MGT CH 10

Structural conflict

Conflict resulting from structural or process features of the organization Structural conflict can be horizontal or vertical. Because structural conflict is due to organizational design, adjusting the design often reduces or eliminates the structural conflict. Matching a department's structural design with its needs given its environment improves its effectiveness. Structural interventions should focus on creating a moderate amount of constructive task conflict and minimal relationship conflict by addressing the sources of these conflicts for that unit.

Improving Your Negotiation Skills

Do: Prepare well Use silence to your advantage Offer a warm greeting and build rapport Understand your position and what you can and cannot—part with Maintain a confident posture, lean forward, and smile Maintain good eye contact Ask good-quality, open questions Speak in a clear, measured manner Show empathy Display controlled energy Avoid: Constantly making eye contact Ignoring members of the group Celebrating a victory in the presence of the other party Coldness or harshness in your voice Closed body language (arms folded, head down, avoiding eye contact)

Glasl's Nine-Stage Model of Conflict Escalation

In the first stage of conflict escalation, hardening, each side's opinion hardens and the two opponents adopt a collision course. The disagreement is recognized but each side believes that the issue can be resolved through discussion. In the second stage, debate, each side's opinion becomes polarized and emotions rise. Each side begins thinking in terms of black and white and adopts a viewpoint of self-superiority and opponent-inferiority. Constructive conflicts are generally resolved by the second stage. The third stage, action over words, sees a decrease in empathy for the opponent, and the idea that "talking no longer helps" emerges. The conflict becomes increasingly destructive in this stage. In the fourth stage, images/coalitions, negative rumors are spread and stereotypes are formed as each side prepares for a fight and conducts a search for supporters. The fifth stage, loss of face, marks the beginning of open and direct aggression intended to cause the opponent's loss of public face. I n the sixth stage, threat as a strategy, threats and counter-threats increase. As ultimatums are made, conflict escalation accelerates. In the seventh stage, limited attempts to overthrow, the opponent is no longer viewed as a person. Slight personal damage is considered acceptable as a consequence of limited attempts to overthrow the opponent. In the eighth stage, fragmentation of the enemy, the goal becomes the destruction and dissolution of the system. This goal is pursued aggressively. The ninth and final stage, together into the abyss, sees the descent into total confrontation with no way back. Extermination of the opponent at the price of self-extermination is seen and accepted.

Change

Indeed, it has been said that change is not possible without conflict. One of the primary drivers of conflict is uncertainty. Organizational changes, including reorganization, downsizing, and changing business strategies, increase uncertainty and opportunities for resource conflicts. External changes can also trigger conflict if regulations or changing market conditions change the relative importance of different organizational groups.

Avoiding

a passive conflict management style involving ignoring the conflict or denying that it exists. This style reflects a low concern for your own interests and a low concern for the interests of the other party. When this strategy is used to manage trivial conflicts, no damage may be done, but it can result in maximum damage when important issues are involved. Avoidance is also used when more information is needed or when addressing the conflict has the potential to create more problems (perhaps the other party is known to be aggressive). The primary drawback to an avoidance style is that the decision may not be optimal to you and your interests. The goal of avoiding is "no winners/no losers." Because conflict is often uncomfortable, members of workgroups often resort to passive forms of conflict management such as avoidance

Conflict Escalation

Conflict escalation happens when one party involved in a conflict (an individual, small group, department, or entire organizations) first uses an aggressive tactic or begins using more aggressive tactics than the other party. When constructive approaches to conflict resolution are unsuccessful and break down, the conflict escalates. The farther the conflict escalates, the more difficult it is to reverse and the more likely it is to become dysfunctional.

