Microbiology 455 FINAL
What is a swollen lymph node referred to as? (Excess interstitial fluid accumulation)
"Bubo" -condition is referred to as lymphadenititis
If a threat is reduced, what is the next step for regulatory T cells?
(Antigen is absent or diminished by immune system action) -regulatory T cells kill proliferating B and T cells -lymphocytes do not divide -number of B and T cells decreases
What is a simple definition of the lymphatic system?
-A network of vessels running throughout the body. -The lymphatic system is an open system with the fluid moving in one direction from the extremities toward two drainage points into veins just above the heart
Name examples of chronic inflammation:
-Asthma -Chronic peptic ulcer -Tuberculosis -Rheumatoid arthritis -Chronic periodontitis -Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease -Chronic sinusitis
Name the types of Chemical Defenses:
-Chemicals and enzymes in body fluids -Antimicrobial peptides -Plasma protein mediators -Cytokines -Inflammation-eliciting mediators
What are the benefits of using hydrogen gas?
-Environmentally friendly (no pollution, released water vapor and heat as its byproducts) -Does not release CO2 (which contribute to global warming) -Can be quickly refueled like gasoline -100% renewable energy if obtained through electrolysis (small amounts) -abundant and can be produced around the world -recharging hydrogen fuel cells in cars cost less than filling up with gasoline -hydrogen use in cars is 40%-60% more fuel efficient with electric motor than gasoline cars -reduce our dependent on foreign oil
Describe at least five compounds of industrial importance made by microbes:
-Ethanol from glucose (industrial product) -Gibberellins (agricultural products) -Amino acids (food additives) -Antibiotics (medical products-human and animal health) -Hydrogen (biofuels)
Name the types of cellular defenses:
-Granulocytes -Agranulocytes
What are the cons of ethanol used as a biofuel?
-It absorbs water and can't be shipped through existing pipelines (because of this, it must be distilled 2x to remove water) -It has less energy in its bonds than other molecules, including gasoline and butanol -It takes more energy input to produce and refine it than you save by using it over gasoline (isn't carbon neutral)
Which biomasses decrease with decreasing fermentation time?
-Lactose (initially starts the highest) (steep decline) -Ammonia (gradual decline)
What are MHCs?
-Major Histocompatibility Complex -tissue -collection of genes that encode the body self protein
Which biomasses increase with increasing fermentation time?
-Penicillin (slight fall of increase rate) -Biomass (major fall of increase rate) (has an initially higher pt.)
List the common examples of Pathogen associated molecular patterns:
-Peptidoglycan (found in bacterial cell walls) -Flagellin (a protein found in bacterial flagella) -lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (from the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria) -lipopeptides (molecules expressed by most bacteria) -nucleic acids such as viral DNA or RNA
Name the types of physical defenses:
-Physical barriers -Mechanical defenses -Microbiome
What are problems we are having with hydrogen gas biofuel production?
-Storage and distribution are both problems -not mixable with gasoline to reduce petroleum use
What is hematopoiesis?
-The production of all types of blood cells including formation, development, and differentiation of blood cells (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets) -created in red bone marrow stem cells...
How is the recognition between self and non-self made? (necessary for the proper functioning of the immune system)
-This allows for selective destruction of invading pathogens without destruction of host tissues -involves Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
What are the future challenges for biofuel production?
-We can work to innovate and grow ethanol production. -Improve storage or distribution of hydrogen gas -Make biofuels off of modified microbes breaking down crop residue...(less corn growth and more food growth) -Current efforts are working to make the process cleaner and more efficient overall.
What is an antigen?
-a substance that causes the production of antibodies (triggers an immune response) (usually a component of invading microbes or foreign substances) (antibodies interact with epitopes, or antigenic determinants, on the antigen)
What occurs when you have a fever?
-abnormally high body temp. -hypothalamus normally set at 37 deg. C -cytokines cause the hypothalamus to release prostaglandins that reset the hypothalamus to a higher temperature -body constricts the blood vessels, and shivering occurs (which raises temperature) -as body temperature falls (crisis), vasodilation and sweating occurs
How do B cells work?
