not rely on the centralized power and authority relationships that are part of market and hierarchical cultures. They encourage and empower employees to take risks, think outside the box, and experiment with new ways of getting things done.

Impression management

any attempt to control or manipulate the images related to a person, organization, or idea. It encompasses speech, behavior, and appearance and can be aimed at anyone—parents, teachers, peers, employees, and customers are all fair game. For instance, by positioning themselves as socially responsible, companies can create positive impressions with many stakeholders, such as potential customers, and in turn boost sales.

Incivility

any form of socially harmful behavior, such as aggression, interpersonal deviance, social undermining, interactional injustice, harassment, abusive supervision, and bullying

Characteristics of too little conflict

apathy, lack of creativity, indecision, missed deadlines

Reward, coercive, and negative legitimate power tend to produce compliance (and sometimes resistance). Positive legitimate power, expert power, and referent power tend to foster commitment.

commitment is superior to compliance because it is driven by internal or intrinsic motivation. Committed employees tend to be self-starters who do not require close supervision. Intrinsically motivated self-starters are success factors in today's flatter, team-oriented organizations. In contrast, employees who merely comply require frequent jolts of power from the boss to keep them going.

Functional conflict

commonly referred to as constructive or cooperative conflict, is characterized by consultative interactions, a focus on the issues, mutual respect, and useful give-and-take. In such situations people often feel comfortable disagreeing and presenting opposing views. Positive outcomes frequently result.

Defensiveness

communicated by gestures such as folding arms, crossing hands, crossing legs, or pointing at others.

Decision support systems

computer-based interactive systems that help decision makers to use data and models to solve unstructured problems

Networked virtual structures

establish a collaborative network of independent firms or individuals to create a virtual entity. The networked individuals or companies join forces because each possesses core competencies needed for a project or product. This structure is used in the movie/entertainment industry.

a continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedule is in effect if

every instance of a target behavior is reinforced,

Nonrational models of decision making

explain how managers actually make decisions; typically build on assumptions that decision making is uncertain, that decision makers do not possess complete information, and that managers struggle to make optimal decisions

Positive legitimate power

focuses constructively on job performance

Transactional Leadership Style

focuses on clarifying employees' role and task requirements and providing followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance. Transactional leadership includes the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals, monitoring progress toward goal achievement, and rewarding and punishing people for their level of goal accomplishment. You can see that transactional leadership is based on using rewards and punishment to drive motivation and performance. Research supports a positive association between transactional leadership and leader effectiveness and group performance

Line managers

generally have the authority to make decisions for their units

5 organizational subsystems

goals and values, technical, psychosocial, structural, and managerial

Forming

group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about such unknowns as their roles, the people in charge, and the group's goals. Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how

Functional structure

groups people according to the business functions they perform, for example, manufacturing, marketing, and finance. A manager is responsible for the performance of each of these functions, and employees tend to identify strongly with their particular function, such as sales or engineering Best for: Small companies, some large government organizations and divisions of large companies. Pros: Clear roles and responsibilities. Cons: Coordination and communication lapses across functional silos; most companies use dotted line or other informal means to combat this potential limitation.

Situation factors that drive creative performance behaviors

high-performance work systems demonstrate a form of social support for employees, leading them to put more effort into creative behaviors. Other important situation factors include interpersonal diversity, time pressure, positive relationships with supervisors and coworkers, mutual accountability among group members, and spatial configuration of work settings

House's path goal contingency leadership theory

holds that leader behaviors are effective when employees view them as a source of satisfaction or as paving the way to future satisfaction. Leaders are expected to do this by (1) reducing roadblocks that interfere with goal accomplishment, (2) providing the guidance and support employees need, and (3) linking meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment.. two contingency factors—employee characteristics and environmental factors—can cause some leadership behaviors to be more effective than others.

Expectancy theory

holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes

Spillover effect

hostilities in one life domain can manifest in other domains

360-degree feedback

individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers

Steps of the learning organizational process

information acquisition, information distribution, information interpretation, knowledge integration, and organizational memory

Explicit knowledge

information that can easily be put into words

Tacit knowledge

information we gain through experience that is difficult to express and formalize

7 components of an innovation system

innovation strategy; committed leadership; innovative culture and climate; required structure and processes; necessary human capital; human resource policies, practices, and procedures; and appropriate resources

Leaders

inspire others, provide emotional support, and try to get employees to rally around a common goal. Leaders also play a key role in creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization.

What are the two functions of feedback?

instructional and motivational

Five of the most common styles are distinguished by the combatants' relative concern for others (x-axis) and for self (y-axis). The combinations of these two characteristics produce the conflict-handling styles called

integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising

Trait approach to leadership

leadership traits are not inborn but can be developed through experience and learning. It attempts to identify personality characteristics or interpersonal attributes that differentiate leaders from followers

What are the five bases of power?

legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent Expert and referent power have a generally positive effect. Reward and legitimate power have a slightly positive effect. Coercive power has a slightly negative effect

Directive style

low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and technical concerns when making decisions. They are efficient, logical, practical, and systematic in their approach to solving problems. Directive decision makers are action oriented and decisive and like to focus on facts. In their pursuit of speed and results, however, they tend to be autocratic, exercise power and control, and focus on the short run.

Coercive power

make threats of punishment and deliver actual punishment

Optimizing

means solving problems by producing the best possible solution based on a set of highly desirable conditions

Encoding

means translating thoughts into a form or language that can be understood by others. This language becomes the foundation of the message

Least preferred coworker scale

measure the extent to which an individual takes a task- or relationship-based approach toward leadership. The scale asks you to evaluate a coworker you least enjoy working with on 16 pairs of opposite characteristics (such as friendly/unfriendly and tense/relaxed). High scores on the survey (high LPC) indicate that an individual is relationship-motivated, and low scores (low LPC) suggest a task-motivated style.

Size

measured by the number of employees, volume of sales, amount of assets, and geographical locations. Larger size generally requires more complex organizational designs.

Media richness

measures the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding

Relationship-oriented leadership should be most effective in situations of

moderate control (situations IV-VII)

job enrichment

modifies a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

transformational leaders tend to have personalities that are

more extroverted, agreeable, and proactive and less neurotic than nontransformational leaders. They also have higher emotional intelligence and tend to be female. Leader trait affect, which represents a person's tendency to feel either positive or negative, also influences how well we use transformational leadership, because positive people are more likely to engage in transformational leadership than negatively oriented individuals. organizational culture influences the extent to which leaders are transformational. Cultures that are adaptive and flexible rather than rigid and bureaucratic are more likely to foster the opportunity for leaders to demonstrate transformational leadership. the use of transformational leadership creates immediate positive effects on followers and work groups. These in turn generate the additional positive outcomes shown in the fourth column of Figure 13.5 like individual, group, and organizational performance; organizational commitment; organizational citizenship behaviors; reduced turnover intentions; and safety behaviors. By and large, research supports the linkages the figure shows

Analytical style

much higher tolerance for ambiguity and tend to overanalyze a situation. They like to consider more information and alternatives than do those with a directive style. Analytical individuals are careful decision makers who take longer to make decisions but who also respond well to new or uncertain situations. They can often be autocratic.

Anticipatory Socialization Phase

occurs before an individual actually joins an organization. During this phase people acquire information about different careers, occupations, professions, and organizations that can come from many sources. An organization's current employees are a powerful source of information. So are the Internet, social media, internships, and job fairs. Unrealistic expectations about the nature of the work, pay, and promotions are often formulated during Phase 1. Because employees with unrealistic expectations are more likely to quit their jobs in the future, organizations should offer realistic job previews

Failure

occurs when an activity fails to deliver its expected results or outcomes

Virtual structure

one whose members are geographically apart, usually working with e-mail and other forms of information technology, but that generally appears to customers as a single, unified organization with a real physical location. Best for: Companies that need to explore a new market opportunity by partnering with other organizations or rapidly deploy a new potential business model. Pros: Ability to respond nimbly to market opportunity; ability to provide product extension or one-stop-shop service; low exit costs if initial opportunity vanishes Cons: High level of communication necessary to avoid redundancy; low trust and coordination among widely distributed employees; failure to promote strong employee loyalty or organizational identification.

Effective feedback is

only information—it is not an evaluation.

Basic underlying assumptions

organizational values so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions guiding organizational behavior. Underlying assumptions are employees' deep-seated beliefs about their company and are the core of organizational culture. As you might expect, they are highly resistant to change.

contingency approach to organization design

organizations tend to be more effective when they are structured to fit the demands of the situation, and when the structure is aligned with internal activities and actions of the organization

strategic plan

outlines the organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve them

Avoiding

passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common.

What are the main forms of ADR?

peer review, arbitration, and mediation, facilitation, conciliation, ombudsman

Implicit leadership theory

people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers. These beliefs are summarized in a leadership prototype.

Confirmation bias

pertains to how we selectively gather information and has two components. The decision maker (1) subconsciously decides something even before investigating why it is the right decision—for example, making a snap decision to purchase a particular smartphone—and (2) seeks information that supports or confirms the decision while discounting information that does not. This bias leads us to collect information that supports our beliefs or views.

Onboarding

programs help employees to integrate, assimilate, and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics and by clarifying work-role expectations and responsibilities

learning goals

promotes enhancing your knowledge or skill

Job enlargement

puts more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.

Consensus

reached when all members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their 'day in court' and were unable to convince the others of their viewpoint. In the final analysis, everyone agrees to support the outcome does not require unanimous agreement, because group members may still disagree with the final decision but are willing to work toward its success. They must honestly and accurately communicate with each other when trying to reach a consensus.

Psychological safety climate

represents a shared belief among team members that it is safe to engage in risky behaviors, such as questioning current practices without retribution or negative consequences; results in increased team creativity, less conflict within and between teams, and higher individual and team performance. Also help improve employee turnover, safe work behaviors, and job satisfaction

Job crafting

represents employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics

Empathy

represents the ability to recognize and understand another person's feelings and thoughts. It is a reflective technique that fosters open communication.

persistence

represents the effort expended on a task over an extended period of time

Empowering leadership

represents the leader's ability to create perceptions of psychological empowerment in others

Bounded rationality

represents the notion that decision makers are "bounded" or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions In addition to lack of information, bounded rationality is caused by any personal characteristics and internal and external resources that reduce rational decision making. Personal characteristics include personality and the limited capacity of the human mind. Examples of internal resources are the organization's human and social capital, financial resources, technology, plant and equipment, internal processes and systems, and the time available. External resources include factors the organization cannot directly control, such as employment levels in the community, capital availability, and government policies. the constraints of bounded rationality cause decision makers to fail to evaluate all potential alternatives, thereby causing them to satisfice

Low complexity situation

routine and predictable, such as a manager updating employees on last month's sales or calculating someone's paycheck

What are the five principal top-down approaches?

scientific management, job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model.

Organizational design

sets "the structures of accountability and responsibility used to develop and implement strategies, and the human resource practices and information and business processes that activate those structures." The general idea behind the study of organizational design is that organizations are more effective or successful when their structure supports the execution of corporate strategies. Keep in mind that there is no one best structure for a company. Companies tend to change structure in response to changes in the marketplace or in their strategic goals.

Conflict states

shared perceptions among team members about the target and intensity of the conflict. Targets can be either tasks (goals or ideas) or relationships

Structural vs psychological empowerment

structural empowerment draws on job design and characteristics, psychological empowerment is related to self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. "It is less concerned with the actual transition of authority and responsibility but instead focuses on employees' perceptions or cognitive states regarding empowerment." Put simply, if you feel that your work has meaning, that you are competent, and that you have some control (self-determination), you are very likely to feel highly efficacious and perform at a high level

Compromising

style is a give-and-take approach with a moderate concern for both self and others. It is appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power.

Flex space

such as telecommuting, occurs when policies enable employees to do their work from different locations besides the office (coffee shops, home, or the beach)

social role theory

suggests that girls and boys are taught to communicate differently.

Contact hypothesis

suggests that the more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience; approach is naive and limited;

A performance goal

targets a specific end result

Espoused values

the explicitly stated qualities and norms preferred by an organization. They are generally established by the founder of a new or small company and by the top management team in a larger organization.

Value orientation

the extent to which an individual focuses on either task and technical concerns or people and social concerns when making decisions. Some people, for instance, are very task-focused at work and do not pay much attention to people issues, whereas others are just the opposite.

three levels of political action:

the individual level, the coalition level, and the network level

Conflict processes

the means by which team members work through task and relationship disagreements

Behavioral style

the most people-oriented of the four. People with this style work well with others and enjoy social interactions in which opinions are openly exchanged. Behavioral decision makers are supportive, are receptive to suggestions, show warmth, and prefer verbal to written information. Although they like to hold meetings, they prefer to avoid conflict and can be too concerned about others. This can lead behavioral types to adopt a conflict-avoidance approach to decision making and to have a hard time saying no.

Organizational socialization

the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors required to assume a work role." This definition highlights that organizational socialization is a key mechanism by which organizations embed their cultures, particularly in new employees. In short, organizational socialization turns outsiders into fully functioning insiders by promoting and reinforcing the organization's core values and beliefs

Listening

the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. It requires cognitive attention and information processing;

Evidence-based decision making

the process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions. It holds the promise of helping avoid the decision-making biases discussed above and improving performance while reducing costs. Proponents also believe evidence-based decision making can help in the use of "big data" to market and sell products and services.

Mentoring

the process of forming and maintaining intensive and lasting developmental relationships between a variety of developers (people who provide career and psychosocial support) and a junior person (the protégé, if male, or protégée, if female). Mentoring can serve to embed an organization's culture when developers and the protégé/protégée work in the same organization for two reasons. First, mentoring contributes to creating a sense of oneness by promoting the acceptance of the organization's core values throughout the organization. Second, the networking aspect of mentoring also promotes positive interpersonal relationships.

Decoding

the process of interpreting or making sense of a message, occurs when receivers receive a message

Creativity

the process of producing "new and useful ideas concerning products, services, processes, and procedures.