Best and Worst Conflict Resolution Behaviors for Career Advancement

How managers deal with conflict can have a significant impact on their careers. There are both effective and less effective approaches. Best Conflict Resolution Behaviors: -Perspective taking: Try to put yourself in the other person's position and understand that person's point of view. -Focusing on interests rather than positions: Interests could include better serving clients or increasing the clarity of work expectations. By focusing on the outcome, the root cause of the conflict is more likely to be addressed. Creating solutions: Brainstorm with the other person or group, ask questions, and try to create solutions to the problem. Expressing emotions: Talk honestly with the other person and express your thoughts and feelings. Reaching out: Reach out to the other party, make the first move, and try to make amends. -Documenting: Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding and clear communication. -Smoothing: Playing down the differences between the two sides while emphasizing common interests. -Asking the parties involved in a conflict to identify three or four specific actions they would like the other party to take: An example of this would be saying, "I would like you to send me the report by noon on Wednesday so that I can meet my deadline of 10 a.m. Friday." Worst Conflict Resolution Behaviors: -Avoiding the conflict: Avoiding or ignoring the conflict, hoping it will pass, is rarely successful. -Winning at all costs: Arguing vigorously for your own opinion, refusing to consider changing your position, and trying to win regardless of the interpersonal costs are approaches that do not make for speedy or satisfying conflict resolution. -Displaying anger: Expressing anger, raising your voice, and using harsh, angry words will make the other person defensive and will slow down or prevent any resolution of the conflict. -Demeaning the other party: Laughing at the other person, ridiculing the other's ideas, and using sarcasm are both disrespectful and not conducive to resolving conflict. -Retaliating: Obstructing the other person, retaliating against the other person, and trying to get revenge are unprofessional and disrespectful behaviors and will not promote conflict resolution. -Meeting separately with the people in conflict: Because the sole goal of each employee involved in a conflict is to convince you of the merits of their own case, the parties are likely to become more committed to their positions rather than committed to resolving the conflict if you talk to each party in private.

alternative dispute resolution

Sometimes two parties are unable to reach an acceptable settlement through direct negotiations with each other. In such cases, the parties may involve a third party to overcome the stalemate and avoid a trial. There are three types of alternative dispute resolution: Conciliation Conciliation Arbitration

values conflict

conflict arising from perceived or actual incompatibilities in beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, and fair or unfair. Values conflicts can arise when people or groups have different values or a different understanding of the world. What violates someone's values differs across national cultures. Different events can trigger conflict in various cultural contexts due to different core concerns.

Sources of Conflict

differing task goals- disagreements over what is to be accomplished differing process goals- disagreements over how to accomplish tasks or goals interpersonal differences- differences in motivation, aspirations, or personality resource constraints- incompatible needs or competition over perceived or actual resource constraints change- the uncertainty of change often creates conflict and changes the relative importance of different organizational groups differing values- perceived or actual incompatibilities in beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, or fair or unfair poor communication- when people lack necessary information, are misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which data is relevant task interdependence- when one person or unit is dependent on another for resources or information, the potential for conflict increases organizational structure- conflict (either horizontal or vertical) can result from structural or process features of the organization

dysfunctional conflict

focus on emotions and differences between the two parties and can degenerate to the extent that the parties forget the substantive issues and focus on getting even, retaliating, or even hurting the other party. Not only can dysfunctional conflict negatively influence employee, workgroup, and company performance, but it also can lead to employee depression, absenteeism, turnover, burnout, and negative emotional states. It is characterized by feelings of contempt and at least one of the parties withdrawing from communicating. No one is satisfied with the outcome of dysfunctional conflict, potential gains from the conflict are not realized, and the negative feelings at the end of one conflict are carried over to the next conflict, creating a negative spiral. As a result, dysfunctional conflict often becomes separated from the initial issue and continues even after the original conflict becomes irrelevant or is forgotten.

Conflicts of interest

occur when someone believes that to satisfy his or her own needs, the needs and interests of someone else must be sacrificed. This is particularly problematic when dividing resources (like money or time) is a zero-sum game in which one party's gain is the other party's loss. Conflict due to incompatible needs or competition ever perceived or actual resource constraints Conflicts of interest can occur over: Substantive issues including time, money, and physical resources Procedural issues involving the way the conflict will be handled Psychological issues including perceptions of fairness, trust, or interest in participating Conflicts of interest are best resolved by jointly addressing both parties' interests. If a scarce resource can be expanded, for example, say through a bigger budget or by adding more office space, a conflict can be resolved to both parties' satisfaction. Resolving conflicts of interest often increases creativity and innovation and stimulates performance.