-activated by a specific antigen -cells replicate and differentiate into plasma cells which secrete antibodies (in the body on the surface of the cell) -have receptors for the specific antigen that will activate that particular B cell -these receptors associate with other proteins and are called B-cell receptors (BCRs)
Describe the dual nature of the Adaptive immune system:
-cellular (cytokines-innate defense-occurs naturally) (memory T cell) immunity attacks antigens found inside of cells (viruses; some fungi and parasites) (red blood cells infected with plasmodium) -humoral (antibodies) (plasma cell) immunity fights invaders outside cells (bacteria and toxins) (S. aureus ingested by neutrophil)
What is an antibody? Describe their basic structure:
-found in blood serum, tissue fluids, and mucosal surfaces of vertebrae animals -immunoglobulin -an antibody -structure: -5 types of antibodies -IgG (monomer-most abundant-crosses placenta and fixes complement), IgM (pentamer, fixes complement), IgA (dimer), IgD (monomer), IgE (monomer) -Differ in the heavy chain constant regions -Isotypes= all antibodies of a specific class (e.g., IgG snd IfA)
What is the function of the spleen?
-helps remove cells coded with antibodies as well as antigens -helps break down and recycle red blood cells -filters bloods (capturing pathogens) -stores monocytes
What are agranulocytes?
-lack visible granules in their cytoplasm -can be characterized as: lymphocytes (t-cells, b-cells, and natural killer cells; play a role in adaptive immunity), monocytes (mature into: macrophages and dendritic cells)
What does penicillin require to work?
-precise control of nutrients -final product modified to yield a variety of semisynthetic penicillins (are molecules produced by a microbe that are subsequently modified by an organic chemist to enhance their antimicrobial properties or to render them unique for a pharmaceutical patent)
What is the function of tonsils?
-produce/collect antigens to stop respiratory infection
Where could we obtain large amounts of hydrogen gas?
-produced as a direct product of fermentation -oxygenic photosynthetic and anoxygenic photoheterotrophs also produce hydrogen gas (counter-productive: CO2 is released) -produced by hydrogenase and nitrogenase enzymes (processes are very sensitive to oxygen and anaerobic microbes are difficult to deal with or grow)
What are some beneficial roles of fever?
-raises body temperature above the optimum temperature for growth of many pathogens -inactivate some microbial enzymes and toxins -increase the rate of chemical reactions in your body -enhances phagocytosis (mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris) -production of antiviral interferon is increased -makes you feel ill and more likely to rest
What is the function of the thymus?
-stores immature lymphocytes where the mature in T-cells before migrating to infected locations of the body
What is the purpose of Ion-binding proteins?
-they inhibit bacterial growth by reducing the amount of iron available in the blood
What is the goal of using natural killer cells?
-they use nonspecific mechanisms to recognize and destroy cells that are abnormal in some way (cell recognizes MHC on a healthy cell and does not kill it) (an infected cell does not present the MHC I, but does present ligands for the activating receptor. The NK cell will trigger a response that kills this cell.) -are cancer cells and cells infected with viruses i.e. -recognition of such cells involves a complex process of identifying inhibitory and activating molecular markers on the surface of the target cell -molecular markers that make up the major histocompatability complex (MHC) are expressed by healthy cells as an indication of self
What are granulocytes?
-white blood cells -neutrophiles: phagocytic; work in early stages of infection (plus) -eosinophils: phagocytic; toxic against protozoas and helminths -basophils; release histamine; work in allergic responses -Mast cells: increase inflammation response; found residing in tissues
Explain Antigen presenting MHC:
1) A bacterium is engulfed by phagocytosis into a dendritic cell and is encased in a phagosome 2) Lysosome fuse with the phagosome and digest the bacterium 3) Immunodominant epitopes are associated with MHC 2 and presented on the cell surface
The cascade can be activated by a pathogen directly or by an antibody-antigen reaction. 1)Which of the three mechanisms directly activates by a pathogen? 2)Which of the three mechanisms activates by an antibody-antigen reaction?