Managers use evidence or data in three different ways:

to make a decision - "Evidence is used to make a decision whenever the decision follows directly from the evidence." to inform a decision - Evidence is used to inform a decision whenever the decision process combines hard, objective facts with qualitative inputs, such as intuition or bargaining with stakeholders Evidence is used to support a decision whenever the evidence is gathered or modified for the sole purpose of lending legitimacy to a decision that has already been made." This application of evidence has both positive and negative effects. On the positive side, evidence collected after the fact can be used to convince an external audience that the organization is following a sound course of action in a complex and ambiguous decision context. This can lead to confidence and goodwill about how a company is responding to environmental events. On the negative side, the practice can stifle employee involvement and input because people will come to believe that management is going to ignore evidence and just do what it wants to support a decision

Structural empowerment

transfers authority and responsibilities from management to employees job design and job characteristics forms of motivation

Transformational leaders

transform their followers to pursue organizational goals over self-interests. They do this by appealing to followers' self-concepts—their values, motives, and personal identity. There are four key behaviors of transformational leaders: inspirational motivation, idealized influence, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation

Balanced scorecard

translates an organization's vision and strategy into a comprehensive set of performance measures that provides the framework for a strategic measurement and management system." It "retains an emphasis on achieving financial objectives, but also includes the performance drivers of these financial objectives." The BSC provides managers with a comprehensive view of the organization in terms of four perspectives: (1) financial, (2) customer, (3) internal business processes, and (4) learning and growth, which looks at employee welfare and development.

T/F: vague performance measures—is the significant problem of unclear performance-reward linkages

true

Distributive negotiation

usually concerns a single issue—a "fixed pie"—in which one person gains at the expense of another. the most common type of negotiation and is characterized by dividing up the pieces of a pie. There is only so much pie to go around, and two (or more) parties negotiate over who gets how much or which parts

two dimensions of decision making styles:

value orientation and tolerance for ambiguity.

Legitimate power

what most people think of as authority and is anchored to a formal organizational position. Thus, managers who obtain compliance primarily because of their formal authority to make decisions

Inspirational motivation

which includes the use of charisma, relies on an attractive vision of the future, emotional arguments, and demonstrated optimism and enthusiasm. A vision is "a realistic, credible, attractive future for your organization."According to Burt Nanus, a leadership expert, the right vision unleashes human potential because it serves as a beacon of hope and common purpose. It does this by attracting commitment, energizing workers, creating meaning in employees' lives, establishing a standard of excellence, promoting high ideals, and bridging the gap between an organization's present problems and its future goals and aspirations.

motivator-hygiene theory

which proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors.

acquired needs theory

which states that three needs—for achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior.

Hope consists of

willpower and waypower

What are the three sections of self-enhancement?

1. Power: Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources (social power, authority, wealth) 2. Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards (successful, capable, ambitious, influential) 3. Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself (pleasure, enjoying life)

What are the phases of the Lewin model of change?

1. Unfreezing - create the motivation to change 2. Changing - Introduce new information, models, and procedures 3. Refreezing - Support and reinforce the change

Core self-evaluations (CSEs)

A broad personality trait comprised of four narrower and positive individual traits: (1) generalized self-efficacy, (2) self-esteem, (3) locus of control, and (4) emotional stability

What are some undesirable effects of stress?

Decreases in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, positive emotions, and performance. Increases in emotional exhaustion, burnout, absenteeism, and turnover

Active listening

Giving full attention to what other people are saying; taking time to understand the points being made; asking questions as appropriate and not interrupting.

What are some ways employers can increase employee commitment?

Hire people whose personal values align with the organization's. Make sure that management does not breach its psychological contracts. Treat employees fairly and foster trust between managers and employees.

Problem solving

Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and evaluate options and implement solutions.

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

Individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization

Cognitive restructuring

Irrational or maladaptive thoughts are identified and replaced with those that are rational or logical. Expensive because it requires a trained psychologist or counselor.

What are the two sections of self-transcendence?

Universalism - Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection of the welfare of all people and of nature (broad-minded, wisdom, social justice, equality, a world at peace, a world of beauty, unity with nature, protecting the environment) Benevolence - Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact (helpful, honest, forgiving, loyal, responsible)

Needs

physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior

organization

"a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons.

Active listeners

"all in." That is, they are motivated to listen and give full attention when others are talking. They focus on what is being communicated and expend energy by participating in the discussion. They also use positive body language, such as leaning in or making direct eye contact, to convey interest.

Programmed conflict

"conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers." The challenge is to get contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than on the basis of personal preference or political interests. This positive result requires disciplined role-playing and effective leadership

Scientific management is

"that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning."

Outcome interdependence is

"the degree to which the outcomes of task work are measured, rewarded, and communicated at the group level so as to emphasize collective outputs rather than individual contributions.

Communication is

"the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved." It is a circular and dynamic process in which people interpret and make sense of the information they exchange

Creative outcome effectiveness

"the joint novelty and usefulness (quality) of a product or service" as judged by others.

Questions to consider while selecting a solution

(1) Is it ethical? (If not, don't consider it.) (2) Is it feasible? (If time is an issue, costs are high, resources are limited, new technology is needed, or customers are resistant, for instance, then the alternative is not feasible.) (3) Will it remove the causes and solve the problem?

two benefits of using intuition to make decisions.

(1) It can speed up the decision-making process, which is valuable when you are under time constraints.(2) It is useful when resources are limited. On the downside, however, intuition is subject to the same types of biases associated with rational decision making. the decision maker may have difficulty convincing others that the intuitive decision makes sense, so a good idea may be ignored.

Members of groups tend to be cohesive for two fundamental reasons

(1) they like and enjoy each other's company and (2) they need each other to achieve a common goal.

Objective goals

-Best for jobs with clear and readily measured outcomes -Measure what matters, not just what can be measured -Ex: Sales Quotas, Production Rates, Error Rates

Two forms of intuition

1. A holistic hunch is a judgment based on the subconscious integration of information stored in memory. People using holistic intuition may not be able to explain why they want to make a certain decision except that the choice "feels right." This reflects System 1 thinking (intuitive and largely unconscious) 2. Automated experience represents a choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of learned information related to it. For example, when you have years of experience driving a car, you react to a variety of situations without conscious analysis

What factors influence the perception of feedback?

1. Accuracy 2. Credibility of the source 3. Fairness of the system 4. Performance-reward expectancies 5. Reasonableness of the goals and standards

What are the 3 desired outcomes of cooperative conflict?

1. Agreement. Equitable and fair agreements are best. An agreement that leaves one party feeling exploited or defeated will tend to breed resentment and subsequent conflict. 2. Stronger relationships. Good agreements enable conflicting parties to build bridges of goodwill and trust for future use. Moreover, conflicting parties who trust each other are more likely to keep their end of the bargain they have made. 3. Learning. Functional conflict can promote greater self-awareness and creative problem solving. Like the practice of management itself, successful conflict handling is learned primarily by doing. Knowledge of the concepts and techniques in this chapter is a necessary first step, but there is no substitute for hands-on practice. There are plenty of opportunities to practice conflict management in today's world.

What are the top four skills valued by employers?

1. Critical thinking 2. Problem solving 3. Judgment and decision making 4. Active listening

What are the elements of Kotter's eight-step model that involves eliminating barriers to change?

1. Establish a sense of urgency. - Unfreeze the organization using a compelling reason why change is needed. 2. Create the guiding coalition. - Create a team with appropriate knowledge and enough power to lead change. 3. Develop a vision and strategy. - Create a vision to inspire and a strategic plan to guide the change process. 4. Communicate the change vision. - Implement a communication strategy and "overcommunicate" the new vision and strategic plan. 5. Empower broad-based action. - Eliminate obstacles (processes and people) and encourage risk taking and creative problem solving. 6. Generate short-term wins. - Plan for and create short-term "wins" or improvements. Recognize and reward people who contribute to the wins. 7. Consolidate gains and produce more change. - Allow guiding coalition to use credibility from short-term wins to create more change. Additional people are brought into the change process as change cascades throughout the organization. Attempts are made to energize the change process. 8. Anchor new approaches in the culture. - Reinforce the changes by highlighting connections between new behaviors and processes and organizational success. Embed these in performance management and other processes—hiring, promotion, and leadership development and succession.

What are the five steps of group development?

1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning

What are the three sections of openness to change?

1. Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself (pleasure, enjoying life) 2. Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life (daring, a varied life, an exciting life) 3. Self-Direction: Independent thought and action, choosing, creating, exploring (creativity, freedom, independent, curious, choosing own goals)

three recommendations for improving organizational learning.

1. Improve on the five steps just discussed. 2. Realize that leader behavior, organizational climate, and organizational culture drive organizational learning. If leaders do not support a vision and culture that promote the value of learning, it won't happen. 3. We can all be role models of learning from failure

What are the 4 types of stress?

1. Individual 2. Group 3. Organizational 4. Extra-organizational

4 Phases of mentoring

1. Initiation - lasts 6 to 12 months and starts during the encounter phase of socialization. Mentors socialize new employees about the values, norms, and expectations associated with the organization's culture during this phase. If you don't get connected to a mentor during this period of employment, we suggest actively seeking someone out. 2. Cultivation - spans two to five years and entails the protégé/protégée receiving a host of career and psychosocial guidance. Your ability to learn the ropes and master the tasks during this phase is essential for future promotions. 3. Separation - you detach from your mentor and become more autonomous 4. Redefinition -you and your mentor start interacting as peers

What are the two ways of thinking?

1. Intuitive and Largely Unconscious Thought - automatic, instinctive, and emotional mode of decision making 2. Analytical and Conscious Thought - slow, logical, deliberate mode of decision making. It helps us identify when our intuition is wrong or when our emotions are clouding our judgment. It requires more cognitive effort than System 1 and is used when contemplating a discrete task

What are the 10 most frequent emotions?

1. Joy 2. Gratitude 3. Serenity 4. Interest 5. Hope 6. Pride 7. Amusement 8. Inspiration 9. Awe 10. Love

What are the four targeted elements of change?

1. Organizational arrangements 2. Social factors 3. Methods 4. People

What are the 3 major weaknesses of relying on common sense?

1. Over-reliance on hindsight - lack of vision for the future; not good for unexpected situations 2. Lack of rigor - not applying enough effort 3. Lack of objectivity - lacks a basis of science; too subjective

Creative performance behaviors

1. Problem formulation/definition. Problem formulation is the familiar Step 1 in our 3-Step Problem-Solving Approach. The practice of accurately defining the problem will enhance your creativity, and it requires System 1 thinking (System 1 thinking is intuitive and mainly unconscious). 2.Preparation/information gathering. The preparation stage reflects the notion that creativity starts from a base of knowledge. Experts suggest that creativity arises from the convergence of tacit and explicit knowledge. 3. Idea generation. Generating ideas requires making new mental connections about the task or problem at hand. This behavior is emphasized in brainstorming and calls for System 1 thinking. 4. Idea evaluation/validation. Selecting the most creative and promising idea from among multiple options relies on System 2 thinking (System 2 thinking is analytical and mainly conscious).

Three benefits of trying to follow a rational process as closely as is realistically possible

1. Quality. The quality of decisions may be enhanced, in the sense that they follow more logically from all available knowledge and expertise. 2. Transparency. Rationality makes the reasoning behind a decision transparent and available to scrutiny. 3. Responsibility. The rational model discourages decision makers from acting on suspect considerations (such as personal advancement or avoidance of bureaucratic embarrassment) and therefore encourages more responsible decisions

three key decision-making blunders during brainstorming

1. Rushing to judgment. Managers simply make decisions too quickly without considering all relevant information. 2. Selecting readily available ideas or solutions. Managers take the easy solution without rigorously considering alternatives. This can happen when emotions about the problem are running high. 3. Making poor allocation of resources to study alternate solutions. Managers don't invest the resources to properly study the problem and the alternate courses of action.

What are the 5 elements of the job characteristics model?

1. Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. 2. Task identity. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. Task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result. 3. Task significance. The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. 4. Autonomy. The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. 5. Feedback. The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job

ADRs have four general benefits

1. Speed 2. Low cost 3. Confidentiality 4. Winning solutions

Characteristics of escalating conflict

1. Tactics change. Parties often move from "light tactics," such as persuasive arguments, promises, and efforts to please the other side, to "heavy tactics" that include threats, power plays, and even violence. 2. Number of issues grows. More issues that bother each party are raised and included in the conflict. 3. Issues move from specific to general. Small and specific concerns often become more vague or general and can evolve into a general dislike of or intolerance for the other party. 4. Number of parties grows. More people and groups are drawn into the conflict. 5. Goals change. Parties change their focus from "doing well" or resolving conflict to winning and even hurting the other party.

3 Categories/Eras of Organizational design

1. Traditional - Organizations defined by a traditional approach tend to have functional, divisional, and/or matrix structures. Each of these structures relies on a vertical hierarchy and attempts to define clear departmental boundaries and reporting relationships. Historical Forces: Industrialization, mass production, and related capitalization. Mid-1800s through 1970s. Rationale: With industrialization and mass production, organizations were able to achieve great economies of scale by specializing the application of labor to specific and standardized functions. 2. Horizontal - Organizations defined by a horizontal approach work hard to flatten hierarchy and organize people around specific segments of the work flow. A horizontal structure, sometimes called a team or process structure, relies on a horizontal work flow and attempts to dissolve departmental boundaries and reporting relationships as much as possible. Historical Forces: Increased complexity and increasingly rapid development cycles for new products. 1980s. Rationale: The traditional approach of dividing up work according to functions, products, and customers frustrates managers who want to focus on bringing people together, without internal boundaries keeping them apart. If you want people to share knowledge, collaborate, and continually improve the way things are done, a horizontal design is a good option. 3. Open - Organizations defined by an open approach tend to have hollow, modular, or virtual structures. Each of these structures relies on leveraging technology and structural flexibility to maximize potential value through outsourcing and external collaboration. Historical Forces: Rapid technological improvements (including the Internet and mobile phones) and the rise of emerging economies (China and India) with pools of skilled workers willing to work for less than those in developed economies. Since mid-1990s. Rationale: Open designs help organizations respond more rapidly to customer and market changes. They also potentially reduce costs and increase innovation.