Horizontal conflict

occurs between groups at the same organizational level, such as between line and staff employees or between departments such as production and marketing. A classic example is the marketing production conflict between marketing's long-term view of sales and production's short-term goal of cost efficiency. Because the realities of employees in each department are aligned with their identification with these dimensions, conflict is a perfectly justified response to "those people in that other department.

Distributive negotiation

occurs under zero-sum conditions, where any gain to one party is offset by an equivalent loss to the other party. Distributive negotiation essentially distributes resources among the parties involved. Because distributive negotiation structures the conflict in a win-lose way, it tends to be competitive and adversarial. For example, every dollar one manager gets from the company's total budget is a dollar another manager does not get.

Process conflict

Conflict about how to accomplish a task, who is responsible for what, and how things should be delegated Role ambiguity increases process conflict. If a manager does not clearly assign work tasks to employees, employees may experience process conflict as they jockey with one another to do the most desirable assignments and avoid the least desirable tasks.

Information conflict

Conflict that occurs when people lack necessary information, are misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which information is relevant Poor communication increases uncertainty and can thus increase the potential for conflict. If a manager tells only some subordinates (but not others) about strategy changes or upcoming scheduling changes, this increases the opportunity for conflict between the employees who have this important information and those who lack the information. Because email restricts the richness of communication and increases the chances for misunderstanding, conflicts are more likely to escalate when people communicate via email compared to face-to-face or over the telephone.

relationship conflict

Conflicts can arise from interpersonal differences in motivation, aspirations, or personality. the result of incompatibility or differences between individuals or groups. Relationship conflict can also be triggered by personality, particularly the personality traits of dogmatism and power motivation. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an unnecessary escalating spiral of dysfunctional conflict. it is consistently recognized as a primary source of stress for employees of all ages, cultures, and occupations. Twenty-five percent of employees from a wide range of occupations identified interpersonal issues as the most vexing stressor at work. In another study, negative social interactions at work accounted for 75 percent of all work situations that employees described as detrimental. Relationship conflict is fueled primarily by emotions (usually anger and frustration) and by perceptions about the other party's personality, character, or motives. Some conflicts occur because people ignore their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over an issue. Because relationship conflict is personalized, it tends to become more extreme. If relationship conflict cannot be converted to task conflict, it almost always gets worse because each person acts as if the other is untrustworthy, looks for and finds more problems, and gets angrier. Sometimes moving one or more team members to another team to separate the employees experiencing relationship conflict is necessary. Effective project teams tend to have low but increasing levels of process conflict, moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the project, and low levels of relationship conflict that increase toward the end of the project. Creating a culture of respect and supporting the safe and balanced expression of perspectives and emotions can help to suppress relationship conflict. Intel trains all new employees in how to constructively manage conflict. Employees learn how to deal with others in a positive manner, use facts rather than opinion when persuading others, and focus on the problem rather than the people involved.

The four fundamental principles of integrative negotiation are:

1. Separate the people from the problem. Separate relationship issues (or "people problems" such as emotions, misperceptions, and communication issues) from substantive issues, and deal with them independently. 2. Focus on interests, not positions. Negotiate about things that people really want and need, and not what they say they want or need. 3. Invent options for mutual gain. Look for new solutions to the problem that will allow both sides to win, rather than just fighting over the original positions that assume that for one side to win, the other side must lose. 4. Insist on objective fairness criteria. Outside, objective fairness criteria for the negotiated agreement are ideal if they exist (like the terms of another company's union-management contract).

Conciliation

A third party builds a positive relationship between the parties, improves their communication, and facilitates their discussion. Conciliation facilitates a discussion and directs the parties toward a satisfactory settlement and may issue a binding opinion if both parties agreed to that ahead of time. Conciliation is often the first step in the alternative dispute resolution process. Its goal is to get the parties to better communicate and resolve the problem on their own, although the conciliator may suggest a resolution that the parties can accept or reject.