1) Alternative (inflammation, cytolysis, opsonization) 2) Classic (inflammation, cytolysis, opsonization)
How do T-Cells work?
1) first steps of differentiation occur in red marrow of bones after which immature T lymphocytes enter the blood stream and travel to the thymus (where it will mature). 2) immunologically specific and function in a variety of regulatory and effector ways -3 classes: T helper: -Several types...they help recognize antigens presented by macrophages (phagocytic cell) and pass the information to the B cells T cytotoxic: -after receiving information from TH and TC it can recognize its target and produce a pore-forming protein called perforin (toxin released)...this toxin lysis the cells infected (intracellular pathogen) by the virus and other parasites as well as cancerous cells (Apoptosis control destruction of the infected cell) T regulatory: -their primary function is to combat auto-immunity by suppressing T cells that escape deletion
If a cytoplasmic membrane were disrupted by AMP, what three formations of AMP could occur?
1)Barrel Stave (partial division of the membrane) 2)Toroidal Pore (membrane caves) 3)Micelle Formation (complete separation occurs)
1: What makes up the lymphatic system? 2: What cells does the lymphatic system contain? 3: What is the purpose of the lymph? 4: What are the two lymphatic ducts? (Describe the major anatomical features of the lymphatic system)
1: Lymph, Lymphatic vessels, Lymphoid tissue, and Red bone marrow 2: Lymphocytes (generate specific immune responses against pathogens) Phagocytic cells (generate the same response to any pathogen) 3: It carries microbes to lymph nodes were lymphocytes and macrophages destroy the pathogen 4: Right lymphatic duct Thoracic left lymphatic duct (Both have a subclavian vein-carries blood from upper extremities to the heart)
At what temp. is hypothalamus (controls thirst, hunger, temp. and function) normally set?
37 deg. C
What percent antibodies produced are produced by microorganisms?
65%
Global energy consumption is predicted to increase ______ % between 2013 and 2030?
71%
How many days does it take for secondary antibody product to increase? (Memory cells know what they are fighting)
<5 days
Compare and contrast adaptive and innate immunity:
Adaptive: Four characteristics -discriminate between self and non-self (usually responds selectively to non-self, producing specific responses against the stimulus) -diversity (generates enormous diversity of molecules) -specificity (can be directed against one specific pathogen or foreign substance among trillions) -memory (response to a second exposure to a pathogen is so fast that there is no noticeable pathogenesis)
What are advantages of A. tumefaciens and B. thunrigiencis?
Agrobacterium tumefaciens: -create resistant plants (genetically modified) -recombinant plasmids are taken up which multiply and copy the foreign gene -transfer Ti (a bacterium that can be used as a cloning vector for foreign genes that code for herbicide or disease resistance) plasmid into plant cells genomes -fusion of bacterium with the plant cell wall permits entrance of the Ti plasmid and incorporation -plasmid can be used as a vector for insertion of genes (part of the plants genome-passes onto offspring) of interest for modification of crop plants Bacillus thuringiensis: -has been used for over 40 decades -produces toxins (bind to phospholipids and insert into membrane) by fermentation (NH2 and COOH-aggregation and pore formation-H2O cations-osmotic imbalance and cell lysis-Efflux of ATP -toxin acts as microbial insecticide for specific groups of insects -does not accumulate in the environment
What is the third generation of biofuel production? And what is unique about this biofuel?
Algae -can filter out impurities -simple plants with size ranging from microalgae to giant kelp -can be grown in wastewater, sea or brackish water unsuitable -are photosynthetic and need few nutrients (N and P) -algae yields are higher -this biofuel has a much higher yield than other biofuel crops -is an alternative fuel because it has the potential to yield oil at an exponential greater rate than other fuels
Once both the Humoral arm and Cellular arm reach the phagocyte (effects all!), what occurs in both branches?
Antigen-activated B and T cells proliferate into effector and memory cells that secrete specific response proteins
What are Haptens?