How to become a better follower

1. it is critical to understand boss: attempt to gain appreciation of manager's leadership style, interpersonal style, goals, expectation, pressures, and strengths and weaknesses Understand your own style, needs, goals, expectations, and strengths and weaknesses. Conduct a gap analysis between the understanding you have about your boss and the understanding you have about yourself. Build on mutual strengths and adjust or accommodate your boss's divergent style, goals, expectations, and weaknesses

What are the three common sources of feedback?

1. others 2. task 3. self

Tips for effective listening

1. show respect 2. listen from the first sentence 3. be mindful 4. keep quiet 5. ask questions 6. paraphrase and summarize 7. remember what was said 8. involve your body

Both face-to-face and cyber bullying affect their victims in two ways

1. uncivil acts directly harm the targeted person 2. the fear of future mistreatment amplifies this effect

Steps of ethical decision tree

1.Is the proposed action legal? 2. If "yes," does the proposed action maximize shareholder value? 3. If the decision maximizes shareholder value, the decision maker than considers whether or not the action is ethical 4. If the decision does not maximize shareholder value, then the decision maker should consider whether it would be ethical not to take the proposed action

Mechanisms for changing organizational culture

1. formal statements - statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials can embed culture when used for recruiting, selection, and socialization. They represent observable artifacts. 2.Design of Physical Space, Work Environments, and Buildings - Physical spacing among people and buildings and the location of office furniture are different ways to send messages about culture. For example, an open office environment is more appropriate for an organization that wants to foster collaboration and innovation. 3. Slogans, Language, Acronyms, and Sayings - Corporate slogans, acronyms, and specialized language often have a profound effect on the organization over time because they are easy to remember and repeat. 4. Deliberate Role Modeling, Training Programs, Teaching, and Coaching by Others - Companies such as Keller Williams Realty Inc., the largest real estate franchise in the world, use coaching and training to promote a culture focused on employee growth and development. According to CEO Chris Heller, "Our success results from a deeply ingrained culture of learning, innovation, and giving. 5. Explicit Rewards, Status Symbols, and Promotion Criteria - Because they are meaningful and visible, reward systems have a strong impact on employees and are one of the strongest ways to embed organizational culture 6. Stories, Legends, or Myths About Key People and Events - Storytelling is a powerful way to send messages to others about the values and behaviors the organization desires. Stories reinforce characteristics of the desired culture. 7. Organizational Activities, Processes, or Outcomes - Leaders pay special attention to activities, processes, and outcomes they can measure and control. This behavior sends strong messages to employees about acceptable norms and behavior. For example. if you want to create an adhocracy culture, then managers would pay attention to innovation processes and outcomes such as number of patents or number of ideas submitted to suggestion systems. 8. Leader Reactions to Critical Incidents and Organizational Crises Neuroscience research shows that people learn and pay attention to the emotions leaders exhibit. Positive emotions spread, but negative emotions travel faster and farther. Market cultures, for example, are reinforced by showing positive emotions after landing a new customer or negative emotions such as anger after losing a customer because of bad service. Consider how executives at Microsoft responded to a crisis eroding feelings of respect and inclusiveness, both of which reinforce clan cultures. 9. Rites and rituals - are the planned and unplanned activities and ceremonies used to celebrate important events or achievements. 10. Work Flow and Organizational Structure - Work flow is the way work gets done—work flow and organizational structure are the way reporting relationships are organized. Both can become tools for changing organizational culture. For example, encouraging brainstorming meetings to solve problems reinforces an adhocracy culture, whereas having weekly progress meeting encourages both market and hierarchy cultures 11. Organizational Systems and Procedures - Companies are increasingly using electronic networks as a tool to promote different types of cultures. Disney, for example, has invested over $1 billion in big data technology to identify the best way to provide customer service, a characteristic of market cultures. 12. Organizational Goals and Criteria throughout the Employee Cycle - An organization's culture is reflected in the goals it pursues

Holistic wellness

A broad, interdisciplinary approach that goes beyond stress reduction by advocating that people strive for personal wellness in all aspects of their lives. Calls for inexpensive but often behaviorally difficult lifestyle changes.

Mediation

A neutral and trained third party guides the others to find innovative solutions to the conflict. To ensure neutrality, most organizations hired ADR qualified outsiders.85 Unlike an arbitrator, a mediator does not render a decision. It is up to the disputants to reach a mutually acceptable decision. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) implemented mediation in the 1990s and cut the average time to resolution by 80 percent!

Conciliation

A neutral third party informally acts as a communication conduit between disputing parties. This is appropriate when conflicting parties refuse to meet face-to-face. The immediate goal is to establish direct communication, with the broader aim of finding common ground and a constructive solution.

Peer review

A panel of trustworthy coworkers, selected for their ability to remain objective, hears both sides of a dispute in an informal and confidential meeting. A decision by the review panel may or may not be binding, depending on the company's ADR policy. Membership on the peer review panel often is rotated among employees.

Self-efficacy

A personʼs belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task

Temperance

A shared belief in showing restraint and control when faced with temptation and provocation. It promotes self-control, humility, and prudence

Compassion

A shared value that drives people to help others who are suffering

Mindlessness

A state of reduced attention. It is expressed in behavior that is rigid or thoughtless

Facilitation

A third party, usually a manager, informally urges disputing parties to deal directly with each other in a positive and constructive manner.

When is the integrating style in/appropriate?

A: Issues are complex. Synthesis of ideas is needed to come up with better solutions. Commitment is needed from other parties for successful implementation. Time is available for problem solving. One party alone cannot solve the problem. Resources possessed by different parties are needed to solve their common problem I:Task or problem is simple. Immediate decision is required. Other parties are unconcerned about outcome. Other parties do not have problem-solving skills.

When is the compromising in/appropriate?

A:Goals of parties are mutually exclusive. Parties are equally powerful. Consensus cannot be reached. Integrating or dominating style is not successful. Temporary solution to a complex problem is needed. I: One party is more powerful. Problem is complex enough to need problem-solving approach.

When is the avoiding style in/appropriate?

A:Issue is trivial. Potential dysfunctional effect of confronting the other party outweighs benefits of resolution. Cooling-off period is needed. I:Issue is important to you. It is your responsibility to make decision. Parties are unwilling to defer. Prompt attention is needed.

Performing

Activity during this vital stage is focused on solving task problems, as contributors get their work done without hampering others. This stage is often characterized by a climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior

Puffery

Among the items that can be puffed up are the value of one's payoffs to the opponent, the negotiator's own alternatives, the costs of what one is giving up or is prepared to yield, importance of issues, and attributes of the products or services.

Job satisfaction

An affective or emotional response toward various facets of oneʼs job

Strategy and goals

An organization's strategy is the cornerstone of its decision about the most appropriate design. Because setting a corporate strategy requires an organization to decide how it will compete given both internal and external considerations, organizational design must be developed in tandem with establishing strategy.

Email benefits/drawbacks

BENEFITS Reduced costs of distributing information. E-mail allows information to be sent electronically, thereby reducing the costs of communicating with employees and customers. Increased teamwork. Users can send messages to colleagues anywhere in the world and receive immediate feedback. Reduced paper costs. An expert estimates these savings at $9,000 per employee per year. Increased flexibility. Employees can access e-mail from anywhere. DRAWBACKS Wasted time and effort. E-mail can distract people from completing their work responsibilities. Information overload. The average corporate employee receives 171 messages a day, and 10% to 40% of these messages are unimportant. Increased costs to organize, store, and monitor. Systems are needed to protect privacy and preserve digital records. For instance, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure require organizations to keep e-mail and other employment records for up to six years. Neglect of other media. People unsuccessfully attempt to solve complex problems with e-mail instead of face-to-face, which would likely be more appropriate and effective. You can't communicate everything (successfully) via e-mail.

Conclusions of behavioral theories of leadership

Behavior is more important than traits when it comes to leaders' effectiveness. Our mantra for leaders is, "Every behavior matters." Leader behaviors can be systematically improved and developed. Organizations should continue to invest in leadership development programs. There is no one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand

Operant behavior

Behavior that is learned when one "operates on" the environment to produce desired consequences

Emotional stability

Being relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure

70 percent of employees tend to assign blame for failures in one of three ways:

Blame others Blame self Deny blame

What are the four key sources of nonverbal messages?

Body movements and gestures. Touch. Facial expressions. Eye contact.

Learning and growth perspective

Can We Continue to and Create Value? The learning and growth perspective focuses on providing employees with the capabilities, resources, and work environment they need to achieve customer, internal business processes, and financial goals. It's the foundation of all other goals in a scorecard. Typical metrics in this perspective are employee satisfaction/engagement, employee retention, employee productivity, training budget per employee, technology utilization, and organizational climate and culture. Many are tracked with employee surveys to gauge attitudes and opinions.

What are 4 basic skills leaders need

Cognitive abilities to identify problems and their causes in rapidly changing situations.Leaders must sometimes devise effective solutions in short time spans with limited information. Interpersonal skills to influence and persuade others.Leaders need to work well with diverse people. Business skills to maximize the use of organizational assets. Leaders increasingly need business skills as they advance up through an organization. Strategic skills to draft an organization's mission, vision, strategies, and implementation plans. Strategic skills matter most for individuals in the top ranks in an organization.

What are the components of a total rewards perspective?

Compensation: Base pay, merit pay, incentives, promotions, and pay increases Benefits: Health and wellness care, savings and retirement planning, and paid time off Work-life effectiveness: Policies and practices to help employees thrive at work and home Recognition: Formal and informal programs that acknowledge employee efforts and behaviors that support the organization's strategies and objectives Talent development: Training, career development, and other support necessary to improve performance and advance careers

Emotions

Complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular target, such as a person, information, experience, event, or nonevent. They also change psychological and/or physiological states

We match media richness with the situation based on the situation's ______

Complexity

what are Eight biases that commonly affect decision making?

Confirmation bias Overconfidence bias Availability bias Representativeness bias Anchoring bias Hindsight bias Framing bias Escalation of commitment bias

intergroup conflict

Conflict among work groups, teams, and departments

4 Relationship oriented behaviors in leadership

Consideration Empowerment Servant-leadership Ethical leadership

Judgment and decision making

Considering the relative costs and benefits of potential actions to choose the most appropriate ones.

What are three ways to handle intergroup conflict?

Contact hypothesis. Conflict reduction. The creation of psychologically safe climates.

Hierarchy culture

Control is the strategy within a hierarchy culture. The hierarchy culture has an internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values stability and control over flexibility. This orientation leads to the development of reliable internal processes, the extensive use of measurement, and the implementation of a variety of control mechanisms. Effectiveness is likely to be measured in terms of efficiency, timeliness, quality, safety, and reliability in producing and delivering products and services

four common denominators of all organizations

Coordination of effort is achieved through formulation and enforcement of policies, rules, and regulations. Aligned goals start with the development of a companywide strategic plan. These strategic goals are then cascaded down through the organization so employees are aligned in their pursuit of common goals. Division of labor occurs when the common goals are pursued by individuals performing separate but related tasks. Hierarchy of authority, also called the chain of command, is a control mechanism dedicated to making sure the right people do the right things at the right time. Historically, managers have maintained the integrity of the hierarchy of authority by adhering to the unity of command principle

8 Political recommendations

Create a simple slogan that captures your idea. Get your idea on the agenda. Describe how it addresses an important need or objective and look for ways to make it a priority. Score small wins early and broadcast them widely. Results build momentum and make it easier for other people to commit. Form alliances with people who have the power to decide, fund, and implement. Persist and continue to build support. Persuading others is a process, not an event. Respond and adjust. Be flexible and accepting of other people's input; the more names supporting your idea, the more likely you are to succeed. Lock it in. Anchor the idea into the organization through budgets, job descriptions, incentives, and other operating procedures. Secure and allocate credit. You don't want your idea to be hijacked, nor do you want to blow your own horn. You need others to sing your praises to ensure you get the credit you deserve

Out-group exchanges

Creating more formality in expectations and rewards. Out-group exchanges, also known as low LMX relationships, tend to focus on the economic exchange between leaders and followers. They tend to be more formal and revolve around negotiating the relationship between performance and pay. They do not create a sense of mutual trust, respect, or common fate

In-group exchanges

Creating trust and mutual obligation. High in-group exchanges, also called high LMX, are characterized by a partnership of reciprocal influence, mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fate. These relationships become more social over time

Rules for brainstorming

Defer judgment. Don't criticize during the initial stage of generating ideas. Avoid phrases such as "We've never done it that way," "It won't work," "It's too expensive," and "Our manager will never agree." Build on the ideas of others. Encourage participants to extend others' ideas by avoiding "buts" and using "ands." Encourage wild ideas. Encourage out-of-the-box thinking. The wilder and more outrageous the ideas, the better. Go for quantity over quality. Guide participants to generate and write down as many new ideas as possible. Focusing on quantity encourages people to think beyond their favorite ideas. Be visual. Use different colored pens (e.g., red, purple, blue) to write on big sheets of flip chart paper, whiteboards, or poster board that is put on the wall. Stay focused on the topic. Appoint a facilitator to keep the discussion on target. Keep to one conversation at a time. Set ground rules that no one interrupts another person, dismisses someone's ideas, shows disrespect, or otherwise behaves rudely.

What are antecedents toward non-defensive communication?