The Negotiation Process

At some time or another everyone must negotiate. For instance, discussing where to meet a friend for dinner, haggling over the price of a new car, and trying to convince your boss that you deserve a pay increase are all negotiations. We often experience conflicts with other people in which we must negotiate to reach a solution. Negotiation skills thus not only are critical for managers but also improve the effectiveness of all employees.

constructive conflict

Behaviors that are adaptive and responsive to the situation, person, and issues Constructive conflicts, also called functional conflicts, balance the interests of both parties to maximize mutual gains and the attainment of mutual goals. Constructive conflicts contain elements of creativity, adaptation, and a desire to discover a mutually acceptable outcome. Constructive conflict can lead to the identification of new alternatives and ideas. Constructive conflict is a natural, inevitable, and creative force and can be beneficial to employees and their organizations.

Vertical conflict

Conflict that occurs across different hierarchical levels in the organization Union-management relationships are a classic example of vertical conflict.

Coworker violence risk factors

Several factors serve to increase the risk of coworker violence in organizations: Supervising others Working in a high-stress environment Personality conflicts Understaffed workplaces Economic downturns

Resource Constraints

The availability and allocation of scarce resources is a major source of conflict in organizations. Incompatible needs and competition over perceived or actual resource constraints can create conflicts of interest

Competing

a conflict management style resulting from a high concern for your own interests and low concern for the other party. This approach is generally used when the conflict issue is important or to set a precedent. However, because one party is trying to dominate the other, this conflict management style can escalate the conflict and the loser may try to retaliate. A person who uses threats or ultimatums is using a competing conflict management style. Saying, "If you don't accept this offer the deal is off" reflects a competing style. The goal of competing is "I win/you lose."

ombudsman

someone who investigates complaints and mediates fair settlements between aggrieved parties. Universities often have ombudsmen to resolve conflicts between students and the institution, and large companies often have them to mediate conflicts with consumers. Ombudsmen help to resolve disputes while they are relatively small.

Here are some suggestions for being an effective negotiator:

-Do not look at a deal as an either/or proposition. Negotiating is about compromise. -Make sure each side knows the other's perception of the issues and each other's interests. -Identify what you can and cannot part with. If you are negotiating an employment contract, identify the things most important to you (e.g., more vacation, a signing bonus) and those things that are less important (e.g., a prestigious job title). Act like everything is important, and grudgingly concede ground on the things that matter less to you. The other party will count these concessions as a victory and might yield on things you value more. -Try to identify and use sources of leverage. Leverage consists of anything that can help or hinder a party in a bargaining situation. For example, a seller who must sell is at a disadvantage, and if the other party needs to move quickly, you might be able to make a tougher offer. Competing offers can also increase one party's leverage over the other. -Show the other side that you understand his or her position. Help the other person to see you as an ally by mirroring his or her emotions. If the other person appears frustrated, let him or her know that you recognize he or she is frustrated. The other person may respond with, "I sure am frustrated!" and now you're agreeing on something. Empathizing with the other party helps to preserve a cordial and productive atmosphere. -Suppress your emotions. Negotiations can become tense and stir emotions. Constantly reminding yourself of your goal can help you to maintain an appropriate level of detachment and continue to see the deal clearly. Stay rationally focused on the issue being negotiated, and take a break if emotions start to flare up. Also, be careful not to show too much desire for something, or your bargaining power will be reduced. If the other side can tell that you emotionally want something, this weakens your bargaining power. -Know your "BATNA." The acronym BATNA stands for "best alternative to a negotiated agreement." It is what you could have done had no negotiation taken place, or what you will do if you cannot reach an agreement with the other party. The purpose of negotiations is to see if you can get your interests better met by negotiating an agreement with the other party, compared to this best alternative. If the BATNA is not compared to the agreement being negotiated, negotiators can make agreements that are worse than not making an agreement at all. If negotiations stall, letting the other side know that you are prepared to proceed with your backup plan can also help to get the process started up again.

Certain actions can be used to de-escalate conflict. There are other actions that should be avoided.

