Midterm

Assessing productive phonological knowledge

(Elbert and Gierut, 1986) is seen as an application of generative phonology (pp. 246-249). The first step when assessing productive phonological knowledge is an independent analysis. The assumption is that how the child uses the sound system implies his/her knowledge of the sound system. Several different parameters are analyzed to determine the child's productive phonological knowledge. These include the phonetic inventory, phonemic inventory, distribution of sounds in the phonemic inventory, use of phonological rules, and the neutralization of rules. Based on the results of these analyses, Elbert and Gierut postulate six different levels of productive phonological knowledge: Type 1: Adultlike lexical representation for target morphemes in all word postions (knowledge represents the most productive phonological knowledge) while Type 6: Nonadultlike lexical representation in all word position of all morphemes--- represents the least phonological knowledge. These are outlined in Figure 8.11 (page 249). Analysis procedures for assessing productive phonological knowledge are most useful with children who have severe phonological disorders.

Assimilatory processes

(also called Harmony Processes) are those in which the articulatory properties of one sound influence the production of another (pp. 82, 83-84), is an example. If the word "yellow" was realized as [lɛloʊ], this might be considered a liquid assimilation, i.e., the replacement of a nonliquid sound by a liquid one. See also pages 29-32 for additional information on assimilation.

Assimilation processes

(also known as harmony processes) are categorized according to the type and degree of assimilatory changes (p. 30-31). Contact (or contiguous) assimilation denotes changes impacting directly adjacent sounds while remote (or noncontiguous) assimilation occurs when the assimilatory changes affect sounds separated by at least one other sound segment (p. 30). Progressive (or perseverative) assimilations refer to a sound impacting a following sound while regressive (or anticipatory) assimilations designate an assimilatory change of a sound influencing a preceding sound (p. 30-31). When the assimilatory change results in a completely different phoneme being perceived this is termed phonemic assimilation (p. 31). Phonetic similitude is the term used when the change in the segment is perceived as an allophonic variation of the original segment (p. 31). Total (or complete) assimilation occurs when two segments become identical while partial assimilation refers to changes in one or more phonetic features of the sound in question (p. 31). Coalescence is the term used when two neighboring segments are merged into a new and different segment. Examples of the different assimilation processes are contained in pages 30-32.

Linear phonologies

(ex: distinctive feature theories and early generative phonology) can be characterized 1) emphasis on the linear, sequential arrangement of sound segments, 2) each discrete segment of this string of sound elements consists of a bundle of distinctive features, 3) a common set of distinctive features is attributable to all sound segments according to a binary + and - system, 4) all sound segments have equal value and all distinctive features are equal; this no one sound segment has control over other units, 5) the phonological rules generated apply only to the segmental level (as opposed to the suprasegmental level) and to those changes that occur in eh distinctive features. Linear phonologies fail to recognize and describe larger linguistic units. The do no account for the possibility that there could be a hierarchical interaction between segments and other linguistic units. Nonlinear phonologies attempt to account for these factors (pp. 87-88).

Sibilants [s, z, ʃ, ʒ]

(literally hissing sounds) are one subcategory of fricatives which have a sharper sound than others due to the presence of high frequency acoustic components (p. 25).

Tone-unit

(or sense-group) is the technical term for the integration of two (or more) words into a unified prosodic event (p. 140).

Closed and open vowels

(p. 18-19). Close vowels are produced with a relatively small distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth while open vowels have more distance. Again, similar vowel pairs are usually compared, thus, [u] is a close vowel while [ʊ] is an open vowel, for example.

The child with an emerging phonological system

(pp. 352-355). Children whose comprehension abilities are considered normal but who fail to achieve a fifty word vocabulary and two-word combinations by age two, are referred to as "late talkers", toddlers with slow expressive language development, or as children with specific language impairment. It appears that about 10 to 15% of the two-year-old population meets these criteria (Rescorla, 1989). General remediation strategies for these children include developing expressive language skills, specifically expanding the number of vocabulary items, the consonant inventory, the syllable shapes, and finally the use of two-word utterances. At the emerging phonological stage of development, therapy must represent a unified package. Therefore, therapy to promote phonological skills needs to be combined with increasing the child's lexicon.

Three procedures for eliciting the target sound are given: what is the name of each, and how does a clinician carry out each of these?

-Auditory stimulation/imitation: provides examples of the target sound and the client is asked to imitate the sound. -Phonetic placement method: instructs client how to position the articulators in order to produce a typical production. -Sound modification method: deriving the target sound from a phonetically similar sound that the client can accurately produce.

How do you deal with dismissal and re-evaluation?

-Stopping by the child's classroom and listening to conversation -administer an articulation test and obtain a conversational speech sample.

What are the two general methods of producing an [s], relative to the tongue tip, and what do these two methods have in common?

-apico-alveolar (tip up) -predorsal alveolar (tip down) -sagittal grooving of the tongue in both

Explain the relationship of [s] and [z] problems to hearing, structural problems, and tongue thrust?

-hearing loss: s and z have high frequency components; moderate hearing loss could impair ability to distinguish these sounds -minor structural changes: missing teeth, or new dentures -tongue thrusts: excessive anterior tongue movement during swallowing and a more anterior tongue position during rest

Describe how you carry out the sound modification approach to treating [s] problems starting with [t] [esh] [f] or [i]

...

Consonants can be categorized according to their

1) active articulator (organ of articulation), 2) passive articulator (place of articulation), 3) manner of articulation, and 4) voicing features (p. 23). Note: Although most textbooks purport to use only place, manner, and voicing features, often the active articulator is included in the phonetic description (see page 23). There is, however, clinical value in using the somewhat cumbersome but far more exact system of active articulator, passive articulator, manner, and voicing. The phonetic approach (also called the motor or traditional approach) uses this knowledge extensively (see Chapter 9).

Two factors should be considered before implementing sensory-perceptual training:

1-The age of the client 2-whether specific auditory discrimination difficulties are noted for the individual client.

In the words phase, which six factors influence the articulatory complexity of words?

1. Length of the word: fewer syllable = easier 2. Position of the sound within the word: sound in initial position = easier 3. The syllable structure: open syllables (CV) are easier than closed (CVC) 4. Syllable stress: target sound easier in stressed syllable 5. Coarticulation factors: neighboring sounds influence easiness 6. Familiarity: familiar words are more accurately produced

Which factors are important in structuring a home program or in using assistants to your therapy?

1. When? 2. How long? 3. How often? 4. What should be done? 5. How should accuracy be judged? 6. What should be done if a production is considered unacceptable? 7. How should the assistant motivate and reward the client?

Guidelines for structuring a home program and a case study 270.

1. When? What portion of the day should be set aside for the program? 2. How long? How many minutes should be spent? 3. How often? How many times per day should this program be implemented? Should it be a daily occurrence? 4. What should be done? In detail, what should the assistant do? Does the assistant have written instructions as well as words, phrases, and topics that should be used in the home program? 5. How should accuracy be judged? How should the assistant determine which productions are acceptable and which not? 6. What should be done if a production is considered unacceptable? How should the assistant react to an aberrant production? 7. How should the assistant motivate and reward the client? What type of reward system should be implemented so that the client stays motivated and continues to work within the home program? How can I be sure that the assistant understands what is to be done?

Describe the 7 patterns of highly distorted [s] productions.

1. interdental: tongue tip between incisors 2. addental: tip touching too close posterior surface of upper incisors 3. lateral: no sagittal grooving of tongue 4. palatai: flattened more for s than z 5. strident: imbalance airpressure and opening 6. t for s substitution: tip is in direct contact w/alveolar ridge 7. nasal: physiological anomalities or neuromotor problems (cleft palate/dysarthria)

What are three phonetic production characteristics which make the articulation of [s] and [z] somewhat complicated?

1. s and z are both fricatives 2. fricatives are also the longest sounds in duration: requires a narrow opening and maintenance of airflow 3. there is a precise balance between articulatory effort required to create the narrow opening and expiratory pressure: if off a little it is noticable 4. aberrant productions can easily cross phonemic boudaries

Vowels (p. 18-19)

1. the portion of the tongue that is involved in the articulation which is correlated to the phonetic descriptors of front, central, and back vowels; 2. the tongue's position relative to the palate translates phonetically into the labels high, mid, and low vowels (p. 18). These descriptions can be directly related to the vowel quadrilateral (p. 18) with front vowels being at the far left of the quadrilateral, central vowels in the center, and back vowels on the right axis. The high vowels are at the top of the quadrilateral, the mid vowels further down when moving vertically, while the low vowels are at the bottom of the quadrilateral. The last parameter which is used to describe the articulation of vowels is 3. the degree of lip rounding or unrounding (p. 18). The high-back vowels, such as [u] and [ʊ] have a relatively high degree of lip rounding. As you move down the vowel quadrilateral with the back vowels the lip rounding decreases until [ɑ], which is considered an unrounded vowel. The front vowels are considered to be unrounded vowels or those produced with lip spreading. The high-front vowels [i] and [ɪ] have a high degree of lip spreading while the low-front vowels have less.

Describe the phonotactic distribution of [s] and [z] in words of first, second, and third grade children?

1/2 of the s sounds occured initiating a word; 1/2 divided fairly equally between medial and final positions 90% of the z sounds were found in word final position

In non-structured contexts (such as spontaneous speech) what percentage appears reasonable?

50%

In structured intervention context, what percentage range of accuracy is typically required to move to the next stage of treatment?

80%-90%

Describe how you carry out the phonetic placement approach to treating [s] problems which are: a) interdental or addental, b) lateral, c) palatal, or d) strident

A: tongue tip moved back, glide tongue to alveolar ridge, lateral edges elevated B: raise lateral edges, direct airstream over tongue, use a straw C: tongue too far back, glide tongue forward until acceptable sound achieved, grooving must be maintained D: balance expiratory air and degree of opening of articulators, experiment w/ reducing airflow/opening

Clinical Application: Natural Phonology

Aberrant sound productions can be easily identified and labeled according to the phonological process that matches the sound change. Unlike other analysis procedures (such as distinctive feature analysis), phonological process analysis can account for changes in syllable or word structures and those due to assimilations (pp. 85-86) Based on the frequency of occurrence and the typical age of suppression of the process, a specific phonological process can be targeted for therapy.