Descriptive Problem solving Straightforward Empathetic Equal Honest and open

Arbitration

Disputing parties agree ahead of time to accept the decision of a neutral arbitrator in a formal courtlike setting, often complete with evidence and witnesses. Statements are confidential, and decisions are based on the legal merits of the case. Trained arbitrators, typically from outside agencies such as the American Arbitration Association, are versed in relevant laws and case precedents. In many instances, employee arbitration is mandatory for resolving disputes. Heated debate has occurred over the past several years, however, regarding mandatory versus voluntary arbitration. On the one hand, many employers have not reaped the time and cost savings promised by arbitration and now prefer to litigate. On the other, many employees feel arbitration unfairly benefits employers, who hire skilled arbitrators whose job it is to handle such disputes

Biofeedback

Electronic monitors train people to detect muscular tension; muscle relaxation is then used to alleviate this symptom of stress. Expensive in the past due to costs of equipment; however, equipment grows more affordable and can be used to evaluate effectiveness of other stress-reduction programs.

What actions should managers take to reduce conflict?

Eliminate specific negative interactions (obvious enough). Conduct team building to reduce intra-group conflict and prepare for cross-functional teamwork. Encourage and facilitate friendships via social events (happy hours, sports leagues, and book clubs). Foster positive attitudes (empathy and compassion). Avoid or neutralize negative gossip. Practice the above—be a role model.

Emotional intelligence in effective leadership

Emotional intelligence is an input to transformational leadership. In other words, emotional intelligence helps managers effectively enact the behaviors associated with transformational leadership, discussed later in this chapter. Emotional intelligence has a small, positive, and significant association with leadership effectiveness. This suggests that emotional intelligence will help you lead more effectively, but it is not the secret elixir of leadership effectiveness.

Two pitfalls of empowerment

Empowerment is not a zero-sum game in which one person's gain is another's loss.Authoritarian managers who view employee empowerment as a threat to their own power are missing the point because of their win-lose thinking. Sharing power, via empowerment, is a means of increasing your own power. Empowerment is a matter of degree, not an either-or proposition. the overriding goal is to increase productivity and competitiveness in organizations. Each step in this evolution increases the power of organizational contributors who traditionally were told what, when, and how to do things

3 Practices for created a psychologically safe climate

Ensure leaders are inclusive and accessible. Hire and develop employees who are comfortable expressing their own ideas, and receptive and constructive to those expressed by others. Celebrate and even reinforce the value of differences between group members and their ideas

What are the types of social support?

Esteem support: reassurance that a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. Informational support: help defining, understanding, and coping with problems. Social companionship: time spent with others in leisure and recreational activities. Instrumental support: financial aid, material resources, or needed services

Standard setter

Evaluates the quality of group processes

What are antecedents toward defensive communication?

Evaluative Controlling Strategizing Neutral Superior Certain

What are the major elements of Vroom's expectancy theory?

Expectancy - "Can I achieve my desired level of performance? An expectancy represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance Instrumentality - "What intrinsic and extrinsic rewards will I receive if I achieve my desired level of performance?" Instrumentality is the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes Valence - "How much do I value the rewards I receive?" Valence describes the positive or negative value people place on outcome

One key assumption underlying many models of change is that highly desired change will happen without much resistance.

False

Where do subcultures typically form?

Functional/occupational groups. Geographical areas. Products, markets, or technology. Divisions or departments. Levels of management—senior management versus supervisors. Work role—firefighter versus emergency medical technician.

How does Edwin Locke and Gary Latham's Theory of Goal Setting work?

Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like "Do your best" or "Improve performance Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn motivates employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance

Financial perspective

How Do We Look to Shareholders? Corporate financial strategies and goals generally fall into two buckets: revenue growth and productivity growth. Revenue growth goals might focus on increasing revenue from both new and existing customers.

Focuses of innovation

Improvement innovations enhance or upgrade an existing product, service, or process. These types of innovations are often incremental and are less likely to generate significant amounts of new revenue at one point in time. new-direction innovations take a totally new or different approach to a product, service, process, or industry. These innovations focus on creating new markets and customers and rely on developing breakthroughs and inventing things that didn't already exist.

Tips for framing your story

Include only the most relevant details or points and try to bring them to life with examples. Don't try to do too much. Don't just skim over all possible points either, but instead pick the best and dive deeper into each of those. Beware of jargon, boasting, and mind-numbing details. Plan to end your journey with a solution, or even with a question to spur audience engagement and give them something to think about afterward.

Maximization

Includes demanding the opponent make concessions that result in the negotiator's gain and the opponent's equal or greater loss. Also entails converting a win-win situation into win-lose.

Storming

Individuals test the leader's policies and assumptions as they try to decide how they fit into the power structure. Subgroups may form and resist the current direction of a leader or another subgroup

Leader apologies and outcomes

Individual—Leader offended another. Encourage followers to forgive and forget. Institutional—Follower offended another organizational member. Restore functioning within the group or organization. Intergroup—Follower offended an external party. Repair relations with an external group. Moral—A wrongdoing is genuinely regretted. Request forgiveness and redemption for regrettable (in)action

Symptoms of groupthink

Invulnerability. An illusion that the group cannot make a mistake breeds excessive optimism and risk taking. Inherent morality. Assuming the group is highly moral encourages members to ignore ethical implications. Rationalization. Members protect their personal or "pet" ideas and assumptions. Stereotyped views of opposition. The group may underestimate opponents. Self-censorship. Keeping ideas and questions to yourself stifles critical debate. Illusion of unanimity. Members' silence can be interpreted to mean consent. Peer pressure. Be careful when the loyalty of dissenters is questioned. Mindguards. Self-appointed protectors can shut out adverse information

What are some examples of situation factors?

Job characteristics, leadership, organizational climate, stressors

Dimensions of situational control

Leader-member relations describe the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group. This dimension is the most important component of situational control. Good leader-member relations suggest that the leader can depend on the group, thus ensuring members will try to meet the leader's goals and objectives. Task structure measures the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the work group. For example, a managerial job contains less structure than that of a bank teller. Because there are guidelines for the way structured tasks should be completed, the leader has more control and influence over employees performing such tasks. This dimension is the second-most important component of situational control. Position power is the leader's formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees.

What are the characteristics of a team?

Leadership becomes a shared activity. Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective. The group develops its own purpose or mission. Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity. Effectiveness is measured by the group's collective outcomes and products.

4 Guidelines of socialization

Managers should avoid a haphazard, sink-or-swim approach to organizational socialization, because formalized and proactive socialization tactics positively affect new hires. More organizations today use socialization tactics to reinforce a culture that promotes ethical behavior. Managers should consider how they might best set expectations for ethical behavior during all three phases of the socialization process. Support for stage models is mixed. Although there are different stages of socialization, they are not identical in order, length, or content for all people or jobs. Managers should use a contingency approach to organizational socialization. In other words, keep in mind that different techniques are appropriate for different people at different times. Research finds that diverse employees, particularly those with disabilities, experienced different socialization activities than other newcomers. In turn, these different experiences affected their long-term success and job satisfaction

Harmonizer

Mediates conflict through reconciliation or humor

Challenges associated with increased group cohesiveness and in-group thinking

Members of in-groups view themselves as a collection of unique individuals, while they stereotype members of other groups as being "all alike." In-group members see themselves positively and as morally correct, while they view members of other groups negatively and as immoral. In-groups view outsiders as a threat. In-group members exaggerate the differences between their group and other groups, which typically leads them to a distorted perception of reality

Immediacy

Open body positions, such as leaning backward or gesturing with palms facing up; a term used to represent openness, warmth, closeness, and availability for communication

What functions do formal groups perform?

Organizational and individual

What are the benefits of positive emotions?

Organizational commitment Creativity Decision making Intentions to quit Performance Stress

What are organizational causes of incivility at work?

Organizational justice Destructive leadership HR Policies and procedure

Negative effects of organizational politics

Organizational politics can negatively affect outcomes across all three levels in the Organizing Framework. At the individual level, politics can increase stress and turnover intentions and reduce job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Undesirable effects on the group and organizational levels include wasted time and resources, diverted decision-maker attention, and restricted and distorted information flow among decision makers

Categories of leader behavior in the path goal theory

Path-goal-clarifying behaviors Clarifying employees' performance goals; providing guidance on how employees can complete tasks; clarifying performance standards and expectations; use of positive and negative rewards contingent on performance Achievement-oriented behaviors Setting challenging goals; emphasizing excellence; demonstrating confidence in employees' abilities Work-facilitation behaviors Planning, scheduling, organizing, and coordinating work; providing mentoring, coaching, counseling, and feedback to assist employees in developing their skills; eliminating roadblocks; providing resources; empowering employees to take actions and make decisions Supportive behaviors Showing concern for the well-being and needs of employees; being friendly and approachable; treating employees as equals Interaction-facilitation behaviors Resolving disputes; facilitating communication; encouraging the sharing of minority opinions; emphasizing collaboration and teamwork; encouraging close relationships among employees Group-oriented decision-making behaviors Posing problems rather than solutions to the work group; encouraging group members to participate in decision making; providing necessary information to the group for analysis; involving knowledgeable employees in decision making Representation and networking behaviors Presenting the work group in a positive light to others; maintaining positive relationships with influential others; participating in organizational social functions and ceremonies; doing unconditional favors for others Value-based behaviors Establishing a vision, displaying passion for it, and supporting its accomplishment; demonstrating self-confidence; communicating high-performance expectations and confidence in others' abilities to meet their goals; giving frequent positive feedback

internal locus of control

People who believe they control the events and consequences that affect their lives are said to possess this

Hope

Persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals in order to succeed

What are the two dimensions of emotional intelligence?

Personal competence and social competence

What are some examples of person factors?

Personality. Positive psychological capital. Human and social capital

Hedonism

Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself (pleasure, enjoying life)

Meditation

Practitioners relax by redirecting their thoughts away from themselves, often following a structured procedure to significantly reduce mental stress. Least expensive, simple to implement, and can be practiced almost anywhere.

Findings about office design

Privacy, defined as the ability to control incoming stimulation and interpersonal contact and to limit outgoing information, is reduced in an open-plan office. Few office cubicle dividers are tall enough to block the noise and distractions that limit people's ability to focus at work. The resulting overstimulation is stressful for many people. Spatially dense work environments (in which employees are crowded) have been found to promote cooperative behavior and productivity, but they can also be detrimental to individual, group, and organizational performance.116 Attitudes about personal space are culturally bound around the world

Norming

Questions about authority and power are best resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion. A feeling of team spirit is sometimes experienced during this stage because members believe they have found their proper roles

What are three basic ways to deliver a talk?

Read it from a script. Use bullet lists that outline what you will cover in each section. Memorize everything you wish to say and REHEARSE.

Effectiveness of influence tactics

Rely on the core. Core influence tactics—rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeals—are most effective at building commitment. Do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics. In one study, managers who were not very effective at using downward influence relied most heavily on inspiration (an effective tactic), ingratiation (a moderately effective tactic), and pressure (an ineffective tactic). Be believable and trustworthy. Credible people tend to be the most persuasive. Consult rather than legitimate. Some employees are more apt to accept change when managers rely on a consultative strategy and are more likely to resist change when managers use a legitimating tactic. Expect little from schmoozing. Ingratiation improved short-term sales goal achievement but reduced it in the long term in a study of salespeople. Schmoozing can help today's sales but not tomorrow's. Be subtle. Subtle flattery and agreement with the other person's opinion (both forms of ingratiation) were shown to increase the likelihood that executives would win recommendation to sit on boards of directors. Learn to influence. Research with corporate managers of a supermarket chain showed that influence tactics can be taught and learned. Managers who received 360-degree feedback on two occasions regarding their influence tactics showed an increased use of core influence tactics.

Ethical leadership

Represents normatively appropriate behavior that focuses on being a moral role model. This includes communicating ethical values to others, rewarding ethical behavior, and treating followers with care and concern clearly driven by personal factors related to our beliefs and values. It also has a reciprocal relationship with an organization's culture and climate. In other words, an ethical culture and climate promote ethical leadership, and ethical leadership in turn promotes an ethical culture and climate. Although ethical leadership is a relatively new area of study in OB, research already shows that it is positively related to employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, motivation, and task performance. It also is negatively associated with job stress, counterproductive work behavior, and intentions to quit. It appears that ethical leadership has many positive benefits

three primary reactions to our attempts to manage and otherwise influence them

Resistance. You know what resistance is, but have you ever thought of the many forms and degrees? People can simply be indifferent, be passive-aggressive, or actively resist, to the extent of purposefully undermining or even sabotaging your efforts. The degree and form of resistance thus matter. Compliance. Those who comply do only what is expected, nothing more. They exert no extra effort and provide no extra input. Commitment. Those who are committed believe in the cause and often go above and beyond to ensure its success

Value attainment

Satisfaction that results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individualʼs important values

What does personal competence entail?

Self-Awareness: Emotional self-awareness - Reading one's own emotions and recognizing their impact; using "gut sense" to guide decisions Accurate self-assessment - Knowing one's strengths and limits Self-confidence - A sound sense of one's self-worth and capabilities Self-Management Emotional self-control - Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control Transparency - Displaying honesty and integrity; trustworthiness Adaptability - Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles Achievement - The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of excellence Initiative - Readiness to act and seize opportunities Optimism - Seeing the upside in events

Virtual team members do three things to reduce ambiguity

Share information. Of course we share information face-to-face as well, but in virtual teams, sharing ensures that members have the information necessary to complete their work or fulfill a request. This differs from rational persuasion since it is not meant to persuade someone to act,44 but instead it helps overcome the lack of nonverbal and other cues in face-to-face interactions that communicate useful information. Create accountability. Accountability is often more explicit in virtual interactions because a written record is created. It can both clarify and confirm performance expectations (deliverables and timelines). Provide examples. Attachments and screen sharing are common ways in which virtual team members share examples. Again, examples are not a form of rational persuasion intended to convince a team member of a particular position, but they instead are a means for clarifying intended messages and providing guidance.