:Do: -Be an empathetic listener -Focus your attention on the other person -Use delay tactics to create time to diffuse emotions -Control your body language—relax, uncross legs and arms, and make eye contact -Remind both parties that a win-win solution can be found -Stay focused on issues, not emotions Avoid: -Communicating hostility verbally or through body language -Rejecting all requests from the start -Challenging, threatening, or daring -Raising your voice -Blaming either party or saying anything that would cause the parties to lose face -Minimizing the situation or the conflict

Arbitration

A third party is involved and usually has the authority to impose a settlement on the parties. the results of arbitration are legally binding. Arbitration may be required by a contract or by law or may be voluntary if the parties agree to it. The negotiating parties can establish rules for the arbitrator, such as restricting the arbitrator to one of the negotiators' final offers or freeing the arbitrator to make any judgment he or she wishes. Although arbitration, unlike mediation, always results in a settlement, it has greater potential to leave at least one party dissatisfied, which could cause the conflict to resurface later. In 2017, 80 percent of the 100 largest U.S. companies had mandatory arbitration clauses in their employment contracts to force employees to settle disputes in a private forum.

The Conflict Process

After a potential conflict is triggered, it is perceived by both parties. The true disagreement may differ from the perceived disagreement; conflict is often accompanied by misunderstandings that exaggerate the perceived disagreement. If neither party experiences emotion in reaction to the potential conflict, it does not escalate. For example, if Ryan disagrees with his boss about how to do something but Ryan does not mind doing it the boss's way, neither party experiences emotion over the disagreement and the conflict ends. On the other hand, if Ryan feels strongly that his way is better or that the boss's way will not work, emotion may be felt. In this case, the conflict will begin to escalate. Both sides will then implement one or more conflict management strategies that either will end the conflict constructively or allow the conflict to continue to escalate, perhaps to the point of becoming destructive.

Mediation

An impartial third party (the mediator) facilitates a discussion using persuasion and logic, suggesting alternatives, and establishing each side's priorities. The mediator suggests a settlement that does not have to be accepted. Mediation is a voluntary and nonbinding process

Cultural Issues in Negotiations

Different national cultures have different preferred negotiation styles. For example, Russians tend to ignore deadlines and view concessions as a sign of weakness. Some cultures, like the French, are more comfortable with conflict than other cultures. Although they also value tact or diplomacy, the French can be very direct and frequently question and probe into the other side's arguments. In Saudi Arabia, saving face is essential. Causing embarrassment to the other party may be disastrous to a negotiation. Maintaining cordial relationships is also crucial to Saudi Arabians. In India's group-oriented culture, asserting individual preferences may be less effective than having a sense of belonging to a group, conforming to its norms, and maintaining harmony among group members. Iraqis attend more to how something is said than to what is actually said. Messages spoken in a calm and unemotional manner are given less weight and credibility than those communicated with emotion. Because Americans' desire to be liked is known in other cultures, skilled negotiators from other cultures use this to their advantage by making friendship conditional on the outcome of the negotiation. When people believe they have been treated disrespectfully because of differing cultural norms, the whole project can blow up. Clearly, intercultural negotiation requires paying attention to issues beyond what is being negotiated. The appropriateness of different negotiation tactics, the emphasis to put on developing relationships, how to respond to deadlines, and even where the negotiation should be held are all influenced by national culture. Preparation is particularly important when engaging in cross-cultural negotiations.

Interpersonal Conflict Management Strategies

Once you understand the source of a conflict you are engaged in, you need to identify the best strategy for addressing it. There are five conflict management strategies that differ in their concern for others and concern for your own interests, and these five styles of managing interpersonal conflict compare in their focus on others and on pursuing one's self-interests. 1. Collaborating 2. Collaborating 3. Competing 4. Accommodating 5. Avoiding In general, each style of handling interpersonal conflict is appropriate and ethical in some situations as long as it is used to attain the organization's proper goals. Remember, because people differ in their preferred conflict management styles, it is important to adapt your own style accordingly. What is most important is that you proactively manage workplace conflict. Research has found that conflict leads to stress and emotional exhaustion. Cultural values can also influence preferred conflict management styles