Clinical Application: Speech Sound Versus Phoneme

Adequate form and function of sound segments are basic requirements for meaningful utterances (pp. 65-66). The speech sound form and the phoneme function are dependent upon one another and are often both addressed clinically. Although a sound segment might be realized in a norm manner, this realization might violate phonotactic rules of that particular language, for example. The right sound at the wrong place impairs the meaning of the utterance. Children with an articulation disorder observe all phonotactic rules, they just have trouble with the norm realization of sound forms. That impairs the conveyance of the intended meaning as well.

Which two factors should you consider before implementing sensory-perceptual training?

Age of clients whether specific auditory discrimination difficulties are noted for the individual client

Articulation disorder: Guidelines for beginning therapy

Although all intervention goals and strategies will always depend on the client, on his or her personal circumstances, and the specific difficulties noted, certain diagnostic information is especially helpful in deciding where to begin with therapy (pp. 233-234). These include stimulability measures, assessing whether there is a correct production of the sound in a specific context, and the effect the misarticulation has on intelligibility. In addition, under clinically comparable conditions, the general rule is to start with the developmentally earlier sounds.

Clinical Application: Distinctive Feature and Generative Phonology:

Although generative phonological rules are not widely used clinically to describe error patterns in children's speech production (possibly because of the relatively complex notational system used), it does offer clinical possibilities for a detailed analysis of errors in sound production (pp. 75-76). The concept of distinctive features with their binary system is found in newer nonlinear models such as feature geometry.

Phonological disorder: Guidelines for beginning therapy

Any suspicion of a phonological impairment necessitates a thorough assessment related to the: • inventory of speech sounds • distribution of speech sounds • phonological contrasts, • syllable shapes and constraints, • phonological error patterns (pp. 235-236)

How can the effectivity of the nonsense syllable phase of therapy be greatly increased?

By ordering the nonsense syllables from those that are easiest for the client to produce to those that are more difficult

the definition of articulation includes which one of the following?: a) describes the system and and patterns of phonemes in a particular lang b) include phonotactics c) refers to the totality of motor processes involved in speech d) all of the above

C. refers to the totality of motor processes involved in speech

If you can't elicit the target sound in 5 to 10 minutes, what should you do?

Change the technique Use other exercises to prepare the client for the correct articulation

Stimulation phase

Client is bombarded with large quantities and variations of the target sound in varying contexts and must identify the sound. Variations include louder, softer, longer, shorter, and different speakers, etc.

What is the general focus of the phonetic/traditional/motor (PTM) approach in terms of placement, progression, and discrimination?

Client is instructed how to position the articulators in such a way that a speech sound, considered to be within normal limits, is produced. Therapy progresses from one error sound to the next.

Isolation phase

Clinician says sound in word-initial, medial and final positions. Client is asked to identify the sound and state in which position the sound occurred.

Clinical Application: Distinctive Feature Theories

Distinctive feature systems can effectively be used to analyze disordered speech (pp. 69-70). A sound substitution, for example, can be specified according to presence or absence of distinctive features between the target sound and the substitution. Using this system, the substitution can be assessed much more precisely, an advantage with obvious therapeutic implications. Distinctive features can also be used to document patterns of errors. This would be exemplified by the child who demonstrates that specific distinctive features are in error over a broad range of sound substitutions.

What is the goal or focus of the first step in production training, using a PTM approach?

Elicit a norm production of the target sound alone, not in any combination with other sounds

Discrimination phase

Error production for the target sound are presented by the clinician. Error production should mirror those of the client. Client is asked to identify misarticulations in various contexts and then say why it is wrong. Perceptual knowledge of correct and incorrect production features must be taught in previous stages.

Decision making: Primarily articulatory difficulties

First, articulation and phonological impairments can, and often do, co-occur (p. 231). "It would be a mistake to adopt an either/or dichotomy" (Elbert, 1992, p. 242). Second, articulation disorders are peripheral, motor-based problems which are primarily signaled by the preservation of phonemic contrasts. Third, articulation disorders are relatively consistent; the inadequate motor learning of the sound(s) in question is generalized throughout the system. Finally, these disorders are not cognitive-linguistic (organizational) or perceptually based problems (Kamhi, 1992). Therefore, the phonotactic organization of the phonemic system is generally not disturbed.

Why is a nasalized [s] different in terms of nature and management from the other [s] problems?

Functional may be a result of articulatory dyspraxia, faulty learning of sound patterns or maintenance of a learned pattern that was originally organic

Structured phrases and sentences

Goal is to maintain accuracy of production of the target sound as words are placed into short phrases and sentences. A carrier phrase placing the target sound/word at the end of the client's response is one of the easiest ways to elicit an accurate production under controlled conditions. At the beginning, care should be taken that the target sound does not appear more than once within the response word/phrase and coarticulation factors should be considered.(269)

Words

Goal is to maintain productional accuracy of the target sound within the context of words. incorporating the target sound are utilized in the therapy sequence after accuracy has been achieved with nonsense syllables (pp. 268-269). Words need to be carefully selected. The following all contribute to the articulatory complexity of a word and play important roles in the selection of suitable materials. • Length of word-fewer number of syllables, easier the word is to produce. • Position of sound within the word-sound in the initial position is easier where word-and-syllable-final sounds are the most difficult. Therefore target sounds should be place in the beginning of the word. • Syllable structure-open syllable (CV) are easier than closed (CVC) • Syllable stress-easier to produce in a stressed syllable than an unstressed • Coarticulation factors-certain words may be easier to articulate than others due to the influence of neighboring sounds. (p268) • Familiarity-clinicians should pick words client already uses or high frequency words.

Even if you the clinician don't use sensory-perceptual training, what sensory-perceptual skill is "not an optional portion of therapy?"

Help their clients discrimination of correct vs. incorrect productions this type of self monitoring is not optional

What are the steps or stages in sensory perceptual training?

Identification isolation stimulation discrimination

B-W gives two reasons why a phonetic approach might be appropriate with a phonological disorder?

If the sound is not in the child's repertoire and remains elusive in spite of phonological treatment attempts: could be used to establish its norm articulation. To help produce appropriate articulatory features of the speech sound

Clinical Implications: Nonlinear Phonologies

In nonlinear phonologies sound segments are no longer seen as independent, sequentially arranged sound units of equal value but as segments hierarchically influenced by other, linguistically more complex dimensions (pp. 100-101). This viewpoint contributes significantly to the description of occurring changes in sound production, particularly of so-called sound "errors". The main difference between nonlinear and linear phonologies is that nonlinear phonologies believe in a hierarchical interaction between segments and other, larger linguistic units.

Aspects of Perceptual Development

Infant's auditory experience begins before birth. Researchers have been able to detect fetal eye blink Reponses to a loud noise between 24 and 28 weeks after conception. Within the last trimester, the fetus is shown to react when the syllable stimulation varied. The first days after birth, infants demonstrate the preference for their own mothers' voice. Research supports the notion that infants start to learn about voice and speech prior to birth (p. 117).

What are the risks if you start out the phrases and sentences phase allowing or expecting spontaneous speech? How can you avoid that problem?

It is possible that the client will choose words containing combinations with the target sound that are still too difficult use a carrier phrase with a target word at the end

How can you use facilitating contexts or key words to improve articulation?

KW: used to move directly to the production of the target sound in isolation FC: Used to begin therapy at the word level

Why might you choose to set a tip-down [s] or [z] production goal?

Large % of misarticulations are interdental/addental: the natural tendency to return to previous incorrect s is diminished

Why might some clinicians hesitate to take PTM therapy approaches seriously?

Noncontemporary roots, too much emphasis on analyzing the phonemic system of clients.

There are two types of voice symbols

Partial devoicing (of voiced consonants) and partial voicing (of voiceless consonants) (pp. 47-48). Partial devoicing and voicing are perceptually difficult to discern. There is a general tendency for partial devoicing at the end of words or utterances. This can often be heard in citation form articulation tests. Shriberg and Kent (2003) note that children have a tendency to devoice (or partially devoice) final obstruents, [bɛd̥] for bed, [dɪʃəz̥] for dishes. In normal adult speech, there is also a tendency for liquids and glides to be devoiced following voiceless sounds, for example [pl̥eɪ] for play or [tr̥i] for tree.

Phonemic disorders with concurrent language problems:

Phonological disorders frequently co-occur with language disorders. The relationship between phonology and other areas of language is complex. It is estimated that between 60 to 80 percent of preschoolers with phonological impairments have concurrent language disorders (pp. 349-350).

Identification phase

Recognition and discrimination of sound in isolation when contrasted to other similar and dissimilar sounds. Contrasts should first address sounds that productionally very different. If the target is [s], then possibly use [m]. Arrange sound hierarchically from dissimilar to similar.

Diacritics Used With Vowels

Rounding Unrounding Raised Lowered Advanced Retracted

What are the morphophonemic functions of [s] and [z]?

Signals 1. plurality 2. third person singular 3. possessives

Once the sound has been elicited, what do you want to do next, and how might you do that?

Stabalize it!

Tense vowels and Lax vowels

Tense vowels have 1) relatively more muscle activity during their production and 2) a longer duration than lax vowels. The terms tense and lax are used to refer to similar types of vowels. Thus, the following vowel pairs are usually compared: [i] - [ɪ], [e] - [ɛ], [u] - [ʊ], and [o] - [ɔ]. In each of the vowel pairs the first vowel is considered tense while the second one is lax. Please note that there are variations in the definitions of tense versus lax. According to which definition is used, [ɑ] and [ɔ] are sometimes labeled as tense while in other references they are classified as lax vowels.

Clinical implications (phonological process suppression)

The approximate ages for the normal suppression of phonological processes provide helpful points of orientation, especially at the beginning of our assessment. However, they should not be used solely to establish developmental delays or phonological impairments. Apart from conflicting information about suppression ages, the influence of individual variation has to be taken into consideration. Table 5.6 (page 139) provides approximate ages of suppression for several common phonological processes.