4 important characteristics of organizational culture

Shared concept. Organizational culture consists of beliefs and values shared among a group of people. Learned over time. Culture is passed to new employees through the processes of socialization and mentoring, discussed later in this chapter. Influences behavior at work. Its influence on behavior is the reason "culture eats strategy for breakfast." Affects outcomes at multiple levels. Culture affects outcomes at the individual, group/team, and organizational levels

Muscle relaxation

Slow, deep breathing and systematic muscle tension relaxation reduce tension. Inexpensive and easy to use; may require a trained professional to implement.

What does social competence entail?

Social Awareness: Empathy - Sensing others' emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking active interest in their concerns Organizational awareness - Reading the currents, decision networks, and politics at the organizational level Service - Recognizing and meeting follower, client, or customer needs Relationship Management: Inspirational leadership - Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision Influence - Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion Developing others - Bolstering others' abilities through feedback and guidance Change catalyst - Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction Conflict management - Resolving disagreements Building bonds - Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships Teamwork and collaboration - Cooperation and team building

Ombudsman

Someone who works for the organization, and is widely respected and trusted by his or her coworkers, hears grievances on a confidential basis and attempts to arrange a solution. This approach, more common in Europe than in North America, permits someone to get help from above without relying on the formal chain of hierarchy.

What are the four factors that influence media richness?

Speed of feedback. Faster feedback offers more richness. Channel. The visual and audio characteristics of a videoconference are richer than the limited visual aspects of a written report. Type. Personal media such as phone calls and interpersonal speech are richer than impersonal media such as memos and group emails. Language source. The natural body language and speech in a face-to-face conversation provide a richer medium than the numbers in a financial statement.

System 2 thinking is needed to effectively work through this stage.

Stage 4: Implement and evaluate the solution chosen

What are the five steps of effective presentations?

Step 1. Frame your story. Step 2. Plan your delivery. Step 3. Develop your stage presence. Step 4. Plan your multimedia. Step 5. Put it together.

Short term implications of internal alignment

Structure affects your behavior and performance You may want to start your own company Person-organization (P-O) fit matters

Lies

Subject matter for lies can include limits, alternatives, the negotiator's intent, authority to bargain, other commitments, acceptability of the opponent's offers, time pressures, and available resources.

Initiator

Suggests new goals or ideas

What are the forms of job crafting?

Task boundaries: Number, scope, and type of job tasks. Examples: Design engineers engage in relational activities that move a project to completion. Changes in Results: Engineers are now guardians or movers of projects; they complete work in a more timely fashion. Relational nature: Quality and/or amount of interaction with others encountered in a job. Examples: Hospital cleaners actively care for patients and families and integrate themselves into the workflow of their floor units. Changes in Results: Cleaners are now helpers of the sick; they see the work of the floor unit as a vital part of an integrated whole. Cognitive crafting: Perception of or thinking about tasks and relationships in your job. Example: Nurses take responsibility for all information and "insignificant" tasks so they can care more appropriately for a patient. Changes in Results: Nurses are now patient advocates; they provide high-quality, technical care.

Emotional intelligence (EI)

The ability to monitor your own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The bottom of the pyramid is Physiological. This is the most basic need and entails having enough food, air, and water to survive. The second level is Safety. This consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm. The third level is Love. This is the desire to be loved and to love and includes the needs for affection and belonging. The fourth level is Esteem. This is the need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others and also includes the need for self-confidence and strength. The top of the pyramid is Self-Actualization. This is the desire for self-fulfillment—to become the best one is capable of becoming.

Personality

The combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that give individuals their unique identities

5 Important managerial implications for transformational leadership

The establishment of a positive vision of the future—inspirational motivation—should be considered a first step in applying transformational leadership. Why? Because the vision represents a long-term goal, and it is important for leaders to begin their influence attempts by gaining agreement and consensus about where the team or organization is headed.93 It also is critical to widely communicate the vision among the team or entire organization.94 People can't get excited about something they don't know about or don't understand. The best leaders are not just transformational. Effective leaders also rely on other task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors, and they avoid a laissez-faire or "wait-and-see" style. Use all types of leader behavior discussed in this chapter, when appropriate. Transformational leadership affects outcomes at the individual, group, and organizational levels.95 Managers can use the four types of transformational leadership shown in Figure 13.5 (second column from left) as a vehicle to improve a host of important outcomes. Transformational leadership works virtually. If you lead geographically dispersed people, focus on how you can display the four transformational leader behaviors in your e-mails, tweets, webinars, and conference calls.96 Transformational leaders can be ethical or unethical. While ethical transformational leaders enable employees to enhance their self-concepts, unethical ones select or produce obedient, dependent, and compliant followers.

Organizational commitment

The extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals

Involvement

The extent to which an individual is personally involved with his or her work role

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

The extent to which employees believe their organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being

5 elements drive organizational culture

The founder's values. The industry and business environment. The national culture. The organization's vision and strategies. The behavior of leaders.

Adjourning

The group's work is done; it is time to move on to other things. The return to independence can be eased by rituals such as parties and award ceremonies celebrating the end and new beginnings. During the adjourning stage, leaders need to emphasize valuable lessons learned

Employee engagement

The harnessing of organization membersʼ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance

Weakening the opponent

The negotiator here may cut off or eliminate some of the opponent's alternatives, blame the opponent for his own actions, use personally abrasive statements to or about the opponent, or undermine the opponent's alliances.

Cognitive dissonance

The psychological discomfort a person experiences when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, or emotions)

Reliability and conclusions of the path-goal theory

There are not enough direct tests of House's revised path-goal theory to draw overall conclusions. Nonetheless, the theory offers us three key points. Use more than one style of leadership. Effective leaders use multiple types of leader behavior. Familiarize yourself with the eight types of leader behavior outlined in path-goal theory and try new behaviors when the situation calls for them. Help employees achieve their goals. Clarify the paths to goal accomplishment and remove any obstacles that may impair an employee's ability to achieve his or her goals. Modify your leadership style to fit various employee and environmental characteristics. Remember that a small set of employee characteristics (ability, experience, and need for independence) and environmental factors (task characteristics of autonomy, variety, and significance) are relevant contingency factors

What are the best ways to measure goals accurately?

Timeliness Quality Quantity Financial metrics

Central tendency

To avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

Recency effect

To over-rely on the most recent information. If it is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.

In a self managed team leadership responsibilities often shift as members step up.

True

In order to fit a situation, a manager should consider creating behavioral, objective, or task/project goals as appropriate.

True

Process theories are more dynamic than content theories.

True

Research does not support the two-factor aspect of Herzberg's theory, nor the proposition that hygiene factors are unrelated to job satisfaction

True

Strategic plans are based on analyses of an organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, known as a SWOT analysis

True

T/F: The perceptual model of communication assumes the receiver creates the meaning of a message in his or her mind. This means different people can interpret the same message differently

True

T/F: telephone conversations and videoconferencing are not as informative as face-to-face exchanges even though they are relatively high in richness

True

What are the key factors in organizational rewards?

Types of rewards Distribution criteria Desired outcomes

five common sources of uncertainty within organizations due to politics

Unclear objectives. Vague performance measures. Ill-defined decision processes. Strong individual or group competition. Any type of change.

Critical thinking

Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternate solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems.

Ways to impress interviewees

Verbal—what they say and how they say it. Nonverbal—laughing, smiling, leaning in. Artifactual—dress, appearance of interview venue, visual and promotional items. Administrative—timing of communication, confirmation that application was received, feedback, and follow-up

positive deviance

a "successful performance that dramatically exceeds the norm in a positive direction.

Strategy map

a "visual representation of a company's critical objectives and the crucial relationships among them that drive organizational performance." Maps show relationships among a company's strategic goals. This helps employees understand how their work contributes to their employer's overall success

Cohesiveness

a "we feeling" that binds group members together

Product innovation

a change in the appearance or functionalilty/performance of a product or a service or the creation of a new one.

Process innovation

a change in the way a product or a service is conceived, manufactured, or distributed

Innovation system

a coherent set of interdependent processes and structures that dictates how the company searches for novel problems and solutions, synthesizes ideas into a business concept and product designs, and selects which projects get funded.

Sustainability

a company's ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its people, the community, and the planet

Organization charts

a graphic representation of formal authority and division of labor relationships. Within each box is the name and title of a current position holder. Informally, we can think of an organization chart as a family tree. To organization theorists, however, organization charts reveal much more. The partial organization chart in Figure 15.2 shows four basic dimensions of organizational structure: (1) hierarchy of authority (who reports to whom), (2) division of labor, (3) spans of control, and (4) line and staff positions. Line positions generally are connected by solid lines on organization charts. Dotted lines indicate staff relationships.

Delphi technique

a group process that generates anonymous ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts in multiple rounds of brainstorming. useful when face-to-face discussions are impractical, when disagreements and conflict are likely to impair communication, when certain individuals might severely dominate group discussion, and when groupthink is a probable outcome of the group process

Humility

a relatively stable trait grounded in the belief that "something greater than the self exists.

Opportunity

a situation in which results that exceed goals and expectations are possible

Hollow structure

also known as a network structure, is designed around a central core of key functions and outsources other functions to outside companies or individuals who can do them cheaper or faster. An athletic shoe company, for example, might decide it can excel at developing new designs, owing to its design talent and knowledge of the market. Then it might find outsourcing partners to handle other activities such as manufacturing, order taking, shipping, and managing employee benefits. The more processes that are outsourced, the more the resulting organization is "hollow"—and focused on what it does best. useful when an organization is faced with strong price competition and there are enough companies to perform the required outsourced processes. Best for: Companies facing heavy price competition with pressure to cut costs; companies with options outside the organization that can perform required processes. Pros: Lower cost of entry and overhead; access to best sources of specialization and technology; market discipline that leads to supplier competition and innovation; potential for further cost reduction and quality improvement. Cons: Loss or decrease of in-house skills, of internal capacity to innovate, and of control over supply; costs of transitioning to hollow state; need for higher monitoring to align incentives; danger of being supplanted by suppliers.

Information acquisition

also known as scanning, is "the process through which an organization obtains information from internal and external sources." Because this is the first step of learning, organizations should cast a wide net in their acquisition of information. For example, discussions about past success and failure, called postmortems, are critical sources of information.

A proactive personality is

an attribute of someone "relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental change. Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.

Touching conveys...

an impression of warmth and caring and can help create a personal bond between people.

Expertise

an individual's combined explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge

Coalition

an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. Coalitions may or may not coincide with formal group membership. When the coalition's target issue has been resolved (when a sexually harassing supervisor is fired, for example), the coalition disbands. Political coalitions have "fuzzy boundaries," meaning they are fluid in membership, flexible in structure, and temporary in duration.59 Coalitions are a potent political force within and between organization

Clan culture

an internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control. It resembles a family-type organization that achieves effectiveness by encouraging collaboration, trust, and support among employees. This type of culture is very employee-focused and strives to instill cohesion through consensus and job satisfaction, and commitment through employee involvement and development. Clan organizations devote considerable resources to hiring and developing their employees, and they view customers as partners. Collaborating is this culture's strategy.

Workplace attitudes

an outcome of various OB-related processes, including leadership

Situation factors

are all the elements outside ourselves that influence what we do, the way we do it, and the ultimate results of our actions. A potentially infinite number of situation factors can either help or hinder you when you are trying to accomplish something

Organic organization

are flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks. Organic organizations are more likely to use decentralized decision making and horizontal or open designs.

Organizational politics

are intentional acts in pursuit of self-interests that conflict with organizational interests.

Secondary appraisals

are our perceptions of how able we are to cope with a given demand

Primary appraisals

are our perceptions of whether a stressor is irrelevant, positive, or negative.

feedback

as information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation.

devil's advocacy

assigns someone the role of critic

self-determination theory

assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being—the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Behavioral styles approach

attempts to identify the unique behaviors displayed by effective leaders.

Evolutionary psychology or Darwinian perspective

attributes gender differences in communication to drives, needs, and conflicts associated with reproductive strategies used by women and men.

intrinsic rewards

because they are self-granted

extrinsic rewards

because they come from the environment.

Intellectual stimulation

behavior encourages employees to question the status quo and to seek innovative and creative solutions to organizational problems. If effectively challenged, employees are more likely to view organizational problems as "my problems" and proactively attempt to overcome performance roadblocks.

Contingency approach

calls for using the OB concepts and tools that best suit the situation, instead of trying to rely on "one best way."

Withdrawal cognitions

capture this thought process by representing an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting

Satisficing

choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications and thus is "good enough"; Resolves problems by producing solutions that are satisfactory, as opposed to optimal.

judgmental heuristics

cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions

What are the 3 components of attitudes?

cognitive, affective, behavioral

Referent power

comes into play when our personal characteristics and social relationships are the reason for others' compliance. Charisma is commonly associated with referent power, but you do not need to be the life of the party to possess referent power.drives the success of a number of marketing schemes

Affective component

contains our feelings or emotions about a given object or situation

Cross-functional teams

created with members from different disciplines within an organization, such as finance, operations, and R&D

Span of control

describes the number of people reporting directly to a given manager. Can range from narrow to wide. Narrow spans of control tend to create "taller" or more hierarchical organizations. In contrast, a wide span of control leads to a "flat" organization

Effective coaching is

developmental, has specific performance goals, and typically includes considerable self-reflection, self-assessment, and feedback

What are two programmed conflict techniques?

devil's advocacy and the dialectic method

Involved listening

devote some, but not all, of their attention and energy to listening. They reflect on what is being said and halfheartedly participate in the discussion. Their use of nonverbal cues tends to be inconsistent or intermittent, and they can show nonverbal signs of interest and noninterest in the same conversation.

What are the four styles of decision making?

directive, analytical, conceptual, and behavioral

Dysfunctional conflict

disagreements that threaten or diminish an organization's interests.6 This danger highlights the valuable role of management, and your own actions, in determining whether conflict is positive. To effectively deal with any kind of conflict, we need to understand some of the common causes.