Antigens too small to provoke immune responses; attach to carrier molecules
What is the full form of the following abbreviation: AMP?
Antimicrobial Peptides
List and describe the function of antimicrobial peptides, complement components, and cytokines.
Antimicrobial peptides: -a special class of broad-spectrum antimicrobial mediators -nonspecific (can interfere with different pathogens) -some are produced routinely by the body, whereas others are primarily produced (or produced in greater quantities) in response to the presence of an invading pathogen -short peptides with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities (inhibition of cell wall synthesis, forming pores in the plasma membrane) Main 4 -activation of innate immune system (contains toll-like receptor) -membrane disruption -specific targeting of bacterial cell components -resistance mechanisms Complement Components: -over 30 proteins circulating in the serum (clear liquid separated from the body) that are activated in a cascade: one complement protein triggers the next -proteins are produced by the liver and assist the immune system in destroying microbes Cytokines (proteins produced by cells)(antiviral activity): -soluble proteins that act as communication signals between cells such as cell proliferation (rapid increase in number), cell differentiation (less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type), inhibition of cell division, apoptosis (the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development), and chemotaxis (movement of a motile cell or organism, or part of one, in a direction corresponding to a gradient of increasing or decreasing concentration of a particular substance)
What are the three types of cytokines (molecular membranes)?
Autocrine -same cell secretes and receives cytokine signal Paracrine -cytokine signal secreted to a nearby cell Endocrine -cytokine signal secreted to circulatory system; travels to distant cells
Name the two cells involved in adaptive immune system development:
B and T cells initially arise in the bone marrow. -B cells: continue to mature there -T cells: are moved to the thymus for further maturation (Stem cells develop in bone marrow or in fetal liver) \ / (Red bone marrow) (Thymus) / \ (Differentiate to B Cells) (Differentiate to T cells in thymus) \ / (Migrate to lymphoid tissue such as spleen but especially lymph nodes)
B cells have receptors for the specific antigen that will activate that particular B cell. These receptors associate with other proteins and are called__________ _______________.
B-cell receptors
Name the characteristics of the following selected antimicrobial peptides: Bacteriocins, Cathelicidin, Defensins, and Dermicidin.
Bacteriocins: -secreted by RESIDENT MICROBIOTA -body site: GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT -pathogens inhibited: BACTERIA -mode of action: DISRUPTS MEMBRANE Cathelicidin: -secreted by EPITHELIAL CELLS, MACROPHAGES, and OTHER CELL TYPES -body site: SKIN -pathogens inhibited: BACTERIA and FUNGI -mode of action: DISRUPTS MEMBRANE Defensins: -secreted by EPITHELIAL CELLS, MACROPHAGES, and NEUTROPHILS -body site: THROUGHOUT the BODY -pathogens inhibited: FUNGI, BACTERIA, and MANY VIRUSES -mode of action: DISRUPTS MEMBRANE Dermicidin: -secreted by: SWEAT GLANDS -body site: SKIN -pathogens inhibited: BACTERIA and FUNGI -mode of action: DISRUPTS MEMBRANE INTEGRITY and ION CHANNELS
What are biosurfactantes?
Bioremediation (use microorganisms to break down pollutants), oil spill dispersion
What are Kinins (acute inflammatory response)?
Bradykinin-causes edema, promotes extravasation (diapedesis), stimulates mast cells to degranulate, and release histamine.
Following the C3 convertase of complement system mechanisms, they start which processes?
C3a: Peptide mediators of inflammation, phagocyte recruitment. C3b: Binds to complement receptors on phagocytes-(opsonization of pathogens...removal of immune complexes) or (terminal complement components-membrane attack complex-lysis of certain pathogens and cells) -
What is the function of T-cells?