Nonsense syllables

The goal of this therapy phase is to maintain accuracy of the production of the target consonant when it is embedded in varying vowel contexts. are used after the sound has been produced in isolation (pp. 267-268). These syllables are used to place a newly acquired isolated target sound into varying consonant + vowel contexts. The typical sequencing is target sound + vowel (CV) vowel + target sound (VC) vowel + target sound + vowel (VCV).

carryover

The transfer from accurate productions in spontaneous speech to conversational speech in various settings. (269)

Additional Symbols

There are several additional symbols which might prove helpful when transcribing the speech of children with articulatory or phonological impairments. This list is not meant to include all symbols which might be necessary.

Clinical application (structuring a home program)

When structuring a home program, the clinician has to be sure that the assistants understand in detail what needs to be accomplished and how (pp. 270-271). That includes answers to questions such as when and how long the session should be, how to judge the relative accuracy of the child's productions, and how to motivate and reward the client.

Why might you want to skip or not want to skip the nonsense syllable phase to go right to the target sound produced in word phase?

Words are more meaningful and interesting to the client then drill work with nonsense syllables Motivation and enjoyable activities can incorporate nonsense syllables

When does B-W suggest that it is and is not appropriate to treat each error sound individually?

a client with a single-sound error who has problems with the function of the sound within the language system is probably demonstrating a phonological disorder

Feature Geometry

a group of nonlinear phonologies which attempts to explain and depict why some features are affected by assimilation processes (spreading) while others are affected by neutralization or deletion processes (delinking) (pp. 93-96). It uses place nodes which may dominate other features and serve as a link between higher levels of representation. It considers the child's underlying representation.

Autosegmental Phonology

a nonlinear phonological theory proposed by John Goldsmith was presented to account for tone phenomena in languages in which segmental features interact with varying tones. It attempts to characterize changes within the boundary of a segment by factoring them out, putting them onto a different "tier" (pp. 89-90). Thus, a single segment on one tier can be associated with more than one segment on another tier. The term autosegmental refers to the concept that certain segments are autonomous; they do not have a one-to-one match on another level. The following terms are associated with autosegmental phonology as well as other nonlinear phonologies: Tiers are separable and independent levels representing a sequence of articulatory gestures or a set of acoustic features (p. 89). Association lines are indicators for connections between autosegments on different tiers (p. 89). Linkage condition is any condition governing the association of units on each tier (p. 90). A linkage condition states, for example, that a segment not linked to a position on another tier, will not be phonetically realized. A linkage condition characterizes the association of units on each tier. Skeleton (or CV) tier represents a syllable and its hierarchically related components onset and rhyme (p. 90). Onset is the label for all segments of a syllable before its nucleus (p. 90). Rhyme is a cover term for syllable nucleus and its coda (p. 90).

What syllable shapes predominate the first 50 word stage of language development? a) CV, VC, CVC b) CVCC c) CCVC d) CVCVCC

a) CV, VC, CVC

infants begin to learn about voice and speech a) priorir to birth (in the womb)o b) at birth when others begin talking to them c) when they start babbling d) when they say their first word

a) priorir to birth (in the womb)o

a very yong child says (gag) for (dog). this is which type of assimilation process? a) regression phonemic assimilation b) progressive phonemic assimilation c) regressive phonetic similtude d) coaslescense

a) regression phonemic assimilation

which one of the following is true about nonlinear multilinear phonologies? a) segments are governed by more complex linguistic dimensions such as stress b) emphasis is on the sequential arrangement of sound segments c) all sound segments have equal value d) no one sound segments has control over the other units

a) segments are governed by more complex linguistic dimensions such as stress

the definition of phonology includes a) the description of the system and patterns of phonemes within a lang b) classification and description of how speech sounds are produced c) oral, verbal, expression of lang d) relatively peripheral motor processes involved in speech

a) the description of the system and patterns of phonemes within a lang

which one of the following could be considered a portion of semantics? a) the multiple meanings of the word trunk b) the "un" could be added to happy to change its meaning c) the children know from a fairly early age that we talk to babies somehow differently d) that sentences can be combined with the word "and"

a) the multiple meanings of the word trunk

the consonant (l) is described phonetical as a) voiced apico alverolar lateral approximant b) voiced coronal alveolar glide c) voiced coronal alveolar lateral approximant d) none of the above

a) voiced apico alverolar lateral approximant

Holophrastic period

an early phase of item learning, refers to the time period when the child uses one word to indicate a complete idea (p. 126).

Phonotactics

an important aspect of phoneme function, accounts for all permissible sound arrangements within a language (p. 65). Given possible identical inventories of two languages, how the sounds can and cannot be arranged to form words in a particular language will be quite different.

Universal features

and characteristics exist between the phoneme systems of different languages (p. 69). Distinctive features are used to analyze these similarities and dissimilarities. Distinctive features were envisioned as a means to categorize all the speech sounds in all the languages of the world.

Obstruent consonants

are a group of consonants characterized by a complete or narrow constriction between the articulators hindering the expiratory air stream (p. 17). The obstruents include the stops, fricatives, and the affricates.

Affricates ([tʃ, dʒ])

are a group of consonants that contain two phases: 1) a stop portion with a build-up of air pressure which is slowly released followed by 2) a friction portion of the speech sound (p. 25). Although they are transcribed with two separate symbols, they are not consonant clusters but rather have one phoneme value.

Sonorant consonants

are a group of consonants which have a relatively open expiratory passageway; they are produced with less obstruction of the air stream (p. 17). Sonorant consonants include the nasals, liquids, and the glides.

Nonlinear (Multilinear) Phonologies

are a group of phonological theories in which single sound segments are seen as being governed by more complex linguistic dimensions, i. e., stress, intonation, metrical and rhythmical factors (pp. 87-88). According to nonlinear phonologies the linear succession of sound segments plays a subordinate role. Nonlinear (multilinear) phonologies demonstrate the hierarchical relationship between sound features by using various hierarchically structured diagrams.

Syllabics

are a small group of consonants that can function as the nucleus of the syllable (p. 17). Certain sonorant consonants can be syllabics. For example, if the second syllable of "button" is reduced and pronounced without the vowel, as in [bʌtn̩], [n] now becomes the nucleus of the syllable and is termed a syllabic. This also occurs with the second syllable of "bottle" when said as [bɑtl̩], [l] is a syllabic in this case. Syllabics are indicated by a small line placed under the symbol in question.

Centering diphthongs

are a special class of diphthongs in which the offglide or less prominent element of the diphthong is a central vowel (p. 21). Depending upon the dialect of the speaker this may be a schwa vowel or a central vowel with r-coloring. Thus farm could be pronounced as [fɑəm] or [fɑɚm].

Diacritics

are additional transcription marks which are added to sound symbols to demonstrate a particular phonetic value, to denote modifications of the original sound (p. 44). When diacritics are added, this is known as narrow transcription. Many of the diacritics used in this text are from the IPA, however, due to the range of speech aberrations practitioners encounter; often new diacritics must be devised. Various revisions have attempted to correct some of these problems. Recently specialized diacritics were developed to specifically address the transcription of disordered speech. These extensions to the IPA (extIPA) were published in 1990 and revised in 2002 (p. 45).

Nasality and denasality

are also marked by diacritics (p. 52). Nasality symbols can only be added to consonants and vowels which are not generated with the velum in a lowered position, i.e., non-nasal sounds. In American English this consists of all consonants except for the nasals and all vowel sounds. These diacritics are not typically used unless the nasality is perceived as being excessive. The diacritic for nasality is a tilde ~ placed above the symbol in question. Therefore, [s̃] indicates a nasalized [s] production. The diacritic for denasality is reserved for nasal consonants, [m], [n], and [ŋ]. The diacritic consists of the tilde ~ with a line through it.

Sonorants

are another name for vowels and diphthongs due to their greater sonority in relationship to consonants (p. 17).

Postdorsal-uvular stops

are another possible misarticulation of [k] and [g]. Relative to [k] and [g], the place of articulation is more posterior for the postdorsal-uvular stops (pp. 54-55). The voiceless and voiced postdorsal-uvular stops are transcribed as [q] and [ɢ].

Measures of severity

are attempts to quantify the degree of involvement (pp. 250-252). The percentage of consonants correct developed by Shriberg and Kwiatkowski (1982) gives the clinician an objective measure which can be translated into severity divisions. The procedure for determining the percentage of consonants correct is outlined in Box 8.3 on page 252.

Sound modification methods

are based on deriving the target sound from a phonetically similar sound that the client can produce accurately (p. 266). This sound becomes the starting point for the necessary articulatory adjustments which then result in an acceptable realization of the target sound.

Rhotic diphthongs

are centering diphthongs with [ɚ] as their offglide (p. 21).

Laterals

are characterized by a midline closure with simultaneous lateral airflow. Thus, the air stream passes around one or both sides of the tongue (p. 26). There is one lateral consonant in American English, [l]. According to the International Phonetic Alphabet [l] is labeled a lateral approximant.

Liquids

are collectively the lateral [l] and the rhotic [r] which are grouped together under this heading (p. 26).

Primary and secondary stress

are commonly the only stress features marked with diacritics (pp. 52-53). Primary stress is marked with a superscript short straight line placed before the syllable while secondary stress is indicated by a subscript short straight line in front of the syllable in question. The word "away" would be transcribed with primary and secondary stress as [ˌəˈweɪ].

Phonological processes

are conceptually thought to be innate and universal. Phonological processes are easier for a child to produce and are substituted for sounds, sound classes, or sound sequences when the child's motor capacities do not yet allow their norm realization. Phonological process, as natural processes, are 1) easier for a child to produce and are substituted for sounds, sound classes, or sound sequences when the child's motor capacities do not yet allow their norm realization, (2) are operating as all children attempt to use and organize their phonological systems so that they can progress to the language-specific system that characterizes their native language, (3) are used to constantly revise existing differences between the innate patterns and the adult norm production. The theory points out prominent developmental steps children go through until the goal of adult phonology is seen as an inability to realize this "natural" process of goal-oriented adaptive change (pp.78-79).

Proto-words, also called phonetically consistent forms, vocables, or quasiwords

are consistently used vocalizations showing no similarity to an adult model; they are "invented words" (p.125).