Conflict Management Skills

Professionals in conflict resolution training suggest four areas of skill development: -Listening (including eye contact, rephrasing, and summarizing what each side tells you to show them that you understand each side's position) -Questioning -Communicating nonverbally -Mediating If you are mediating a conflict, ask open rather than leading questions, and use nonverbal cues to show that you are sincerely trying to help. Read nonverbal cues to learn additional information. Mediation skills include open-mindedness, staying nonjudgmental and calm, demonstrating empathy and sensitivity, remaining neutral, respecting confidentiality, and showing flexibility and resiliency. Try to identify and communicate a superordinate goal shared by both parties that cannot be reached without their mutual cooperation. A person's ability to successfully resolve conflict is related to his or her effectiveness as a leader. Managers with poor conflict management skills hit a promotional ceiling much earlier in their careers. There are strong relationships between certain conflict resolution behaviors and perceived suitability for promotion

Creating Constructive Conflict

The successful design company IDEO printed the three rules of brainstorming on the wall. These rules are (1). concentrate on the quantity of the ideas, (2). don't criticize others' ideas, and (3). elaborate and build on others' ideas. To successfully create constructive conflict, organizations often punish conflict avoiders. Rewarding employees who engage in constructive conflict can help to reduce employees' fears of ridicule or rejection. A simple "thank you" for voicing a dissenting opinion can signal to employees that it is okay to speak up. Hiring employees who are comfortable with constructive conflict and who tend to use effective conflict management strategies can also enhance constructive conflict and improve organizational performance. Assigning one or more employees to play the role of devil's advocate can help to generate constructive conflict by providing a safer environment for the introduction of different perspectives. The dialectical method in which multiple groups discuss issues separately and then together to better synthesize different viewpoints into a common framework can help to reduce conflict by ensuring that multiple perspectives are incorporated into decisions.

Task Interdependence

When one person or unit is dependent on another for resources or information, the potential for conflict increases. Imagine writing a class paper with a partner. If you divide the assignment in half and each of you complete your section independently, there is less potential for conflict than if your ability to do a good job writing your section of a paper depends on the quality of the other student's section.

Role of Emotion in Conflict

When we are in conflict, we often feel emotionally charged. In fact, we are often unaware that we are in conflict until we recognize that we are emotional about something. There is an important distinction between perceiving conflict and feeling conflict; conflict is often not recognized until it is felt. One expert observes that "emotions are an important element of conflict. They define individuals' subjective interpretations of reality and reactions to current situations." Even though the emotional component is most evident in relationship conflict, task and process conflict also can contain high levels of emotion. Many people let their feelings and emotions influence how they deal with conflict. Controlling your emotions and staying focused on the issues can help to prevent a conflict from escalating. Assessing and acknowledging the emotions of the other party can also help you to more effectively manage the conflict.

Compromising

a conflict management style in which each side sacrifices something to end the conflict. This middle-ground style reflects a moderate concern for your own interests and a moderate concern for the interests of the other party. Saying, "Maybe we can meet in the middle" or "I'm willing to reconsider my initial position" reflects a compromising style. A compromising style is often used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles, or when a conflict must be resolved quickly. The goal of compromising is "I win some and lose some/you win some and lose some."

Task conflict

a disagreement about the task or goals. A moderate amount of task conflict is beneficial in the early stages of a project because it increases innovation and generates more alternatives from which to choose. However, task conflict is more likely to be detrimental over time when tasks are complex. Task conflict can be very productive if handled correctly. For example, marketing employees want to provide product variety to maximize sales, whereas production employees focus on efficiencies and cost and prefer long, economical production runs of a limited number of products. Resolving this task conflict balances the organization's need for cost efficiencies with its goal of maximizing sales. Task conflict also occurs when employees disagree about which packaging design is best or whether quality or quantity is more important. Compensation systems often create differing task goals within an organization. Focusing employees, workgroups, and departments on a common enemy such as a competitor or even a challenging economy can also unite employees in their pursuit of a common goal and reduce the negative effects of conflict.