Cell-mediated immunity
Describe how enzymes in body fluids provide protection against infection or disease:
Chemical defenses: Sebum (oily secretion of sebaceous glands)-forms a protective film and lowers the pH (3-5) of skin... Lysozyme and lactoferrin (protein released by white blood cells called a neutrophil in perspiration, tears, saliva, mucus, and urine: destroys bacterial cell walls) Low pH (1.2-3.0) of gastric juice: destroys most bacteria and toxins. Low pH (3-5) of vaginal secretions: due to lactate inhibit microbes Earwax: have fatty acids that lower the pH
What do we call it when some pathogens resist host defenses?
Chronic Inflammation -remain in body stimulating inflammatory -body "walls off" site of inflammation forming a granuloma (fibrotic lesion around bacteria)
Compare class 1 and class 2 MHCs:
Class 1: -are on the membrane of nucleated animal cells and identify "self" (surface of cells) (nucleated body cells) Class 2: -are on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APCs), including B cells (humoral) (macrophages) (macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells)
The process, complement action, can be triggered by one of which three mechanisms?
Classical pathway -antigen: antibody complexes-activating C1 -C1 splits and activates C2 and C4 -C2a and C4b combine-activating C3 -C3a: functions in inflammation -C3b: functions in cytolysis and opsonization -outcome: microbes burst as extracellular fluid flows in through transmembrane channel formed by membrane attack complex MB-Lectin pathway -Mannose-binding lectin binds mannose on pathogen surfaces -outcome: coating microbes with C3b enhances phagocytosis Alternative pathway -Pathogen surfaces -Lipid-carbohydrate complex -C3: present in the blood combines with factors B, D, and P on microbe surface -C3: splits into C3a and C3b, functioning the same as in the classical pathway -outcome: blood vessels become more permeable (allowing passage), and chemotactic agents attract phagocytes to area
What do we call the process by which circulating complement precursors become functional?
Complement Activation
What factors controls microbial growth in food? (Alters food visibly and in other ways, making it inappropriate for consumption) (involves predictable succession of microbes) (different foods undergo different types of spoilage processes-toxins are sometimes produced)
Controlled by: Intrinsic factors -factors related to the food itself Extrinsic factors -environment where food stored (outside the food)
What is a chemical signal that adaptive immunity is highly dependent on?
Cytokines (chemical messengers of immune cells) -produced in response to a stimulus -Interleukins: cytokines between leukocytes -chemokines: induce migration of leukocytes -interferons: interfere with viral infections of host cells (totally innate) -tumor necrosis factor: involved in the inflammation related to auto-immune diseases -hematopoietic cytokines: control stem cells that develop into red and white blood cells
Explain the outcomes of complement activation:
Cytolysis -activated complement proteins create a membrane attack complex (MAC) Opsonization (enhancing phagocytosis-are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells) -promotes attachment of a phagocyte to a microbe Inflammation -activated complement proteins bind to mast cells, releasing histamine (is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses,) Chemotaxis -movement of a motile cell or organism, or part of one, in a direction corresponding to a gradient of increasing or decreasing concentration of a particular substance
Define innate immunity:
Defenses against any pathogen; rapid, present at birth.
What is the function of lymphocytes?
Destroy target cells by cytolysis and apoptosis
What do leukocytes do?
Emigrate to the site of injury and infection (They help the body fight infection and other diseases. Types of leukocytes are granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells))
What do we call antigenic determinants on antigen?
Epitopes
Name the three cells and cell fragments suspended in plasma:
Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets (blood clotting)
What would be a more beneficial method of developing biofuels from crops?
Fermentation of cellulose and hemicellulose using crop RESIDUES (waste material) (current work to modify bacteria to be able to ferment these sugars)
What is the major process used in industrial microbiology? Explain the use of the term fermenter as it is used in an industrial setting.
Fermentation: -Mass culture of microorganisms -Modifications of growth process so that it works efficiently in large fermenters Stirred fermenters Continuous feed -continual addition of a critical nutrient so that microbes will not have excess substrate available at any given time -prevents production and accumulation of undesirable metabolic waste products
What are some examples of biofuels?