Misarticulations of individual sounds

are discussed utilizing both phonetic placement and sound modification techniques. Each misarticulation contains the subdivisions phonetic description, linguistic function (including frequency of occurrence, phonotactics, morphophonemic function, and minimal pairs), initial remarks, types of misarticulation, and therapeutic suggestions (pp. 272-324).

Sound preferences

are exemplified by a sound or sound combination representing several different phonemes (p. 228).

Assimilation processes

are frequent phonological processes in very young children (pp. 138-140). If they persist to a high degree beyond age 3;0, they may constitute a danger sign for a disordered phonological system (Grunwell; 1987).

Prosodic features

are larger linguistic units, elements occurring across segments which influence what we say. The most relevant features are stress, intonation, pausing, and duration leading to rhythmical effects, "imposed" upon sound segments. Intonation appears to be the first prosodic feature to develop. (pp. 123-124). This definitional concept lead to the parallel label suprasegmental features. Prosodic feature development, marked by intonation patterns, has already begun during the canonical babbling stage. The most common intonation contour is a falling pitch which begins at approximately 6 months of age; however, diversification occurs towards the end of the babbling period. At this time, the strings of babble are characteristic of General American English intonation patterns, giving the impression of sentences without words (Crystal, 1986) (pp. 123-124).

Syllable boundaries

are marked by a period placed between the syllables (p.54). For example, [fə.nɛ.tək] or [sɪ.lə.bəl].

Near-minimal pairs

are pairs of words that differ by more than one phoneme, however, the vowel preceding or following the target sound remains constant in both words (ex: sir-third, thorn-sore.) Two target sounds selected in minimal pair words with chosen sounds at the beginning (ex: think-sink, thing-sing, thick-sick). However, there are often few words appropriate for children. If meaningful minimal pairs cannot be found for contrastive phonemes, near-minimal pairs should be used (pp. 329-330).

Distinctive features

are phonetic constituents that distinguish between phonemes (p. 67). A sound component is said to be distinctive if it serves to distinguish one phoneme from another. These units, which are smaller than sound segments, are considered to be "atomic" constituents of sound segments that cannot be broken down any further. Certain sound properties might be similar between phonemes, others dissimilar. Take [m] and [n] as examples. Both are similar in respect to manner of articulation, both are nasals. However, they are dissimilar in respect to active and passive articulators, bilabial in the case of [m], coronal-alveolar in the case of [n]. These dissimilar features establish [m] and [n] as separate phonemes of General American English. Distinctive features are considered universal properties of speech segments as an inventory of properties would allow analysis of phonemes of all languages.

Substitution processes

are phonological processes marked by the replacement of one sound for another (p. 138). Stopping, a frequent substitution process, refers primarily to the replacement of fricatives and affricates with stop-plosives (p. 138). Stopping is a process which can affect many different sounds. Therefore, the age of suppression is different from sound to sound. See Table 5.5 on page 138 for a summary of the age of suppression for various stopping processes. Fronting refers to the tendency of young children to replace palatal and velar consonants with alveolar ones (p. 138). Fronting can occur until age 5;0 (according to Smit's 1993 data, less than 5 percent of the children tested continued to demonstrate fronting), however, other studies (Lowe, Knutson, and Monson, 1985) found that is was a fairly rare process after the age of 3;6. Gliding, the replacement of primarily [r] and [l] with the glides [w] and [j] extends beyond 5;0 years of age and can be infrequently found in the speech of children as old as 7 (p. 138).

Glides ([w. j])

are produced with a constriction that is wider than that necessary for fricative consonants. In addition, there is a gliding movement of the articulators to a more open position (p. 25-26). According to the International Phonetic Alphabet the glides are labeled as approximants. This term refers to those consonants which are produced with a wider passage of air resulting in a smooth, as opposed to a turbulent airflow (p. 26).

Rhotic consonants

are produced with the active and passive articulators approximating one another and creating an r-quality sound. These sounds are variable in their production; there are at least two different productions, a retroflexed and a bunched production (p. 26). According to the classification used within the International Phonetic Alphabet, the rhotics are considered central approximants (p. 26).

Palatal fricatives

are produced with the tongue in a more posterior position than [ʃ] or [ʒ] and may be heard as substitutions for these sounds (p. 54). The IPA symbol for the voiceless palatal is [ç]; the voiced is transcribed as [ʝ].

Nasals ([m, n, ŋ])

are produced with the velum lowered so that the air passes freely through the nasal cavity giving them their characteristic quality (p. 25). The nasals are the only consonants in American English that are produced with the velum lowered, for all other consonants the velum is raised, closing off the passageway between the oral and nasal cavities.

Place-holders

are prosodic units indicating syntactical function. For example, demands or questions are often signaled first by just prosodic elements, words are then added later (p. 130).

Stop-plosives ([p, b, t, d, k, g])

are signaled by a complete occlusion between the active and passive articulators (p. 25). This complete closure results in the build-up of air pressure (stop phase) followed by a release phase in which the separation of the articulators allows for a burst of air (plosive phase) (p. 25).

Syllabic consonants

are sonorant consonants or semivowels which represent nuclei of syllables (p. 49). Syllabics are marked with a straight line under the consonant in question.

Consonants

are speech sounds produced with a significant constriction within the oral (and pharyngeal) cavities, foremost along the sagittal midline of the oral cavity (p. 16). The sagittal midline is the median plane dividing in this case the vocal tract, into right and left halves. Sagittal midline constriction can be noted when articulating [s], or [l], for example. With [s], the air stream is directed over the tongue tip, while actual contact between the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge can be noted for [l] productions. For both sounds the primary place of constriction is the sagittal midline. Due to these production features consonants are often labeled constricted sounds.

Vowels

are speech sounds produced without a significant constriction of the oral (and pharyngeal) cavities (p. 16). The airflow from the vocal folds to the oral opening remains relatively unimpeded. Because of this production feature, vowels are often labeled open sounds.

Phonological idioms or phonological regression

are terms to indicate accurate sound productions that are later replaced by inaccurate ones. This occurs possibly due to the influence of the developmental necessity to deal with complex morphosyntactic and semantic factors at the same time (p. 136).

Fricatives ([f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, θ, ð ])

are the result of a very close approximation between the active and passive articulators, so close in fact that an audible friction-noise results (p. 25).

Syllable structure processes

are the tendency of young children to reduce words to basic CV structures (p. 137). They are evident between the ages of 1;6 and 4;0. Reduplication is a common process during the first-50-word stage (p. 137). It is defined on pages 82-83. Final consonant deletion is usually suppressed around age 3 (p. 137). It is defined on page 83. Unstressed syllable deletion is a frequent syllable structure process which lasts to approximately four years of age (p. 137). It is defined on page 83. Consonant cluster reduction is a syllable structure process which may extend in its use until at least school-age (p. 137). It is defined on page 82. Epenthesis refers to the insertion of a sound segment into a word, thereby changing its syllable structure (p. 137). The intrusive sound might be a vowel as well as a consonant; however, the sound segment most frequently inserted is a schwa between two consonants. Example: [pliz] for please. Epenthesis within consonant clusters may extend to age 8;0.

Syllable structure processes

are those phonological processes that affect the structure of a syllable. Weak syllable deletion ([nænə] for "banana" or cluster reduction, realizing "spoon" as [pun], are examples (pp. 82-83).

Natural processes

are those phonological processes that occur regularly in the speech of most children across languages during the development period (p. 82).

Phonemic diphthongs

are those that do demonstrate phonemic value; the meaning of the word does change, if the diphthong is reduced to a monophthong with only its onglide portion (p. 21). For example, [ɔɪ] is a phonemic diphthong in that if it is produced as a monophthong, the phonemic value changes. The two words [sɔɪ], soy, and [sɔ], saw exemplify this, when the diphthong is produced without the offglide, a word with a different meaning results.

Nonphonemic diphthongs

are those that do not demonstrate phonemic value, i.e., the meaning of the word does not change, if the diphthong is reduced to a monophthong with only its onglide portion (p.21). For example, whether one pronounces cake, [keɪk] or [kek], the same word meaning will be perceived. The diphthongization of these vowels does not have phonemic value.

Rising diphthongs

are those that the tongue moves from a lower positioned onglide portion to an offglide which has a higher tongue position. Thus, relative to the palate, the tongue moves in a rising motion (p. 20).

Minimal pairs

are two words that differ in only one phoneme (p. 7). The words "cat" and "hat" are minimal pairs.

Allophones

are variations in phoneme realizations that do not change the meaning of a word when they are produced in differing contexts (p. 6).

Monophthongs

are vowels with a relatively constant quality throughout their production (p. 19). Monophthongs are also known as pure vowels. The vowel [i] is typically produced as a pure vowel.

if you were studying how production of (s) carries in AMerican English versus spanish which brand of phonetics would you be studying a) articulation b) acoustic c) audtiory

articulation

Multiple-sound approach

attempts to influence several error sounds simultaneously (p. 262).

which one of the subdivisions of phonetics would examine the frequency, intensity, and duration of speech sounds? a) articulator phonetics b) acoustic phonetics c) auditory phonetics

b) acoustic phonetics

which one of the following would be not be considered a portion of phonology? a) lingusition function of phonemes b) addition of -s can indicate plurality c) phonotactics d) knowledge of the sound system of a language

b) addition of -s can indicate plurality

which one of the following is a major class feature that distinguishes sounds produced with a high degree of oral obstructions a) sonorant b) consonantal c) vocalic d) coronal

b) consonantal

which one of the following is no included in the definition of phonological disorder? a) prob in lang specific function of phoneme b) disturbances in peripheral motor processes that result in speech c) disturbances represent impairment of the understanding and organization of phonemes d) phonemic errors

b) disturbances in peripheral motor processes that result in speech

what is the rhyme of reached? a) ea b) eached c) each d) none of the above

b) eached

Which prosodic feature seems to be the first to develop? a) contrastive stress b) intonation c) syllable stress d) durational variations

b) intonation

Which one of the following refers to the child's conscious awareness of sounds within his or her native language? a) morphophonology b) metaphonology c) phonetic coding d) phonotactics

b) metaphonology

which one of the following is not included in the definition of phonetics? a) production features of speech sounds b) organizational system of speech sounds c) transmission properties of speech sounds d) the perceptual bases of speech sounds

b) organizational system of speech sounds

in optimality theory, the constraint "markedness" requires output to be a) the same as the input b) simplifed in structure c) marked d) demoted

b) simplifed in structure

which one of the following could be considered a portion of morphology? a) the multiple meanings of the word trunk b) the "un" could be added to happy to change its meaning c) the children know from a fairly early age that we talk to babies somehow differently d) that sentences can be combined with the word "and"

b) the "un" could be added to happy to change its meaning

unchecked syllable structure a_ cupcake b) tomato c) jumping d) bathtub

b) tomato

Language screening

belongs to any assessment of children with articulatory-phonological impairments and can be achieved using formal, standard assessment measures or informal evaluations (p. 174). See page 174 for a list of selected language screening measures for preschool and school-age children.