Divisional structure

employees are segregated into organization groups based on industries, products or services, customers or clients, or geographic regions. The divisional structure is sometimes called a product structure or profit center approach Best for: Large companies with separate divisions built on different technologies, geographies, or different bases of customers. Pros: Clear roles and responsibilities. Greater product focus, accountability, and flexibility for workers in each division than in a functional structure. Cons: Coordination and communication lapses across divisional silos; most companies use dotted line or other informal means to combat this potential limitation

What are the process theories of motivation?

equity/justice theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory

affective organizational commitment

genuine desire to remain a member of an organization

Integrative negotiation

in which a host of interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties; a more collaborative, problem-solving approach

piece-rate plan

in which the employee is paid a specified amount of money for each unit of work

upward spirals of positivity

in which your positive behaviors, feelings, and attitudes generate the same in others in a continually reinforcing process

What are some ways to boost the effectiveness of rewards?

involving employees in devising the system

Availability heuristic

is a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information readily available in memory

equity theory

is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships.

Closed system

is a self-sufficient entity. It is "closed" to the surrounding environment

Noise

is anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message.

Flextime

is flexible scheduling, covering either the time when work must be completed (deadlines) or the limits of the workday (9-5, 10-4, or any time today)

Innovation

is the creation of something new that makes money; it finds a pathway to the consumer." This definition underscores that innovations must be both novel and useful. We now take a closer look at innovation and the way organizations foster it. You will learn that innovation is more likely to occur when organizations create and support a system of innovation, which includes tailoring the characteristics of the physical environment.

Passive listeners

not equal partners in a speaking-listening exchange. They assume the speaker is responsible for the quality of the interaction and believe their role is to passively take in information. Passive listeners will display attentiveness, but they can fake it at times. Overall, they don't expend much motivation or energy in receiving and decoding messages.

Crowdsourcing

occurs when companies invite non-employees to contribute to achieving particular goals and manage the input process via the Internet

Anchoring bias

occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information they receive about a decision, even if it is irrelevant. Initial information, impressions, data, feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions.

Minority dissent

occurs when group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members

Knowledge integration

occurs when information is shared and accumulated across different parts of an organization. This provides more and better information for making decisions. This step can be accomplished by having postmortems in which different people or groups present their ideas about an opportunity or problem. The point is to seek consensus about what the learned information means.

Hindsight bias

occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. The danger of this bias is that, in retrospect, we get overconfident about our foresight, which leads to bad decisions

Conflict

occurs when one "party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.

Goal displacement

occurs when the primary goal is overridden by a secondary goal.

Psychological empowerment

occurs when we feel a sense of: Meaning—Belief that our work values and goals align with those of our manager, team, or employer. Competence—Our personal evaluation of our ability to do our job. Self-determination—Sense that we have control over our work and its outcomes. Impact at work—Feeling that our efforts make a difference and affect the organization.33

A voice climate is

one in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings

personal power

possess independent of your position or job Expert and referent power

Linguistic intelligence:

potential to learn and use spoken and written languages. Ex: Madeline Johnson, CEO of marketing and PR firm Market Council, speaks Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, along with her native English. She consults for multinational companies, and linguistic intelligence enables her to develop richer and more productive relationships quicker.

Naturalist intelligence:

potential to live in harmony with your environment. Ex: Rose Marcario, the CEO of clothing and outdoor sports retailer Patagonia, supports the company's famous ad—"don't buy this jacket." The company has a long tradition of environmental responsibility in which it encourages customers not to buy more than they need to limit the strain on Earth's resources

Spatial intelligence:

potential to recognize and use patterns. Ex: Fighter pilots are excellent examples of people gifted with spatial intelligence.

Intrapersonal intelligence:

potential to understand and regulate yourself. Ex: Any secretary of state for the United States, such as John Kerry and Condoleezza Rice, must have enormous self-awareness and control to endure the constant criticism and conflict in the job.

Interpersonal intelligence:

potential to understand, connect with, and effectively work with others. Ex: Compare Warren Buffett (CEO of Berkshire Hathaway) to Larry Ellison (former CEO of Oracle). Critics see the first as approachable and friendly, the second as arrogant.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

potential to use mind and body to coordinate physical movement. Ex: Serena Williams, tennis player extraordinaire, says her mind helps her realize her tremendous physical talent.

Need fulfillment models

propose that satisfaction is determined by the extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill her or his needs.

Contingency leadership theories

propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation

Cognitive component

reflects our beliefs or ideas about an object or situation

Psychological contracts

represent an individual's perception about the reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party

Attitudes

represent our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects and range from positive to negative

Mechanistic organization

rigid bureaucracies with strict rules, narrowly defined tasks, top-down communication, and centralized decision making. A mechanistic organization generally would have one of the traditional organizational designs described in the preceding section and a hierarchical culture. The "orderliness" of this structure is expected to produce reliability and consistency in internal processes, resulting in higher efficiency, quality, and timeliness.

Unity of command principle

specifies that each employee should report to only one manager. Otherwise, the argument goes, inefficiency would prevail because of conflicting orders and lack of personal accountability.

eustress

stress that is associated with positive emotions and outcomes

Horizontal structure

teams or work groups, either temporary or permanent, are created to improve collaboration and work on common projects. The horizontal approach to organizational design tends to focus on work processes. A process consists of every task and responsibility needed to meet a customer need, such as developing a new product or filling a customer order. Completing a process requires input from people in different functions, typically organized into a cross-functional team Best for: Companies needing greater efficiency or flexibility to rapidly respond to customer needs. Pros: Rapid communication and reduction in cycle time for work done; greater flexibility; faster organizational learning; improved responsiveness to customers. Cons: Potential conflicts between processes and nonprocess functions; neglect of nonprocess parts of the organization; reduced opportunities for functional specialization.

Negative legitimate power

tends to be threatening and demeaning to those being influenced, if not simply an exercise in building the power holder's ego.

Person factors

the infinite characteristics that give individuals their unique identities. These characteristics combine to influence every aspect of your life. In your job and career, they affect your goals and aspirations, the plans you make to achieve them, the way you execute such plans, and your ultimate level of achievement

Human capital

the productive potential of an individual's knowledge, skills, and experiences. Potential is the operative word in this definition. When you are hungry, money in your pocket is good because it has the potential to buy a meal. Likewise, a protégé/protégée with the right combination of knowledge, skills, and motivation to excel possesses human capital with the potential to give the organization a competitive advantage. Developing your human capital not only enables you to more effectively do your job, but it also makes you more attractive to mentors, who have options when selecting protégé/protégées. You may find this surprising, but a recent study showed that lack of sleep depletes your human capital and lowers performance

Social capital

the productive potential resulting from relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort. Again, the word potential is key. Social capital helps you during the anticipatory phase of socialization. beneficial beyond the early stages of your career, particularly when you are developing trusting relationships with others. Trusting relationships lead to more job and business opportunities, faster advancement, greater capacity to innovate, and more status and authority

Enacted values

the qualities and norms that are exhibited or converted into employee behavior. These are values employees ascribe to an organization based on their observations of what occurs on a daily basis.

Managers

typically perform functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control, and leaders focus on influencing others charged with implementing the vision and plan

Modular structure

uses outsourcing. But instead of outsourcing processes, it outsources production of parts of a product, such as components of a jet or subroutines of a software program. In a modular structure, the company assembles product parts, components, or modules provided by external contractors. The modular organization also is responsible for ensuring that the parts meet quality requirements, that they arrive in a timely fashion, and that the organization is capable of efficiently combining the parts into the final whole. This design is useful when a company can identify product modules and create design interfaces that allow it to assemble parts into a working order. Best for: Organizations that can specify the nature of product modules and design interfaces to multiple vendors and join them. Pros: Potential for cost savings, greater responsiveness, and competence beyond the organization's boundaries; ability to switch vendors for best fit and product improvement. Cons: A high proportion of products unsuitable to chunking into modules; poorly specified interfaces; slow or poor-quality collaborators

Cyberloafing

using the Internet at work for personal use

Representativeness bias

when we estimate the probability of an event's occurrence based on our impressions about similar occurrences. leads us to look for information that supports previously formed stereotypes

Two kinds of work-family conflict

work interference with family and family interference with work

Virtual teams

work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals

Obliging (Smoothing)

you tend to show low concern for yourself and a great concern for others. Such people tend to minimize differences and highlight similarities to please the other party.

What are the three sections of conservation?

1. Conformity - Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms (politeness, obedient, self discipline, honoring parents and elders) 2. Tradition - Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provides the self (humble, accepting my portion in life, devout, respect for tradition, moderate) 3. Security - Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self (family security, national security, social order, cleanliness, reciprocation of favors)

What are the eight elements of an effective social media policy?

1. Create safe channels for employees to air their concerns before going online. 2. Clarify what is confidential 3. Outline consequences for violations 4. Designate a spokesperson for online policies. 5. Discuss appropriate ways to engage others online 6. Explain what is considered illegal 7. Align social media policy with the organization's culture. 8. Educate employees

What are the 3 key steps to problem solving?

1. Define the problem 2. Identify potential causes using OB concepts and theories 3. Make recommendations and (if appropriate) take action

What are the external forces for change?

1. Demographic characteristics. 2. Technological advancements. 3. Market changes. 4. Social, political, and regulatory.

What are the three potential outcomes of rewards?

1. Desired outcomes 2. Nothing 3. Undesired side effects

What are the 6 strategies for overcoming resistance to change?

1. Education & Communication Commonly used where: There is a lack of information or inaccurate information and analysis. Advantages: Once persuaded, people will often help with the implementation of the change. Drawbacks:Time consuming if lots of people are involved. 2. Participation & Involvement Commonly used where: The initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change and others have considerable power to resist. Advantages: People who participate will be committed to implementing change, and any relevant information they have will be integrated into the change plan. Drawbacks: Time consuming if participators design an inappropriate change. 3. Facilitation & Support Commonly used where: People are resisting because of adjustment problems. Advantages: No other approach works as well with adjustment problems. Drawbacks: Can be time consuming and expensive and still fail. 4. Negotiation & Agreement Commonly used where: Someone or some group will clearly lose out in a change and that group has considerable power to resist. Advantages: Sometimes it is relatively easy to avoid major resistance. Drawbacks: Too expensive if it alerts others to negotiate for compliance. 5. Manipulation & Co-optation Commonly used where: Other tactics will not work or are too expensive. Advantages: It can be a relatively quick and inexpensive solution to resistance problems. Drawbacks: Leads to future problems if people feel manipulated. 6. Explicit & Implicit Coercion Commonly used where: Speed is essential and the initiators of change possess considerable power. Advantages: It is speedy and can overcome any kind of resistance. Drawbacks: Risky if it leaves people mad at the initiators.

Truths about cultural change

1. Leaders are the architects and developers of organizational culture. This suggests that culture is not determined by fate. It is formed and shaped by the ongoing behavior of everyone who works at a company. 2. Changing culture starts with targeting one of the three levels of organizational culture—observable artifacts, espoused values, or basic underlying assumptions. The fastest way to start a culture change project is through the use of observable artifacts. 3. The current culture probably closely aligns with the organization's vision and strategic plan 4. A structured approach works best when implementing culture change. Our experience as consultants tells us that culture change frequently meets with resistance. People become accustomed to the culture they know and prefer to leave things as they are

Empowering leadership behaviors

1. Leading for meaningfulness. Managers lead for meaningfulness by inspiring their employees and modeling desired behaviors. One way to do this is by helping employees to identify their passions at work and creating an exciting organizational vision employees feel connected to 2. Leading for self-determination or choice. Managers lead for choice by delegating meaningful assignments and tasks 3. Leading for competence. Leading for competence means supporting and coaching employees. Managers first need to make sure employees have the knowledge needed to successfully perform their jobs. Deficiencies can be handled through training and mentoring. Managers can also combine positive feedback and sincere recognition with challenging tasks to fuel employees' intrinsic motivation. 4. Leading for progress. Managers lead for progress by monitoring and rewarding others

Negative interpersonal attributes

1. Narcissism - consists of "a self-centered perspective, feelings of superiority, and a drive for personal power and glory." Individuals with this trait have inflated views of themselves, fantasize about being in control of everything, and like to attract the admiration of others. It's thus not surprising that narcissists tend to emerge as leaders, even though they can promote counterproductive work behaviors from others 2. Machiavellianism - the use of manipulation, a cynical view of human nature, and a moral code that puts results over principles. It's not surprising that individuals who believe everyone lies to get what they want and that it's necessary to cheat to get ahead are less likely to garner support from others. 3. Psychopathy - characterized by a lack of concern for others, impulsive behavior, and a lack of remorse or guilt when your actions harm others. This type of person is toxic at work

What are the five prominent models of job satisfaction?

1. Need fulfillment - Understand and meet employees' needs. 2. Met expectations - Meet employees' expectations about what they will receive from the job. 3. Value attainment - Structure the job and its rewards to match employee values. 4. Equity - Monitor employees' perceptions of fairness and interact with them so they feel fairly treated. 5. Dispositional/genetic components - Hire employees with an appropriate disposition.

When is the dominating style in/appropriate?

A:Issue is trivial. Speedy decision is needed. Unpopular course of action is implemented. Necessary to overcome assertive subordinates. Unfavorable decision by the other party may be costly to you. Subordinates lack expertise to make technical decisions. Issue is important to you. I: Issue is complex. Issue is not important to you. Both parties are equally powerful. Decision does not have to be made quickly. Subordinates possess high degree of competence.

Management styles that match degrees of empowerment

At the level of least empowerment, managers and leaders practice domination, characterized as authoritarian power wherein they make all of the decisions and then hand them down to employees. Next is consultation, which occurs when employees are asked for their input, but managers ultimately make the decisions themselves. Participation is when managers and employees jointly identify problems and solutions—power is shared more or less evenly. Finally, delegation occurs when managers turn over decision-making authority to employees and remove themselves from the process. It is important to note that one level of empowerment is not necessarily better than another. Like many other things related to OB, the degree of power sharing should match the needs of the situation and the capabilities of the individuals or teams involved

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)

Behavior that harms other employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholders

The contingency approach to guiding performance involves what types of goals?