GLOBAL ENERGIES -Petroleum (fuel for transportation) -Coal and natural gas are used to generate power and heat buildings FOSSIL FUELS are finite (limits) resources and contributors to global greenhouse gas elevations. ETHANOL can be used as a biofuel or added to existing petroleum-based fuels -better option because it reduces gas emission -most common biofuel
If a population has very few susceptible individuals, even those susceptible individuals will be protected by a phenomenon called ________ ____________.
Herd immunity
Are interferons host-specific or virus specific?
Host-specific!!!
Differentiate humoral from cellular immunity:
Humoral immunity: -Produces antibodies that combat foreign molecules known as antigens Cellular immunity: -also called cell-mediated immunity -produces T lymphocytes -recognizes antigenic peptides processed by phagocytic cells -T cell receptors (TCRs) on the T cells to secrete cytokines instead of antibodies
What gas used for biofuel production is known as the highest energy-content fuel available?
Hydrogen gas: 3x more potential energy per unit weight than gasoline
What two interferon substances are produced by cells in response to viral infections?
IFN-a (alpha) -is FDA-approved to treat hairy cell leukemia AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, and chronic myelogenous leukemia. Interferon alphas are used for treating cancers and viral infections. -stimulated by viruses IFN-B (beta) -used to treat multiple sclerosis -stimulated by viruses (They cause neighboring cells to produce antiviral proteins (AVPs) that inhibit viral replication)
What is the name of the third interferon substance?
IFN-y: (gamma) causes neutrophils and macrophages to kill bacteria -used for treating chronic granulomatous disease -stimulated by viruses and other antigens
Define adaptive immunity:
Immunity or resistance to a specific pathogen; slower to respond
What is histamine (acute inflammatory response)?
Increases blood flow to the wound site, and increased vascular permeability allows fluid, proteins, phagocytes, and other immune cells to enter infected tissue. (Stimulates vessels to open further-blood plasma and platelets are released into area)
Define acute inflammatory response:
Inflammation activates acute-phase proteins by the liver that cause vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels...
Define innate immunity:
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body.
What is the difference between innate and adaptive defenses?
Innate: -discriminate between self/non-self -no memory Adaptive: -discriminate between self/non-self memory
Name the three important classes of cytokines:
Interleukins Chemokines Interferons
Define Transendothelial migration:
Is the sticking of phagocytes to blood vessels in response to cytokines (mediate and regulate immunity) at the site of inflammation.
What are advantages of Rhizobium for legumes?
It allows inoculation of Nitrogen fixers. -nitrogen enters soil-decomposition/crop residue-mineral nitrogen for plant growth-repeat!!! -definition: bacteria that fix nitrogen after becoming established inside the root nodules of legumes (Fabaceae). To express genes for nitrogen fixation, rhizobia require a plant host; they cannot independently fix nitrogen
Define T helper cell:
It contacts the displayed antigen fragment and releases cytokines that activate B cells.
What is the purpose of microbiome?
It is resident microbiota that serve as an important first-line defense against invading pathogens.
What is immunity?
It is the ability to ward off disease.
What is required for growing microbes in industrial settings?
It requires precise control of agitation, temperature, pH changes, and oxygenation.
Within the lymphatic system, why is the flow of fluid between arteriole, blood capillaries, Lymphatic capillaries, and venule important?
It returns fluid (lymph) to the blood. It rejuvenates the blood with fresh plasma white cells. The flow of fluid starts from the tissues and goes towards the neck. Lymph capillaries: -collected from interstitial fluid-fluid pulled into the lymph vessels-flow through the nodes and lymph organs (lymph is filtered and enhanced)-the nodes store white cells and provide filtering and a fighting function)
What must you know when growing microbes?
Knowing when your microbe is producing and what you want is critical!
What is susceptibility?
Lack of resistance to a disease
If a threat is present, what is the next step for Regulatory T cells?
Lymphocytes are stimulated to divide. The number of B cells and T cells increases.
What allows hydrogen production from organic materials at low temperatures?
Microbial electrolysis
What would be a good alternative to fossil fuels and global energy?
Microbial energy conversion by microbial transformation of organic materials into biofuels may be a viable alternative.