prelingusitic behavior refers to a) the dvlopmnt of an infants vocal tract b) the ability to perceive speech sounds prior to birth c) all vocalization prior to child's first words d) prosodic feature development

c) all vocalization prior to child's first words

if you were studying bow foreign students perceive various speech sounds of american english, which brains of phonetics would you be studying a) articulatory b) acoustic d) auditory

c) audtiory

which one of the following statements concerning phonologic processes is not true a) they are innate b) they are universal c) children with different language backgrounds begin with different sets of phonological process d) they used to simply productions for the child in the developmental period

c) children with different language backgrounds begin with different sets of phonological process

if a chilkd said was for watch , this is an example of which phonological process? a) stopping b) affrication c) deaffrication d) labilizaiation

c) deaffrication

which one of the following terms is not associated with feature geometry a) spreading b) distinct features c) faithfulness c) delinking

c) faithfulness

Which stage typically is the beginning of the linguistic phase of language development? a) canonical babbling b) nonreduplicated babbling c) first 50 words d) two-word stage

c) first 50 words

If the child says tip for keep, this is an example of what process? a) stopping b) gliding c) fronting d) epenthesis

c) fronting

Which of the following is not a syllable structure process? a) cluster reduction b) final consonant deletion c) gliding d) reduplication

c) gliding

vowels are defined as having a) no simulataneous vocal fold vibrations under normal conditions b) having articulatory constrictions along the sagittal midline of the vocal tract c) having relatively unimpeded airstream from the VF to the lips d) having relativey less acoustic intensity than consonants

c) having relatively unimpeded airstream from the VF to the lips

the vowel (i) is describe phonetical as a) high front vowel that is unrounded and lax b) midfront vowel that is unrounded and tense c) high front vowel that is unrounded and tense d) high back vowel that is unrounded and tense

c) high front vowel that is unrounded and tense

the allowed combination of phonemes in a particular lang refers to the a) phonetic inventory b) phonemic inventory c) phonotactic constraints d) minimal pairs

c) phonotactic constraints

which one of the following does not belowg to the phonemic phonology concept? a) meaning establishing and meaning differentiating function of sound units b) underlying for or representation c) production realities d) sound unit function within a particular lang system

c) production realities

a young child says (noni) for noisy. This is which type of assimilation processes? a) progressive contact phonemic assimilation b) regressive contact phonemic assimilation c) progressive remote phonemic assimilation d) progressive remote phonetic similitude

c) progressive remote phonemic assimilation

Which one of the following is among the later developing sounds? a) f b) j c) s d) k

c) s

oral, verbal expression of lang into word is a) nonlinguistic comm b) articulation c) speech d) pragmatics

c) speech

which one of the following terms is not representative of auto segmental phonology? a) tiers are separable and independent levels b) certain segments are autonomous and do not have a one for one match on another level c) strong and weak stress are emphasized d) feature spreading is also a portion of this concept

c) strong and weak stress are emphasized

Bilabial fricatives

can also be seen as sound substitutions in aberrant productions. The symbol [ɸ] represents the voiceless bilabial fricative while [β] denotes the voiced bilabial fricative (p. 54).

index of severity

can also be used to assess the child with an emerging phonological system (pp. 181-182). This index, developed by Paul and Jennings (1992), examines the total number of consonants and the syllable structure level used by the child. Comparisons are listed for children from 18 to 36 months who are developing language in a normal manner versus those children with small expressive vocabularies. The index and a clinical application of how to use the index are given on pages 181 and 182.

analysis of phonological error patterns

can be carried out in a number of ways, through a place-manner-voice analysis, a phonological process analysis, and/or by assessing productive phonological knowledge (p.237).

Language

can be defined as a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in various modes for thought and communication (p. 2). It is rule governed, includes variability and change, and can be used to communicate in many different ways. Language is described by at least five linguistic parameters: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Facilitating contexts (key words)

can be used to successfully treat sound production errors within a phonetic approach (pp. 266-267). Often words can be found in the speech of the client where the target sound is correctly produced. Such a possibility offers a good starting point for remedial work. Second, the client might be able to produce the target sound in an acceptable manner under certain coarticulatory conditions. The norm realization of [g] by a client (who otherwise regularly substitutes [d] for [g]) within the context of the word "finger" is an example.

Phonetic variability

characterizes the unstable/limited pronunciations noted in many children's first-50-words. However, some children do not seem to demonstrate this variability; they seem to produce stable phonetic word realizations from the beginning (p. 126).

specific perceptual skills

clients' abilities to differentiate between their error production and target sound.

Screening

consists of activities or tests that identify individuals who need further evaluation (p. 157).

Syntax

consists of organizational rules denoting word, phrase, and clause order. It also examines the organization and relationship between words, word classes, and other sentence elements (p. 2-3).

Target selection for minimal opposition contrast therapy

consists of selecting two sounds with as many articulatory similarities as possible (pp. 328-329). Articulation similarities are typically analyzed according to the phonetic production features of place, manner, and voicing. "The minimal opposition procedure is most appropriate for clients who are stimulable for the target sound." (Lowe, 1994, p. 190). Again, clients who primarily display phonemic substitutions are the best choices for minimal opposition therapy.

Five-way scoring

consists of the following judgment choices: correct; sound deletion; sound substitution; sound distortion; sound addition. It is typically suggested in the manuals of articulation tests. Although clearly better than the two-way scoring system, the five-way scoring has its own limitations (p. 165).

Two-way scoring

consists of the judgment "right" or "wrong" with regard to a given sound production (p. 165) and can be used to give feedback to a client. It is not accurate enough for scoring an articulation test.

Rhyme

consists of the peak and coda of a syllable (p. 33).

Dismissal and reevaluation criteria

constitute the last therapy phase (p. 271). 50% percent accuracy of sound production during natural spontaneous speech is professionally acceptable only under the condition of clearly established reevaluation criteria. (271)

Spontaneous speech

constitutes the last phase of the therapy sequence (pp. 269-270). Its goal is maintaining accuracy of production when the target sound appears spontaneously in conversation. Informed parents, teachers, and friends are valuable assistants during this decisive therapy phase. (269)

Production of the sound in isolation

constitutes the second phase of a phonetic intervention program (p. 264). The goal is to elicit a norm production of the target sound alone, not in combination with other speech sounds. Three techniques can be used within this phase: 1) auditory stimulation/imitation 2) the phonetic placement method 3) the sound modification method.

Emerging phonology

covers the period during which conventional words begin to appear as a means of communication (p. 177). Children who are late talkers or may demonstrate a delayed emerging phonological system typically demonstrate small expressive vocabularies, a reduced repertoire of consonants and syllable shapes. Often, the words they use are unintelligible. Children with emerging phonological systems necessitate different assessment procedures. For example, formal articulation testing, spontaneous speech sampling, and evaluating the speech mechanism may be difficult with these children. Family is often asked to provide additional information, such as a log of words spoken at home or even provide a recording of speech produced at home. When is difficult to examine oral-facial structures and function of a young child information about the child's feeding and babbling behaviors may be used. Box 6.3 (p. 180) contains sample questions about feeding that could be used to indirectly gather information about speech-motor system. Assessment strategies are given for these children on pages 179-182.

Canonical babbling includes a) reduplicated babbling b) nonreduplicated babbling c) reflexive babbling d) a and b e) none of the above

d) a and b

the definition of articulation disorder reflects: a) peripheral motor processes b) gradually developing motor skills c) the totality of motor processes involved in the planning and execution of speech d) all of the above

d) all of the above

if a child produced (ta) for stop then which one of the following constraints is violated a) complex c) coda d) fricative d) max

d) max

which consonants are considered to be sonorant consonants a) fricatives/ affricates b) stops/plosives c) all voiced consonants d) nasals, liquies, and glides

d) nasal, liquid, glide

Articulatory phonetics

deals with the production features of speech sounds, their categorization and classification according to specific parameters of their production. Central aspects include how speech sounds are actually articulated, their objective similarities, and their differences (p. 15). The motor processes which result in speech sounds are categorized according to several different parameters. For example, categories may include those speech motor processes which are coupled with vocal fold vibration (voiced sounds) versus those which are not (voiceless sounds), or those speech motor movements which result in a partial or total hindrance within the vocal tract (consonants) versus those which demonstrate a relatively open vocal tract, a vocal tract without significant obstructions (vowels).

Phonology

deals with the systems and patterns of phonemes occurring in a given language (p. 63). It involves determining the language-specific phonemes (phonemic inventory) and the rules that describe the changes when they occur in different relationships with other phonemes (phonotactics). See also pages 2, 6-7.

place-manner-voice analysis

describes error patterns according to a rather broad phonetic feature classification system (pp. 237-239). Sound substitutions may be analyzed using this system, distortions and deletions cannot. The place-manner-voice categorization system used in this text is from Howell and Dean (1994). A place-manner-voice matrix of the consonants of General American English is provided in Figure 8.6 (p. 238). A place-manner-voice summary sheet, Figure 8.7, appears on page 239. In addition, a clinical application of this analysis procedure is explained on pages 240-241.

Naturalness

designates a relative simplicity of a sound's production and its high frequency of occurrence in many languages (pp. 69-70). [m], for example, fulfills both requirements; it is a more "natural" sound if it is compared to speech sounds such as [ʃ] or [ʒ].