Behavioral, objective, task/project

Meaningfulness

Belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self

Benefits of mentoring

Both mentor and protégé/protégée possess emotional intelligence. The mentor is male and the protégé/protégée is a minority or non-Caucasian. The mentoring relationship is formal rather than informal. The mentor is skilled at coaching, is a good role model, and possesses social capital. The protégé/protégée possesses high levels of human and social capital

4 Key personal implications of mentoring

Build a broad developmental network because the number and quality of your contacts influences your career success. In doing this, keep in mind the comments of two networking experts: "Relationships are living, breathing things. Feed, nurture, and care about them; they grow. Neglect them; they die."123 Invest time in your developmental relationships. Seek consistency or congruence between your career goals and the type of developmental network at your disposal. This alignment has a big influence on job and career satisfaction. For example, if you are interested in a job in finance, try to develop relationships with people with a finance background. If you want to start your own business one day, try to network with a diverse group of people. This should help broaden your understanding of what it takes to start a business. A mentor's willingness to provide career and psychosocial assistance depends on the protégé/protégée's ability and potential and the quality of the interpersonal relationship.124 This point underscores the value of building your human and social capital. Develop a mentoring plan. Experts suggest your plan should include the following steps:125 Base your mentoring goals on what you want to learn, and then prioritize them. Identify people who are skilled or experienced in areas where you want to improve. Don't overlook your peers; they are a good source of functional, technical, and organizational knowledge. Decide how best to build a relationship with your targeted individuals. Figure out how you can provide value to your mentor. Because mentoring is a two-way street, others are more likely to help you if they see some value in assisting you to pursue your career goals. Recognize when it is time to move on. Mentors are not forever. If you believe your mentor is ineffective or harming more than helping, find a new mentor. It's easy to become stuck with one mentor. Expanding your horizons will not only benefit you, but it can help the mentor develop his or her mentoring skills as well.

Commonly used political tactics

Building a network of useful contacts Cultivating a support network both inside and outside the organization Using "key players" to support initiatives Getting prior support for a decision or issue; building others' commitment via participation Making friends with power brokers Teaming up with powerful people who can get results Bending the rules to fit the situation Interpreting or (not) enforcing rules to serve your own interests Using self-promotion Blowing your own horn, but not doing the same for others' accomplishments Creating a favorable image (also known as impression management, discussed next) Dressing for success; adhering to organizational norms and drawing attention to your successes and influence; taking credit for others' accomplishments Praising others (ingratiation) Making influential people feel good (brownnosing) Attacking or blaming others Avoiding or minimizing association with failure; scapegoating; reducing competition for limited resources Using information as a political tool Withholding or distorting information; obscuring an unfavorable situation by overwhelming superiors with information

What are social media benefits for employers?

Connect in real time over distance: Employees, customers, communities, suppliers, prospective talent, and many others can communicate as needed and while work is being completed. Collaborate within and outside the organization: Linking sources of knowledge is a means for realizing the potential of employee diversity and enhancing productivity. Social media is by definition a way of connecting people virtually, so its effective implementation benefits virtual teamwork. Expand boundaries: Social networks can become critical means for organizational innovation and effectiveness, allowing them to utilize knowledge, skills, and experience of people outside (not employed by) the organization.

What are the three forms of trust?

Contractual trust. Trust of character. Do people do what they say they are going to do? Do managers and employees make clear what they expect of one another? Communication trust. Trust of disclosure. How well do people share information and tell the truth? Competence trust. Trust of capability. How effectively do people meet or perform their responsibilities and acknowledge other people's skills and abilities?

Person factors that drive creative performance behaviors

Creativity starts with motivation and domain-relevant knowledge. Like Lowell Wood, people need to be motivated to apply their knowledge and capabilities to create new ideas, new products, and solutions to all sorts of problems. Other drivers of creativity include the Big Five personality dimensions, self-efficacy, national culture, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and proactive personality

How to make a collaborative, interest-based approach to negotiations

Define and frame the issue in terms of parties' interests. Explain the respective interests (listen, learn, and share). Explore expanding the pie (create value rather than claiming it). Create options. Evaluate options in light of the interest described in step 1. Choose the option that best meets the interest described. Develop and agree on a plan of implementation

Bad impressions

Doing only the minimum. Many employees aren't aware that not making the often simple effort to fulfill a coworker's request can be costly. Going the extra mile to check the status of a report, for instance, can quickly convey a strong positive impression. Having a negative mind-set. Most of us think we're positive spirits all the time, but others may see us differently. When presented with a new initiative, for instance, do you immediately point out the potential pitfalls or complain? If so, others may see you as negative. Managers prefer people who are supportive, not necessarily "yes men and women," but those who are constructive rather than eternal naysayers. Overcommitting. Initiative is often good, but biting off more than you can chew means you might choke. Failing to deliver on-time or high-quality work is a sure Page 494way to make a bad impression. Prioritize and deliver, which requires saying no sometimes. Taking no initiative. The opposite of overcommitting—failing to take action when something needs to get done—can also make you look bad. If coworkers (including your boss) frequently come to you with the same questions or challenges, step up and try to proactively resolve the issue. Waiting until the last minute to deliver bad news. Of course you shouldn't report to your boss about every little hiccup in your work. But don't wait until just before a deadline to say you are having difficulties

three important managerial and personal implications of LMX theory

Expectations matter. Leaders are encouraged to establish high-performance expectations for all their direct reports, because favoritism and differential treatment lead to negative outcomes. Leaders should also communicate their view of relationships with their team. Diversity still counts. Personality and demographic similarity between leaders and followers may be associated with higher LMXs, but managers should avoid creating a homogenous work environment just for the sake of having positive relationships with their direct reports. Diversity's many benefits are too powerful to be ignored. The initiative is yours. Positive actions can improve a poor LMX

What is the richest form of communication?

Face-to-face; It provides immediate feedback and allows participants to observe multiple cues such as body language and tone of voice. Used in situations that are complex or that are highly important to receivers.

Examples of intermittent reinforcement

Fixed ratio: Examples: Piece-rate pay; bonuses tied to the sale of a fixed number of units Advantages: Clear and predictable link between the behavior and the reinforcer Disadvantages: Costly to monitor performance and administer reinforcers (like money); reinforcers lose effect over time Variable ratio: Examples: Slot machines that pay after a variable number of pulls; lotteries that pay after a variable number of tickets sold Advantages: Strong motivation to continue until reinforcer is received; less costly than fixed ratio Disadvantages: Some desired behaviors will not be rewarded; potentially long periods between reinforcers (such as payouts) Fixed interval: Examples: Paychecks (every two weeks or once a month); annual bonuses; probationary periods Advantages: Clear and predictable link between the behavior and reinforcer; less costly than fixed ratio Disadvantages: Inconsistent effort and performance over the interval (majority of effort/performance occurs near reinforcer) Variable interval: Examples: Random supervisor "pats on the back"; spot rewards; random audits (financial); random drug tests of athletes and employees; pop quizzes Advantages: Consistent and strong motivation to perform over time; least costly schedule due to relatively little monitoring and administration Disadvantages: Some desired behaviors will not be reinforced; potentially long periods between reinforcers (payouts)

Advantages of group decision making

Greater pool of knowledge. A group possesses more information and knowledge than one individual acting alone. Different approaches to a problem. Individuals with different backgrounds and experiences bring varied perspectives to diagnosing and solving problems. Greater commitment to a decision. Participation and a voice in decision making are more likely to result in commitment to a decision. This in turn leads group members to accept and feel responsible for implementing a proposed solution. Better understanding of decision rationale. Participating in a decision increases group members' understanding about why the decision is being made and what must occur to implement it. This in turn reduces miscommunication among people. More visible role modeling. Less experienced group members learn about group dynamics and how to solve problems.

Nondisclosure

Includes partial disclosure of facts, failure to disclose a hidden fact, failure to correct the opponents' misperceptions or ignorance, and concealment of the negotiator's own position or circumstances.

Information exploitation

Information provided by the opponent can be used to exploit his weaknesses, close off his alternatives, generate demands against him, or weaken his alliances.

How does big data create value?

It can make information more transparent and usable. It allows organizations, like Kroger, to measure and collect all types of performance information, enabling them to implement initiatives to enhance productivity. It allows more narrow segmentation of customers. It can be used to develop new products

three categories of favorable upward impression management techniques

Job-focused—tactics that present information about your job performance in a favorable light. Supervisor-focused—praise and favors for your supervisor. Self-focused—an image of yourself as a polite and nice person.

Integrated model of leadership

Leadership effectiveness is influenced by four types of leadership behavior: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational Effective leadership also is affected by a combination of task-oriented traits and interpersonal attributes (the left side of the model)

Organizational memory

Learning will not last unless the organization finds a method to save it. Knowledge needs to be put into some type of repository or organizational memory if it is to be used in the future. Organizational memory is not an object. According to a team of OB experts, it is the combined processes of "encoding, storing, and retrieving the lessons learned from an organization's history, despite the turnover of personnel.

6 Principles for influencing people

Liking. People tend to like those who like them. Learning about another person's likes and dislikes through informal conversations builds friendship bonds. So do sincere and timely praise, empathy, and recognition. Reciprocity. The belief that both good and bad deeds should be repaid in kind is virtually universal. Managers who act unethically and treat employees with contempt can expect the same in return, and their employees are likely to treat each other and their customers unethically and with contempt. Managers need to be positive and constructive role models and fair-minded to benefit from the principle of reciprocity. Social proof. People tend to follow the lead of those most like themselves. Role models and peer pressure are powerful cultural forces in social settings. Managers are advised to build support for workplace changes by first gaining the enthusiastic support of informal leaders who will influence their peers. Consistency. People tend to do what they are personally committed to do. A manager who can elicit a verbal commitment from an employee has taken an important step toward influence and persuasion. Authority. People tend to defer to and respect credible experts. Too many managers and professionals take their own expertise for granted, as did one hospital's physical therapy staff that grew frustrated by the lack of follow-through by patients. No matter how much these professionals emphasized the importance of continuing therapy, many patients stopped once they returned home. An investigation of the causes revealed that patients were unaware of the professional/clinical qualifications of their therapists. Once they were informed, and diplomas and certifications were hung on the walls in the clinic, patient compliance increased a remarkable 34 percent! Scarcity. People want items, information, and opportunities that have limited availability. Special opportunities and privileged information are influence-builders for managers

Servant leader characteristics

Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening to identify and clarify the needs and desires of a group. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with others' feelings and emotions. An individual's good intentions are assumed even when he or she performs poorly. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves and others whole in the face of failure or suffering. Awareness Servant-leaders are aware of their own strengths and limitations. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than on positional authority when making decisions and trying to influence others. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort to develop broader-based conceptual thinking. They seek an appropriate balance between a short-term, day-to-day focus and a long-term, conceptual orientation. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee outcomes of a current course of action or situation. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume they are stewards of the people and resources they manage. Commitment to the growth of people Servant-leaders commit to people beyond their immediate work role. They foster an environment that encourages personal, professional, and spiritual growth. Interest in building community Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of community both within and outside the work organization.

Men vs Women Leaders

Men were observed to display more task leadership and women more relationship leadership.25 Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style.26 Female leadership was associated with more cohesion, cooperative learning, and participative communication among team members.27 Peers, managers, direct reports, and judges/trained observers, rated women executives as more effective than men. Men rated themselves as more effective than women evaluated themselves

Outcomes of organizational culture

Organizational culture is related to organizational effectiveness. This means an organization's culture can be a source of competitive advantage. Employees have more positive work attitudes when working in organizations with clan cultures. Employees clearly prefer to work in organizations that value flexibility over stability and control, and those that are more concerned with satisfying employees' needs than with customer or shareholder desires. Clan and market cultures are more likely to deliver higher customer satisfaction and market share. We suspect this result holds because the positive employee attitudes associated with clan cultures motivate employees to provide better customer service. Operational outcomes, quality, and innovation are more strongly related to clan, adhocracy, and market cultures than to hierarchical ones. Managers should avoid the use of too many rules and procedures—hierarchical characteristics—when trying to improve these outcomes. An organization's financial performance (profit and revenue growth) is not strongly related to organizational culture. Only market and hierarchy cultures were associated with financial outcomes. Managers should not expect to immediately increase financial performance when they try to change their organization's culture. This underscores the conclusion that culture change needs time to take hold. Companies with market cultures tend to have more positive organizational outcomes. Managers should make their cultures more market oriented.

four factors when establishing spans of control

Organizational size. Larger organizations tend to have narrower spans of control and more organizational layers, whereas smaller ones have a wider span of control. Costs tend to be higher in organizations with narrow spans due to the increased expense of having more managers. Communication also tends to be slower in narrow spans because information must travel throughout multiple organizational layers. Skill level. Complex tasks require more managerial input, thereby suggesting a narrow span of control. Conversely, routine tasks do not require much supervision, leading to the use of a wider span of control. Organizational culture. Narrow spans of control are more likely in companies with a hierarchical culture because they focus on internal integration and stability and control—recall Figure 14.4. In contrast, wider spans of control are more likely to be found in companies that desire flexibility and discretion, cultures characterized as clan or adhocracy. Wider spans also complement cultures that desire greater worker autonomy and participation. Managerial responsibilities. The most senior-level executives tend to have narrower spans of control than middle managers because their responsibilities are broader in scope and more complex. It's important to consider the breadth of a person's responsibilities when deciding his or her span of control.

Matrix structure

Organizations use matrix structures when they need stronger horizontal alignment or cooperation in order to meet their goals. A matrix structure combines a vertical structure with an equally strong horizontal overlay. Functional and divisional chains of command form a grid with two command structures, one shown vertically by function and the other shown horizontally by product line, brand, customer group, or geographic region. can also provide a reasonable counterbalance among important stakeholders, but applying it to an organization is not easy. Matrix organizations can be complex and confusing without an extra layer of collaboration and integration to effectively implement the structure Best for: Organizations, increasingly including international ones, looking to avoid problems associated with silos by using a formal level of horizontal integration. Pros: Lines of formal authority along two dimensions, such as functional/product or product/region, that allow organizations to work more cohesively. Cons: Inadequate processes to ensure success. Potential for conflict when employees report to two bosses if those managers fail to coordinate.