Can innate defenses discriminate between self and non-self?
No!
Are innate defenses specific?
No! They are non-specific.
What are the types of adaptive immunity?
PASSIVE: Natural acquired -immunity acquired from antibodies passed in breast milk or through placenta ACTIVE: Natural acquired -immunity gained through illness and recovery (made own response) PASSIVE: Artificial acquired -immunity gained through antibodies harvested from another person or an animal ACTIVE: Immunity acquired through a vaccine
Describe the various physical barriers and mechanical defenses that protect the human body against infection and disease:
PHYSICAL (cell junctions keep cells together avoiding breakdown by microbes) Skin barrier: -epidermis: outer portion made of tightly packed epithelial cells containing keratin, a protective protein -shedding and dryness of skin inhibits microbial growth Mucous membrane: -epithelial layer that lines the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts -mucus: viscous glycoproteins that trap microbes and prevent tracts from drying out -lacrimal apparatus: drains tears; washes eye Ciliary escalator transports microbes trapped in mucus away from the lungs Earwax prevents microbes from entering the ear Urine cleans the urethra via flow Vaginal secretions move microorganisms out of the vaginal tract Peristalsis, defecation, vomiting, diarrhea MECHANICAL (keep microbes out, the body or physically remove pathogens from the body) -shedding of the skin cells -persistalsis-feces excretion -urine release -mucus production Microbiome -resident microbiota serve as an important first-line defense against invading pathogens ::::::(Compete with pathogens for cellular binding sites and nutrients) :::::::(resident microbiota in the vagina compete with opportunistic pathogens like the yeast Candida):::::::: (in C. difficile infections, the re-introduction of the normal flora can be the cure-fecal transplant)
What to we call the structures that allow phagocytic cells to detect PAMPS?
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)-(ex: toll-like receptors or TLRs)
Explain Pathogen recognition:
Phagocytes can recognize molecular structures (some called pathogen-associated molecular patterns/PAMPs/) that are common to many groups of pathogenic microbes
What is another word for Pathogen Degradation?
Phagocytosis [MACROPHAGE] Bacterium-phagosome-phagolysosome-undigested waste And Lysosome (One of the key organelles involved in digestion and waste removal is the lysosome. Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes) containing digestive enzymes-phagolysosome
What is the function of monocyte:
Phagocytosis (when they mature into macrophages)
What are the seven innate defenses?
Physical defenses Chemical defenses Cellular defenses Lymphatic system Phagocytosis Inflammation Fever
Identify and describe the components of blood:
Plasma -liquid part of the blood that carries cells and proteins throughout the body White Blood Cells (cellular defense) -cell count: 5000-10000WBCs/mm^3 -60-70% neutrophils -20-25% lymphocytes -3-8% monocytes -2-4% eosinophils -0.5-1% basophils -are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. (Leukocytes) Red Blood Cells -the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system (Erythrocytes)
After B cells are activated, the cells then replicate and differentiate into _________ ______ which secrete antibodies.
Plasma cells (the antibodies are secreted on the surface of the cell)
Name the two types of metabolites:
Primary metabolites: -directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction of cells -include amino acids, nucleotides, fermentation end products, and enzymes Secondary metabolites -accumulate following active growth -have no direct relationship to synthesis of cell material and natural growth -include antibiotics and mycotoxins
Antibody response in the humoral immunity: explain the primary and secondary response...
Primary response: Latent period, Log phase, (total antibody) plateau phase, decline phase -via disease or vaccination -antibodies appear in serum after several days -B cells that bind antigen make antibodies -IgM appears first, followed by IgG Secondary response: -via second exposure to pathogen or booster dose -antibodies appear in blood within hours -mostly IgG antibodies
What are Leukotrienes (acute inflammatory response)?
Pro-inflammatory mediators produced by leukocytes.
What is the function of B cells?
Produce antibodies
What is another word for B-cell clonal expansion after activation?
Proliferation
What are Prostaglandin (acute inflammatory response)?