Articulation disorder

designates difficulties with the motor production aspects of speech, or an inability to produce certain speech sounds (p. 8). This term has been used historically to denote all children who demonstrated an inability to produce certain speech sounds. However, with the introduction of the term phonological disorder a new dimension was added to the categorization of these children. Although many professionals use the two terms interchangeably, or use the newer term phonological disorder to encompass all children with speech sound difficulties, a theoretical and practical differentiation is important.

Generative naturalness

designates two features: 1) the relative simplicity of a sound production and 2) its frequency of occurrence in languages (p. 74). More natural sounds are, thus, easier to produce and occur more frequently in languages of the world. The stop-plosive [p] is considered to be a natural sound.

Cycles training

developed by Hodson and Paden (1991), pertains to the remediation of phonological patterns successively during specific time periods (cycles) (pp. 341-344). Targeted patterns within each cycle are used to stimulate the emergence of a specific sound or pattern, not their mastery. Therefore, clients do not have to reach a certain percentage of accuracy of any phoneme or pattern realization in order to move to the next cycle. The cycles approach attempts to approximate closely the way phonological development normally occurs, i.e., in a gradual manner. Also, several patterns can be targeted in one cycle. While some patterns from one cycle to the next might be "recycled", new sound patterns are introduced as well. The cycles approach was not designed for children with mild speech disorders. On the contrary, cycles therapy targets highly unintelligible children.

Discontinuity hypothesis

emphasizes a sharp separation between the prelinguistic and the linguistic phases of sound production, specifically between babbled sounds and the sounds of first words (p. 119). Roman Jakobson formulated this hypothesis; however, newer investigations contradict his thesis.

first-50-word stage

encompasses the time from the first meaningful utterance, which is around the child's first birthday, to the time when the child begins to put two words together at approximately 18 to 24 months of age. Whereas the first word is a plausible starting point for this stage, a strict 50-word cut-off point appears arbitrary (pp. 125-126).

Evaluation of the speech mechanism

entails the inspection and functional assessment of structures involved in the production of speech as prerequisite for any comprehensive appraisal. (pp. 169-172). Among other things, it examines appearance and function of oral-motor structures, including range of motion, integration of movements and the whether or not the client can adequately perform a task on command. The following areas are assessed (take additional notes on these): -head and facial structures (pp. 169-170) -breathing (p. 170) -oral and pharyngeal cavity structures (pp. 170-171) --including the teeth (p. 170), the tongue (pp. 170-171), --and the hard and soft palates (p. 171). diadochokinetic rates (measures used to examine the rate of movement of the articulators (pp. 171-172). functional assessment of lips, mandible, tongue, and velum (pp. 171-172). Also see Appendix 6.1 (pages 189-193) for the Speech-Motor Assessment Screening Form.

Articulation tests

examine sound articulation in selected isolated words (pp. 158-160). However, evaluating speech sound production based on single-word responses can never render adequate information about a client's production realities in connected speech. As a general rule of thumb, if a sound error is identified on a test, it is a good idea to transcribe the entire word for later reference.

Tongue thrust

excessive anterior tongue movement during swallowing and a more anterior tongue position during rest.

Treatment principles for phonemic errors

focus on the phoneme value of speech sounds as a means to establish and differentiate word/function units (pp. 325-326). Consequently, and in direct contrast to phonetic (or traditional-motor) approaches, phonologically based intervention begins at the word level. Phonemes are usually arranged contrastively between words, resulting in "minimal pairs"—two distinct words that differ by only one phonemes value. Another difference between the treatment of phonetic and phonemic errors pertains to the emphasis on the phonological system of the child rather than on his/her sound production difficulties. This leads to the treatment of groups of sounds or sound classes rather than the treatment of individual sounds.

Raised tongue position

for vowels refers to an articulation in which the tongue is somewhat elevated, in the direction of the next highest vowel (pp. 50-51). A raised [æ], for example, will change in the direction of [ɛ] while still being identifiable as [æ]. A raised [æ] would be noted as [æ̝] with a t-shaped arrow pointing upward.

Auditory perceptual testing

has lost much of its former appeal as a standard assessment procedure for children with articulatory-phonological impairments (pp. 174-176). Currently, if used, it is tailored to the individual client's collapse of phonemic contrasts.

Salience

implies that children will acquire words earlier that contain sounds within their phonological inventories (p. 130).

Loss of phonemic contrasts

in clients with a phonological disorder can be consistent or inconsistent (p. 228). Inconsistent realizations refer to substitutions or deletions that occur only in certain contexts.

Prelingustic behavior

includes vocalization prior to the first true words, may include nonmeaningful sound productions (p.119).

Labialized and nonlabialized sound productions

indicate consonants normally produced without lip rounding which are now rounded (labialized) as well as those consonants which are normally produced with lip rounding which become unrounded (nonlabialized) (pp. 49-50). The diacritic for a labialized production is a superscript "w" placed to the right of the symbol; for nonlabialized productions a double-sided arrow is placed under the symbol (see page 49 and the clinical comments on page 49-50). The consonant [ʃ] can be nonlabialized while other consonants may become labialized primarily due to the phonetic context in which they occur. Unrounded consonants may become labialized when followed by, for example, rounded vowels such as [u].

Speech disorder

indicates oral, verbal communication that is so deviant from the norm that it is noticeable or interferes with communication (p. 3-4). According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, speech disorders are divided into articulation, fluency, and voice disorders.

Phonological performance analysis

introduced by Winitz (1984), represents useful additional suggestions for discrimination testing (pp. 175-176).

Stimulability testing

involves probing into the client's ability to produce a misarticulated sound in an appropriate manner when somehow "stimulated" by the clinician to do so (p. 166). For many clinicians, stimulability testing is a standard procedure concluding the administration of an articulation test. The clinician typically elicits targeted response by asking the client to "watch and listen to what I am going to say and then you say it" (Bernthal 2009). Stimulability testing begins at the isolated sound level progressing through the CV and word level.

Onset-rime awareness

involves recognition of the onset of the syllable and rime, or The rest of the syllable, which includes the syllable peak and coda (p. 147).

Metaphonology

involves the child's conscious awareness of the sounds of the language in question (p. 145). Metaphonological skills pertain to a child's ability to discern how many sounds a word consists of or which sound constitutes its beginning or end, for example. Metaphonological skills appear to play a role in emerging literacy.

Optimality theory

is a constraint-based phonological theory which explains language universals, phonological acquisition, and phonological disorders according to specific constraints which are imposed upon the patterns (pp. 96-100). Constraints are based on the principles of markedness. In optimal theory the relation between input and output is mediated by two formal mechanisms: evaluator and generator (p. 98).

Differentiating between articulation and phonological disorders

is a decisively important diagnostic task (pp. 227-228). Clients with phonological disorders show difficulties using phonemes contrastively to differentiate meaning. Clients with an articulation disorder demonstrate a preservation of phonemic contrasts. Neutralization of phonemic contrasts is central to the differentiation of articulatory versus phonological impairments. The protocol Neutralization of Phonemic Contrasts Summary Form (Figure 8.4, p. 229) is one means of documenting whether a client uses phonemes contrastively or neutralizes these contrasts.

Phonetic transcription

is a descriptive not a prescriptive system (p. 43). The term descriptive implies that actual articulatory events are described. All symbols used stand for a defined articulatory event. For example, [b] stands for a voiced bilabial stop-plosive. If there is not voicing or if this articulation changes in any way, these variations must be noted. It is not a prescriptive system in that "words" are not transcribed in an invariable manner. For example, the word "tan" is often produced and thus transcribed as [tæn]. However, if someone says [tɛn], which can be heard in Pittsburgh, ([ju hɛv ə naɪs tɛn]), then it must be transcribed accordingly. Letters cannot be equated to transcribed symbols. There are many reasons why phonetic transcription should be used (pp. 43-44). First and foremost, it is the basis for the assessment of individuals with articulatory/ phonological impairments. Although articulation tests are often used as a portion of the assessment process, they are only as good as the transcription skills of the examiner. Learning phonetic transcription is a skill. It not only is an indispensable portion of the education of speech-language specialists, it is also a means by which auditory perceptual competency is trained. As practitioners become more trained in transcription, their perceptual and discrimination proficiency for speech sounds becomes more fine-tuned.

Limitation of syllable structures and segmental productions

is a distinguishing mark of the first-50-word period (pp. 126-128). CV, VC, and CVC syllables predominate while CVCV syllables are often syllable reduplications. In respect to early sound development, [ɑ] and [a] vowels seem to precede [i] and [u] vowels, whereas [p], [b], and [m] are among the earliest consonants. These observed trends should not be automatically generalized. Rather, a good deal of individual variation should always be assumed. See the Clinical Application on page 128.

Evaluator (EVAL)

is a formal mechanism within optimality theory which evaluates all possible outputs to determine the optimal output (p. 98).

flap, tap, or one-tap trill, [ɾ]

is a frequent allophonic variation of [t] and [d] in words where these stop-plosives are preceded and followed by vowels, as in city, butter, or ladder (p. 55). It is produced by a single tap of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge.

phonological process analysis

is a means of identifying substitutions, syllable structure, and assimilatory changes that occur in the speech of clients (pp. 239-246). Each error is identified and classified as one or more of the phonological processes. Patterns of errors are described according to the most frequent phonological processes present and/or those that affect a class of sounds or sound sequences. Certain idiosyncratic processes occur in the speech of children with phonological disorders. A list of a few of these processes is contained in Figure 8.9 (p. 242). Although substitution processes typically affect consonants, in some children vowel errors may occur. A list of phonological processes for vowel errors is included in Figure 8.10 (p. 243). Results of a clinical application with this type of analysis system can be found on pages 244 and 245.

Limitation

is a mechanism within natural phonology to account for the adaptive changes in the gradual acquisition of the adult phonological system by children (p. 81). For example, children regularly substitute an unmarked sound class, stops, for example, for a member of a marked sound class, fricatives, for example, [p/f]. Later, this global substitution of stops for fricatives might be limited to [s] and [z]. Now only [s] and [z] have stop substitutions ([t/s] and [d/z].

Broad transcription

is a more general type of transcription based on the phoneme system of a specific language. Each symbol represents a phoneme (p. 42). Due to the fact that this system represents phonemes, broad transcription is also referred to as phonemic transcription (p. 42).