How to make the best first impression

Set goals When you're preparing for an event (a meeting, social event, or conference), think of whom you'd like to meet and what you'd like to achieve from that introduction. Then plan your energy, introduction, and comments accordingly. Consider your ornaments We're not talking about Christmas trees or party favors, but instead about your jewelry, makeup, and clothes. This advice is for both men and women. Many people will draw conclusions from the type of watch you wear and how well it aligns with your clothes (sporty, gaudy, trendy). Makeup and jewelry are judged similarly. Be sure they match your personality and your intended message. Remember your body speaks We've all heard that body language makes a difference, so pay attention to nonverbals. Find a way to video yourself in a social setting. Use this evidence to help you manage your body language habits in the future. Bust bad moods and bad days If you're in a bad mood before an important event, find a way to snap out of it—play some of your favorite music, work out, go shopping—or reschedule (or stay home). People will pick up on your mood, and you don't want your body language to convey: "Hello, my name is Bad Mood Bob." Be interested to be interesting The best way to appear interesting is to appear interested. People tend to like people who like them; at least this is a good place to start. Rather than blather on about yourself, an excellent way to show interest is to ask questions about the other person. You may be able to do research ahead of time about the person or persons you'll meet, and then make it part of your goal to ask them about what you learned.

How do reduce the escalation of commitment

Set minimum targets for performance, and have decision makers compare their performance against these targets. Regularly rotate managers in key positions throughout a project. Encourage decision makers to become less ego-involved with a project. Make decision makers aware of the costs of persistence.

STATE for crucial conversations

Share your facts. Start with the least controversial, most persuasive elements that support what you want for yourself and for the relationship. Tell your story. Enhance what you want by describing what has happened, how you've arrived where you are, how you'd like to see it change, and why. It may help to add what you don't want personally or for the relationship. Ask for others' facts and stories. This is key to creating dialogue, which is essential if you're to have a productive crucial conversation. Don't talk at but instead talk with others. Approach all crucial conversations as two-way exchanges. Don't be accusatory, but instead simply describe the situation, the way you feel, and what you would like to see happen. Use "I" instead of "you." Talk tentatively. Keep in mind that you're telling a story, not stating facts. The facts come first, then you can add "color" or describe the impact on you via your story. In other words, don't pound the podium and talk like you're "preaching" facts. Encourage testing. Make it safe for others to share their (opposing) views. Allow them to share or test their ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Don't interrupt, steamroll, or intimidate. It is critical to maintain mutual respect during crucial conversations. One way to do this is to explain and focus on mutual purpose—what you both stand to gain. Be sure the other person respects you in order to avoid defensiveness (recall what you learned earlier in this chapter) and conflict. If it's appropriate, apologize to get back on track

rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals—as "soft" tactics because they are friendlier than, and not as coercive as, the last four tactics—exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimating tactics, which are "hard" tactics because they exert more overt pressure.

Soft vs hard tactics

How to apply contingency theories of leadership

Step 1: Identify important outcomes. Managers must first identify the goals they want to achieve. For example, the head coach may have games to win or wish to avoid injury to key players, whereas a sales manager's goal might be to increase sales by 10 percent or reduce customers' complaints by half. Step 2: Identify relevant leadership behaviors. Next managers need to identify the specific types of behaviors that may be appropriate for the situation at hand. The list in Table 13.4 is a good starting point. A head coach in a championship game, for instance, might focus on achievement-oriented and work-facilitation behaviors. In contrast, a sales manager might find path-goal-clarifying, work-facilitation, and supportive behaviors more relevant for the sales team. Don't try to use all available leadership behaviors. Rather, select the one or two that appear most helpful. Step 3: Identify situational conditions. Fiedler and House both identify a set of potential contingency factors to consider, but there may be other practical considerations. For example, a star quarterback on a football team may be injured, which might require the team to adopt a different strategy for winning the game. Similarly, the need to manage a virtual sales team with members from around the world will affect the types of leadership most effective in this context. Step 4: Match leadership to the conditions at hand. There are too many possible situational conditions for us to provide specific advice. This means you should use your knowledge about organizational behavior to find the best match between your leadership styles and behaviors and the situation at hand. The coach whose star quarterback is injured might use supportive and values-based behaviors to instill confidence that the team can win with a different quarterback. Our sales manager also might find it useful to use the empowering leadership associated with work-facilitation behaviors and avoid directive leadership. Step 5: Decide how to make the match. Managers can use guidelines from either contingency theory or path-goal theory: change the person in the leadership role or change his or her behavior. It is not possible to change the head coach in a championship game. This means the head coach needs to change his or her style or behavior to meet the specific challenge. In contrast, the organization employing the sales manager might move him or her to another position because the individual is too directive and does not like to empower others. Or the sales manager could change his or her behavior, if possible.

How to Manage Up

Step 1—Prepare your message. Unlike crucial conversations that often happen in the moment, attempts to manage up or coach your boss are an agreed-upon arrangement that occurs over time. Therefore, use time to your advantage and prepare. Know what you want to accomplish, Support your points for your manager with examples, data, or other evidence. Step 2—Plan your delivery and tactics. Plan your delivery of your message—the tone and choice of words that will most likely achieve your desired result. Role-playing is a very valuable practice tool—use it! Step 3—Deliver. When conducting the coaching conversation, be sure you: Are sensitive. Your boss has feelings just like you, and just as you don't like to get hammered with comments about how horrible and disappointing you are, neither does your boss. Don't generalize behavior. Speak to specific areas of your boss's job, specific behaviors, and specific situations. Provide ideas or suggestions. Don't introduce your ideas as if they are the only ones that will work, or use language like "you must" or "you should." Step 4—Follow up. Coaching and managing both consist of more than simply providing feedback. Follow up to see how your boss has been doing in the areas discussed. Also ask what else you can do to help him or her in the future.

2 Situations where organizational politics are positive

The first occurs when political action helps an organization adapt. An organization's leadership, policies, practices, and/or strategies may be taking the organization in the wrong direction. In such situations, if an individual or coalition operates counter to the organization's stated goals, perhaps because they have more relevant information about the market and competition, this political action will ultimately be positive for the organization. The second situation occurs when bad actors, such as destructive leaders, create organizational goals and objectives to suit their own interests—their egos or their personal legacies. Political tactics that counter these interests are likely to be positive for the organization

Interactional justice

The quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented

What are the internal forces for change?

They come from inside the organization

Tolerance for ambiguity

This characteristic indicates the extent to which a person needs structure or control in his or her life. Some people desire a lot of structure. They have a low tolerance for ambiguity and find ambiguous situations stressful and psychologically uncomfortable. Others do not have a high need for structure and can thrive in uncertain situations; their tolerance for ambiguity is high

Overvaluing outcomes

We give a pass to unethical behavior if the outcome is good. Example: A researcher whose fraudulent clinical trial saves lives is considered more ethical than one whose fraudulent trial leads to deaths. Remedy: Examine both "good" and "bad" decisions for their ethical implications. Reward solid decision processes, not just good outcomes.

Indirect Blindness

We hold others less accountable for unethical behavior when it's carried out through third parties Example: A drug company deflects attention from a price increase by selling rights to another company, which imposes the increases. Remedy: When handing off or outsourcing work, ask whether the assignment might invite unethical behavior and take ownership of the implications.

Motivated Blindness

We overlook the unethical behavior of another when it's in our interest to remain ignorant. Example: Baseball officials failed to notice they'd created conditions that encouraged steroid use. Remedy: Root out conflicts of interest. Simply being aware of them doesn't necessarily reduce their negative effect on decision making.

A team is

a small number of people who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves collectively accountable

Meta-analysis

a statistical procedure that effectively computes an average relationship between two variables

nonverbal communication

communication without words. According to communication experts "it includes observable behaviors such as facial expressions, eyes, touching, and tone of voice, as well as less obvious messages such as dress, posture, and spatial distance between two or more people."

Servant leadership

focuses on increased service to others rather than to oneself. expected to promote leadership effectiveness because it focuses on providing support and growth opportunities to employees

Leader-Memeber Exchange Theory

focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates, as opposed to their behaviors or traits. It also does not assume that leader behavior is characterized by a stable or average leadership style. based on the assumption that leaders develop unique one-to-one relationships (exchanges) with each of the people reporting to them. Behavioral scientists call this sort of relationship a vertical dyad (a dyad is something with two parts). The forming of vertical dyads is said to be a naturally occurring process, resulting from the leader's attempt to delegate and assign work roles. Two distinct types of LMX relationships are expected to evolve, in-groups and out-groups.

Normative model

guided by a decision maker's bounded rationality;

Willpower

have a goal and the determination to achieve it

Dominating

have a high concern for self and low concern for others, often characterized by "I win, you lose" tactics. The other party's needs are largely ignored. This style is often called forcing because it relies on formal authority to force compliance.

Market culture

have a strong external focus and value stability and control. Competition is their strategic thrust. They have a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals, and because they are focused on the external environment, customers and profits take precedence over employee development and satisfaction. Managers' major goal is to improve productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction.

Alternative dispute resolution

it "uses faster, more user-friendly methods of dispute resolution, instead of traditional, adversarial approaches, such as unilateral decision making or litigation."

communication competence

it is a performance-based index of an individual's abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given context

Consideration

leader behavior that creates mutual respect or trust and prioritizes group members' needs and desires. Consideration promotes social interactions and identification with the team and leader While research results did not support this bold prediction, considerate leader behavior has a moderately strong positive relationship with measures of leadership effectiveness

Initiating structure

leader behavior that organizes and defines what group members should be doing to maximize output. You witness this behavior style when someone organizes a team meeting for a class project or seeks input from a knowledgeable source to help guide the team's work. This form of leadership has a moderately strong positive relationship with measures of leadership effectiveness

Facts about Fiedler's contingency theory

leaders have one dominant or natural leadership style that is resistant to change—either task-motivated or relationship-motivated. Recall these two orientations from our earlier discussion in this chapter. Task-motivated leaders focus on accomplishing goals, whereas relationship-motivated leaders are more interested in developing positive relationships with followers. Leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors. The fit between a leader's style and the situational demands is influential. For example, a recent study found that companies with task-oriented CEOs achieved greater financial performance (higher return on assets) when the company had a relationship-focused culture, whereas firms with relationship-oriented CEOs had higher firm performance in task-focused cultures.74 Organizations should attempt to hire or promote people whose leadership styles fit or match situational demands. Bill Marriott, Marriott's executive chairman, decided to select the first nonfamily CEO because he felt his son John was not suited for the position despite having spent his entire life working his way up through the company (see Problem-Solving Application box). Leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation. A recent study found that too much task-oriented leader behavior was viewed negatively by employees, whereas excessive relationship leadership was not. Leaders need to experiment with finding the appropriate amount of leadership to exhibit in different situations.

Boundaryless organization

one in which "management has largely succeeded in breaking down barriers between internal levels, job functions, and departments, as well as reducing external barriers between the association [organization] and those with whom it does business." This type of structure is fluid and flexible and relies on telecommuting between geographically dispersed people. It is most appropriate for businesses in fast-changing industries or environments.

Logical-mathematical intelligence:

potential for deductive reasoning, problem analysis, and mathematical calculation. Ex: Did this intelligence help or hurt you on your college entrance exam?

Musical intelligence:

potential to appreciate, compose, and perform music. Ex: Do you play the drums? Have you heard Marco Minnemann? He is widely considered a virtuoso drummer, one of the best on the planet. If you were to measure this form of intelligence, Minneman's musical intelligence score would likely be very high.

Competing values framework

provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure, and change organizational culture. It identifies four fundamental types of organizational culture—clan, adhocracy, hierarchy, and market measures of organizational effectiveness varied along two fundamental dimensions or axes. One axis described whether an organization focuses its attention and efforts on internal dynamics and employees, or outward to its external environment and its customers and shareholders. The second axis measured an organization's preference for flexibility and discretion over control and stability. Combining these two axes creates four types of organizational culture, each with different core values and different sets of criteria for assessing organizational effectiveness.

Distributive justice

reflects the perceived fairness of the way resources and rewards are distributed or allocated.

Framing bias

relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed. It leads us to change the way we interpret alternatives. In general, people view choices more favorably when they are framed in terms of gains rather than loses.

Met expectations

represent the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what she or he actually receives.

intelligence

represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving

Change and acquisition phase

requires employees to master important tasks and roles and adjust to their work group's values and norms. Mastery will occur only when employees have a clear understanding about their roles and are effectively integrated within the work unit. Being successful in Phase 3 also requires employees to have a clear understanding of the use of social media. It is easy for you to create problems for yourself by not being aware of expectations regarding surfing, texting during meetings, and use of company equipment for personal messages. Experts suggest setting ground rules on the first day of employment, coaching employees on norms, and discussing how guidelines have changed

Overconfidence bias

results in overestimating our skills relative to those of others, such as our driving ability, and overestimating the accuracy of our predictions. This bias grows in strength when people are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones.

zone of possible agreement or ZOPA

the range of possible outcomes you are willing to accept

Organizational culture

the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments.

Whether you face a problem or an opportunity, the goal is

to make improvements that change conditions from their current state to a more desirable one. This requires you to diagnose the cause of the problem, or the nature of the opportunity.

Waypower

to see one or more paths to achieve your goal, even when faced with adversity

Self-esteem is

your general belief about your own self-worth

motivating factors, or motivators

—including achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement—cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction.

hygiene factors

—including company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions—cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction

"when we experience boredom, two areas of the brain may be busy working closely together

—the executive network, which solves problems, and the so-called default network, which takes over when your brain isn't involved with something external. The result is enhanced creativity.