Conflict

a disagreement that arises when two or more parties perceive a threat to their interests, needs, or concerns. Conflict can be both constructive and destructive conflict is positive or negative is determined by the parties' response to the conflict rather than by the conflict itself. Focusing on the conflict management process, not just the outcomes desired by the parties, is thus a key to realizing the potential benefits of a conflict. Mismanaged conflict helps to explain why so few family businesses make it to the third generation. A survey of 1,002 family-business owners revealed that the potential for conflict increases significantly as family businesses age. When it is effectively managed, conflict can be healthy. Interpersonal conflict can lead to greater learning, flexibility, and creativity.

Negotiation

a process in which two or more parties make offers, counteroffers, and concessions to reach an agreement. Most managers do a lot of negotiating as part of their jobs. Job offers and contracts with customers and suppliers have to be negotiated, resources have to be secured and shared with other departments, and agreements have to be made with bosses and subordinates. There are two types of negotiation, distributive and integrative. It is also helpful to research and understand the individual with whom you will be negotiating. The better you understand the person's background, interests, and negotiating style, the more effective you will be. Try to begin with a positive exchange, create an open and trusting environment, and emphasize win-win situations. Be sure to prepare well, listen actively, and think through your alternatives. The more options you feel you have, the better a negotiating position you will be in.

Integrative negotiation

a win-win negotiation in which the agreement involves no loss to either party. In general, integrative bargaining is better than distributive bargaining because when it is over, neither party feels that they have lost. Integrative bargaining helps to build good long-term relationships and minimizes grudges between the parties. This is particularly beneficial when the parties have to work together on an ongoing basis once the negotiations are finished. A classic example of integrative bargaining exercise involves a dispute over an orange. Two people take the position that they want the whole orange, so the moderator of the dispute gives each person one half of the orange. However, if the parties' interests were considered, there could have been a different, win-win outcome. One person wanted to eat the meat of the orange, but the other just wanted the peel to use in baking cookies. If the mediator had understood their interests, they could have both gotten all of what they wanted, rather than just half.

Collaborating

reflects a high concern for your own interests and a high concern for the interests of the other party. This conflict management style emphasizes problem solving and pursues an outcome that gives both parties what they want. Saying, "Let's see if we can find a solution that meets both of our needs" reflects a collaborating conflict management style. Collaborating helps to build commitment to the outcome, although the communication required to reach a solution can take substantial time and energy. Even though there is a risk that one party may take advantage of the other party's trust and openness, collaboration is generally regarded as the best approach for managing most conflicts. The objective of collaboration is to fulfill both parties' needs with a goal of "I win/you win."

Accommodating

reflects a low concern for your own interests and a high concern for the interests of the other party. This conflict management style is generally used when the issue is more important to the other party than it is to you. This style is also appropriate when you recognize that you are wrong. Saying, "I'll go along with whatever is best for you" reflects an accommodating style. The goal of accommodating is "I lose/you win."

De-Escalating Conflict

unresolved conflict drains employees' energy and reduces their performance. It is obviously easier to manage conflict escalation in the early stages of a conflict. one of the best ways to prevent further escalation is to react equivalently to the other party and not overreact. Sometimes underreacting can trigger de-escalation of the conflict. By being aware of the dynamic and setting personal behavior limits at the beginning of the conflict, you can often avoid being caught up in the conflict escalation process. Managers can reduce conflict escalation by modeling de-escalation processes and by setting and enforcing limits on conflict escalation (prohibiting threats or violence, for example). Managers can serve as a conflict resolution facilitator as well. Referring to Glasl's nine-stage model of conflict escalation discussed above can help you to assess how far a conflict has progressed and how best to respond. After a conflict is resolved, it is important to re-establish a sense of justice and trust among the parties. Strengthening shared goals and shared identities can help to reduce the potential for future conflict. It is also important to remember that you do not always have to intervene in a conflict, particularly if it is not affecting job performance. Letting employees learn to work out their differences and resolve conflicts on their own through training and experience will decrease their dependence on you to resolve their conflicts.