Metrical Phonology

is a nonlinear phonological theory which extended a hierarchical-based analysis to stress. Metrical phonology accounts for the syllable. Stress patterns are represented by binary branches of weak and strong stress (p. 91).

Hearing screening

is a portion of every articulatory-phonological assessment (pp. 172-173). In its 1997 "Guidelines for Audiologic Screening", the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association proposed that a hearing screening consist of these procedures: • history taking including recent episodes of otalgia (ear pain) and otorrhea (ear discharge) • visual inspection for structural defects and ear-canal and eardrum abnormalities • identification audiometry • acoustic immittance measurements (pp. 172-174).

Reevaluation

is a portion of our clinical responsibility to ensure that therapy was successful and the client has generalized sound productions across situations. This could be as simple as stopping by the child's classroom and listening to conversation. It is the only way to ensure that therapy was indeed successful. The ultimate therapeutic goal is norm production within all natural, conversational settings. (271)

Narrow transcription

is a system based on recording as much production detail as possible (p. 42). This notation uses both the symbols of broad transcription as well as extra ones. These extra symbols are added to give a specific phonetic value, in other words, to exemplify explicit production features. This type of transcription is also referred to as phonetic transcription to denote the inclusion of phonetic production features (p. 42).

Vocoid

is a technical term for vowel productions without the linguistic function of vowels. Vocoids are vowel-like utterances which lack phonemic value as meaning establishing and meaning differentiating units. During the late prelinguistic and early linguistic periods of phonological development, mid-front and central vocoids appear to be favored over high and back vocoids (Kent and Bauer, 1985) (p. 121).

Deletion

is a technical term in feature geometry which is exemplified by neutralization or deletion processes, also known as delinking (p. 93).

Spreading

is a term used for features affected by assimilation processes; in feature geometry spreading is also known as linking (p. 93).

Suppression

is a term used in natural phonology to refer to the abolishment of previously employed phonological processes (p. 81). Since voiced stops, for example, are more marked than voiceless ones, the child might first substitute the voiceless cognate for the voiced one, a process known as devoicing. In these cases /pɪg/ is realized as [pɪk]. Later, this substitution process becomes "suppressed". Now, /pɪg/ is realized as [pɪg].

Peak

is a term used to denote the most prominent, the most acoustically intense part of the syllable, in other words the syllable nucleus (p. 33).

Complexity Approach

is a therapy based on findings that more complex linguistic input promotes greater change on untreated related targets in a child's phonological system (pp. 335-336).

Syllable production

is affected by four factors: (1) the number of syllables an utterance contains (fewer syllables are easier to produce) (2) the type of syllable relative to open versus closed syllables (open syllables are easier to produce) (3) the degree of syllable stress (unstressed syllables are easier to produce then stressed ones) (4) the number of consonants that are grouped together (singletons are easier to produce than consonant clusters) (p. 34).

first word

is an entity of relatively stable phonetic form used consistently in a particular context and is recognizably related to the adult-word form of the language (p. 125).

Phonemic awareness

is an individual's awareness of the phoneme level and necessitates the understanding that words are composed of individual sounds (p. 146-150).

Phonological awareness

is an individual's awareness of the sound structure or phonological structure of a spoken word (pp. 145-146). Phonological awareness uses a single modality, the auditory one. It is the ability to hear sounds in spoken words in contrast to recognizing sounds in written words.

Syllable awareness

is an individual's understanding of how words can be divided into syllables (p. 147).

Generator (GEN)

is another formal mechanism within optimality theory which potentially can generate an infinite number of possible phonetic forms and links the input with potential outputs (p. 98).

Phonetic variation

is another label for speech sound (p. 7).

Ordering

is another recognizable step in the gradual revision of the phonological system from its innate state to the adult norm (p. 81). A child's first revisions may appear unordered, e.g., [s] as well as [z] might first be realized as [t]. Later, though, the child begins to "order" the revisions in a manner that [s] is still replaced by [t], but [z] is now replaced by [d]. Thus, "Sue" and "zoo" were first both realized as [tu]. Ordering changes this pattern later to [tu] for "Sue" and [du] for "zoo".

Markedness

is another type of constraint which requires output forms to be unmarked or simplified in nature (p. 98). Faithfulness and markedness are opposing, antagonistic properties which are mediated by the evaluator (EVAL) to determine the optimal output. The optimal output is determined by the properties of that particular language.

Communication

is any act in which information is given to or received from another person concerning that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states (p. 1). Communication may be a) intentional or unintentional b) involve conventional or unconventional signal c) take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and d) occur through spoken or other modes.

Metaphon therapy

is based on metalinguistic awareness (the ability to think about and reflect on the nature of language and how it functions.) Metaphon therapy is structured to develop children's metaphonological skills. Metaphonolgy is the ability to pay attention to and reflect on the phonological structure of language. Metaphon therapy begins with phonological process analysis. Metaphon therapy emphasizes training metalinguistic skills, specifically metaphonological awareness. It is assumed that phonologically impaired children fail to realize the communicative significance of the phonological rule system. The clients targeted for metaphon therapy are preschool children because at this age metaphonological knowledge is developing along with other language skills. Therefore, good candidates for metaphon therapy appear to be preschool children with very restricted phonetic inventories, children who have at least three or more processes operating in their speech. (pp. 344-349)

Avoidance factor

is defined as the avoidance of words that do not contain sounds within the child's inventory (p. 130).

Phonetic approach (traditional-motor approach)

is exemplified by each sound being treated individually, in a sequence with one sound following the next (p. 262). Such an approach to intervention is not only suitable for articulation errors; portions of its techniques may also prove helpful for children with phonological disorders errors.

Lengthening of a sound

is marked by one or two dots placed vertically following the respective sound (p. 53). Two dots indicate a longer duration than one dot.

Therapy sequence

is often associated with the phonetic approach (pp. 263-264). Typically, the client must achieve a relatively high accuracy level (between 80 to 90% in structured therapy activities.) before proceeding on to the next stage. The sequence provided includes a) sensory-perceptual training (ear training), b) production of the sound in isolation, c) using facilitating contexts, d) production of nonsense syllables with the target sound, e) words with the target sound, f) production of structured phrases and sentences with the target sound, and g) spontaneous speech. Termination criterion is spontaneous contests should be set at 50% accuracy. (pp. 264-270).

Faithfulness

is one type of constraint which functions within the phonological system (p. 98). Faithfulness constraints require that input and output forms be identical.

glottal stop

is produced when a closed glottis is suddenly released after a build-up of subglottal air pressure (p. 54). The symbol [ʔ] indicates such a stop production. Children with phonological impairments often use glottal stop substitutions.

Glossing

is repeating with normal pronunciation what the client has just said for easier identification later.

Perceptual constancy

is the ability (of infants) to identify a sound as being the same across different speakers, pitches, and other changing environmental conditions (p. 118).

Generative Phonology

is the application of principles of generative (or transformational) grammar to phonology (p. 71). Prior to generative phonology, (actualities of speech production) were analyzed. In generative phonology, the concept of underlying form was added. This is a theoretical concept in which some sort of mental reality is implied in the way people use language (Crystal, 2010). This underlying form is exemplified by a speaker/listener's language competency. Generative phonology is not currently used for clinical purposes, however, it had a decisive influence on newer phonological constructs, primarily on Natural Phonology and the Nonlinear (or Multilinear) Phonologies.

Acoustic phonetics

is the area of study related to speech sound transmission. The frequency, intensity, and duration of speech sounds, for example, are described and categorized (p. 15). The transmission of speech sounds can be exemplified by a display of the acoustic constituents of a particular speech sound. For example, the frequency of a voiced sound, i.e., the number of complete repetitions (cycles) of variations in air pressure occurring within a second's time, is directly related to the opening and closing of the glottis by vocal fold vibration. Or, the intensity of a sound is mirrored by the amplitude of these variations in air pressure.

Sensory-perceptual training (ear training)

is the client's accurate discrimination between the target sound and other sounds, the client's error production included (pp. 264-265). Identification, isolation, stimulation, and discrimination are phases of sensory-perceptual training which are outlined in Figure 9.1, page 265.

Speech

is the communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words (p. 2). It is oral, verbal communication.

Comprehensive evaluation

is the core of appraising articulatory-phonological impairments (p. 158). It is phonetic-phonemic in nature and includes data from the following sources: • an articulation test and stimulability measures • conversational speech assessment (spontaneous speech sample) in various contexts • hearing screening • speech mechanism examination • selection of relevant additional measures such as language testing, perceptual performance, contextual testing, and/or cognitive assessment.

Communication disorder

is the impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend concepts including verbal, nonverbal, and graphic symbol systems (p. 3).

Onglide

is the initial portion of a diphthong (p. 19).

Cooing and laughter

is the label given to the second stage of the babbling period. During this time (normally when the infant is between 2 to 4 months of age), cooing (or gooing) sounds are produced as (mostly) vowel like comfort sounds, primarily consisting of nasalized vowels and nasal consonants (Oller, 1980) (pp. 119-120).

Derhotacization

is the loss of r-coloring for the consonant [r] and the central vowels with r-coloring (p. 50). The central vowels with r-coloring lose the rhotic symbol [ ˞], thus becoming [ə] or [ɜ]. Depending on the production, a derhotacized [r] may be transcribed as [w] or as [ʋ] which is a voiced labiodental approximant .

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA

is the most widely accepted transcription system in the world (p. 40). (Note: This system was largely attributed to Paul Passy who was the Secretary of the International Phonetic Association. It was first published in 1888 and was originally designed as an aid in teaching the exact pronunciation of foreign languages.)