Promotes histamine release, contribute to fever
Identify the four signs of inflammation and fever and explain why they occur:
Redness Swelling (edema-Puffiness caused by excess fluid trapped in the body's tissues) Pain Heat Why? -destroys harmful agent or limits its effect on the body -repairs and replaces tissue damaged by the harmful agent -inflammation mediators : acute-phase proteins (activate complement cascades-a biochemical process in the blood that helps or 'complements' cells of the immune system to eliminate invading pathogens) : release of histamine (inflammatory response) by mast cells and basophils :leukotriene-increase inflammatory response (coughing, vomiting, diarrhea)
Define phagocytosis:
Refers to some cells capacity of seek, ingest, and kill pathogens
What are cytokines (acute inflammatory response)?
Small proteins important in cell signaling.
Illustrate or describe hematopoiesis:
Stem cell-division into either myeloid stem cell or lymphoid stem cell (or neither-remaining a normal stem cell) If myeloid stem cell: -megakaryocyte-platelets -erythrocyte -mast cell -myeloblast -if myeloblast: basophil, neutrophil, eosinophil, monocyte -if monocyte: macrophage and dendritic cell If lymphoid stem cell: -natural killer cell (large granular lymphocyte) -small lymphocyte -if small lymphocyte: T lymphocyte, B lymphocyte -if B lymphocyte: plasma cell
Most antibodies are produced by which bacteria?
Streptomyces bacteria and filamentous fungi
Which cells are regulated with white blood cells?
T and B cells
What are the adaptive (specific) defenses that apply to physical defenses, chemical defenses, cellular defenses, phagocytosis, and inflammation?
T cells and B cells
Explain why the lymphatic system lacks normal microbiota:
The circulatory system has no normal microbiota. Because the system is closed, there are no easy portals of entry into the circulatory system for microbes. Those that are able to breach the body's physical barriers and enter the bloodstream encounter a host of circulating immune defenses, such as antibodies, complement proteins, phagocytes, and other immune cells. Microbes often gain access to the circulatory system through a break in the skin (e.g., wounds, needles, intravenous catheters, insect bites) or spread to the circulatory system from infections in other body sites.
Is there a risk with biofuel production?
The released CO2 can result in environmental change.
Within the lymphatic system, why are the lymphatic capillaries and lymphatic veins important?
Their unique structure permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out of them. When pressure is greater in the interstitial fluid than in the lymph, the cells separate slightly, like the opening of a one-way swinging door, and interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries. When pressure is greater inside the lymphatic capillary, the cells adhere more closely, and lymph cannot escape back into interstitial fluid. The flow of this fluid is based on pressure differences between the fluid and the lymph.
What are mast cells?
They detect injury to nearby cells and release histamine, initiating an inflammatory response.
Name the two types of junctions:
Tight junctions Gap junctions
Herd occurs because there are ?
Too few susceptible individuals in a population for the disease to spread effectively.
How are most biofuels produced?
Top biofuel crops: Corn, sugar cane, sugar beet, palm oil, rapeseed/canola, soybeans, and jatropha
B cells must be activated by a specific antigen to continue mitosis. True or False?
True
True or False: many subtypes of interferon exist in different animal species and different interferons also exist in different tissues of the same animal...
True
How do we designate proteins?
Uppercase C and numbered in order of discovery... Activated fragments are indicated with lowercase a and b.
Define dendritic cells:
What monocytes mature into in the skin, mucous membranes, and thymus; phagocytic. -phagocytosis and initiation of adaptive immune responses
Define macrophages:
What monocytes mature into in tissues where they are phagocytic
Explain the process of interferon interaction:
When a virus surrounds the cell, the interferon sends out signals to: -warn uninfected cells to destroy RNA and reduce protein synthesis -tell neighboring cells to undergo apoptosis -activate immune cells
What are neutrophils (catches up with bacteria and engulfs them through phagocytosis)?
White blood cells that hunt and kill bacteria
Phagocytes squeeze between endothelial cells of blood vessels via ____________?
diapedesis (also called extravasation)