Unrounding

is the opposite: vowels are produced with no rounding which typically evidence lip rounding in their production (p. 50). The symbol for unrounding (a small c-type notation open to the right) is used with back vowels (with the exception of [ɑ]) which typically display some degree of lip rounding. An unrounded [ɪ] would be transcribed as [ɪ̜]

Phoneme

is the smallest linguistic unit that is able, when combined with other such units, to establish word meanings and distinguish between them (p. 6). For example, in General American English /p/ and /s/ are phonemes because they function to distinguish between words such as "pat" and "sat". On the other hand, in General American English the aspiration of stop/plosives does not have phonemic relevance. [phit] and [pit], in spite of their differences in production, do not result in two words with different meanings. However, aspiration versus nonaspiration of stop/plosives is phonemically relevant in many languages. For example, in Swahili [p] is the word for "climb" while [ph], with an aspirated [p], signifies the name for a specific type of antelope. As linguistic units, phonemes characterize how speech sounds function within a language to differentiate word meaning. In everyday usage, professionals often do not distinguish between the terms speech sound and phoneme. One could hear someone say that they transcribed a particular phoneme, for example. However, theoretical and definitional differences do exist; these terms represent two distinct concepts. While the technical term speech sound stands for the physical reality of sound form, the term phoneme refers exclusively to how these forms function within a given language as linguistic units to differentiate between word meanings.

Morpheme

is the smallest meaningful unit of a language (p. 2).

Pragmatics

is the study of language used to communicate within various situational contexts (p. 3). Pragmatics examines language use in context.

Semantics

is the study of linguistic meaning and includes the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences (p. 3).

Phonetics

is the study of speech emphasizing the description and classification of speech sounds according to their production, transmission and perceptual features (p. 15).

Morphophonology

is the study of the different allomorphs of the morpheme and the rules governing their use (p. 145).

Phonology

is the study of the sound system of language, and includes the rules that govern its spoken form (p. 2). Phonology a) analyzes which sound units are within a language, b) examines how these sounds are arranged, their systematic organization and rule system.

Contoid

is the technical term for consonant productions without their linguistic function as meaning establishing and meaning differentiating phonemes. The contoids [h], [d], [b], and [m] are among the most frequently produced by infants during their late prelinguistic and early linguistic phases (Locke, 1980) (pp. 121-122).

Phonological processing

is the use of sounds of a language to process verbal information (in oral or written form) that requires working- and long-term memory (p. 146). Phonological awareness is a subdivision of phonological processing. However, it is less complex than coding as it does not put demands on memory or processing of information. Several tasks are listed which can be used to measure phonological awareness (p. 147-148).

Coding

is translating stimuli from one form to another, for example, from the auditory to the written form (p. 146).

Phonological process therapy

is typically based on the selection of a phonological process which is then used in minimal pair contrasts (pp. 338-341). Phonological process therapy is somewhat of a misnomer in that a phonological process therapy as such does not exist. For the young client whose phonological system is characterized by the persistence of a limited number of phonological processes, the phonological therapy approach is probably a viable option. Target sounds are based on their relative frequency of occurrence, the effect the phonological process has on intelligibility and the age and phonological development of the child. Minimal pairs can be used in this approach utilizing minimal and maximal oppositions training.

independent analysis

is used to evaluate children with emerging phonological systems (pp. 180-181). This type of analysis takes only the client's productions into account; the articulated speech sounds are not compared to the adult norm model. Three kinds of data are collected for the independent analysis: the inventory of speech sounds, the syllable shapes the child uses, and any constraints noted on sounds or sound sequences. Constraints on sound sequences include the use of any sounds or patterns which are used exclusively in certain words or context positions. Examples and clinical applications are given for an independent analysis on page 181.

Phoneme inventory

lists all phonemes occurring in a language (p. 65).

Reflexive crying and vegetative sounds

mark the first stage of the prelinguistic period exemplified by cries, coughs, and burps (reflexive vocalizations) on the one hand, and grunts, sighs, clicks, and similar noises associated with activities such as feeding (vegetative sounds) on the other (p. 119). Normally, this stage covers the period between birth to approximately two months of age.

Postdorsal-velar fricatives

may be produced by children who are attempting to articulate [k] and [g] but do not elevate the tongue enough to create complete closure between the active and passive articulators (p. 54). The voiceless postdorsal-velar fricative is transcribed as [x]; its voiced counterpart is noted as [ɣ].

Treatment of vowel errors

may become a necessity for children with phonological impairments (pp.355-359). Some children with phonological disorders demonstrate difficulties with vowel realizations. Documented vowel errors in children seem to fall into two groups: first, children with extremely limited vowel inventories, and second, children with relatively large vowel inventories but a high incidence of vowel substitutions.

silent period

may result as children move from their native language to the second language (pp. 141-142). In this phase children may speak very little as they focus on understanding and acquiring the second language. This may be interpreted as the child being "shy" or not comprehending what is going on in the classroom, for example. The younger the child, the longer this silent period can last. The silent period does not warrant intervention.

Advanced tongue positions

occur when the specific vowel production is somewhat frontalized, positioned more anterior in the mouth than is normally the case (p. 51). This is transcribed with a small diacritic mark + placed under the vowel sign in question. For example, [ɑ̟] would indicate a production of [ɑ] with a more forward tongue position than is normally the case.

Retracted tongue positions

occur when the vowel production is somewhat further back in the mouth than is normally the case; the tongue position is more posteriorly located (p. 51). The diacritic for a retracted tongue position is a small - placed under the vowel symbol in question. For example, [ɛ̠] would indicate that the tongue position is further back than normal.

System learning

occurs after the first-50-word stage and refers to the type of learning in which the child acquires phonemic principles of the phonological system of a given language (p.126)

Unintelligibility

occurs when speech is so disordered that a speaker's message cannot be understood (p. 183). Although unintelligibility is often typical for young children, it is by no means limited to any specific age group. Difficulties with the production of liquids, stridents, and consonant clusters are especially prevalent. In addition, the phonological processes cluster reduction, stridency deletion, stopping, gliding and vocalization of liquids as well as nasal and labial assimilations have been noted in their speech (Hodson, 1984). Procedural difficulties when assessing unintelligible children and possible solutions to overcome them are discussed on pages 183-184.

Rounding

occurs when vowels which are typically not rounded are produced with more lip rounding than is usual (p. 50). For example, [i] is normally articulated with no lip rounding. If [i] were produced with lip rounding then this would be a case of rounding. The rounding symbol (a small c-type notation open to the left) may be used with front vowels to denote that their characteristic lip spreading has changed. A rounded [ɪ] is symbolized as [ɪ̹].

Onset

of a syllable consists of all segments prior to the peak (p. 33). Those segments are also termed syllable releasing sounds.

Phonemic level

of sound representation depicts the underlying language-specific function of speech sounds, their phoneme values (p. 63).

Phonetic level

of sound representation with sounds (phones, allophones) as central units (p. 63). It is related to the surface level form.

Aspiration

of stop-plosives is marked by a small elevated [h] following the consonant, for example [pʰit], for Pete (p. 48). Normal aspiration usually remains unmarked. If a normally aspirated stop-plosive is not aspirated, the diacritic [=] is placed following the consonant in question, for example [p=aɪ], for pie. Although aspiration is generally associated with fortis productions and nonaspiration with lenis ones (see the following discussion), exceptions can be noted. Edwards (2003) states that voiceless stop-plosives are aspirated at the beginning of words but not in consonant clusters; word-final aspiration appears to be variable. Kantner and West (1960) state that voiceless unaspirated stop-plosives occur in three contexts: 1) when a voiceless stop-plosive is followed by a voiced stop-plosive as in sit down or right door, 2) initiating unstressed syllables, for example city, pretty, and 3) directly linked with a preceding [s] as in stand, school.

Structural and functional development

of the respiratory, phonatory, resonatory, and articulatory mechanisms of the infant reflect exclusively primary functions. From birth to approximately one year of age dramatic modifications in these mechanisms occur prior to the infant's first words (p. 113-116).

Cognitive appraisal

often provides useful and necessary information (pp. 175-176). Caution should be exercised when interpreting IQ measures of children demonstrating phonetic-phonemic disorders and children from linguistically and culturally different backgrounds.

Diphthongs

on the other hand, are vowels in which the quality changes during their production (p. 19). The term diphthong, meaning having two sounds, is used to refer to those vowels which vary in quality during the length of their production but are seen as representing one phoneme.

Active articulators

or organs of articulation are parts within the vocal tract which actually move during consonant production (p. 23). The lower lip (known as labial) and parts of the tongue (apical, coronal, pre-, medio- and postdorsal) are active articulators in the production of General American English consonants.

Passive articulators

or places of articulation are those portions of the vocal tract which do not move during the production of consonants (p. 23). The upper lip (labial), teeth (dental), parts of the palate (pre-, mediopalatal), and velum (velar) are passive articulators for General American English consonants.

Spontaneous speech sample

pertains to obtaining examples of the client's conversational speech in a variety of talking situations (p. 167). The spontaneous speech sample demonstrates the differences that exist between citing and talking, provides a typical measure of speech performance. Its transcription and analysis constitute an indispensable complement to the results of an articulation test and involve considerable planning: • begins with a single-word citation task (articulation test) (p.167) • objects or pictures are used to elicit target sounds (p. 167) • length and diversity of the sample are planned (pp. 167-168) Spontaneous speech samples may be useful in determining language, voice, and/or prosodic capabilities of a client.

Auditory phonetics

pertains to speech sound perception (p. 15). For example, pitch and loudness are terms used to describe the perceptual categorization of frequency and intensity, noted parameters in acoustic phonetics. Although pitch and loudness are related to frequency and intensity, equal steps of increasing frequency or intensity do not produce the perceptual effect of equal steps of pitch and loudness. These discrepancies between acoustic facts and their perceptual impressions are typical for studies within auditory phonetics.

Assessment

pertains to the clinical evaluation of a client's disorder in two phases: appraisal and diagnosis (Darley, 1991) (p. 156).

Categorical perception

pertains to the tendency of listeners to perceive speech sounds varied along a continuum according to the phonemic categories of their native language (p. 117).

what is the smaller linguistic unit that can combine with other such units to establish meaning? a) allophonic variation b) speech sound c) phoneme d) phonotactic constraint

phoneme

Auditory stimulation/imitation

provides repeated examples of the target sound realized by the clinician and imitated by the client who has previously been instructed to "watch and do exactly the same as I do. (pp. 264-265) If this procedure works (which, unfortunately, is not often the case), it opens up an excellent shortcut to target sound elicitation.

Voicing features

refer to the presence or absence of simultaneous vocal fold vibration during the consonant production. This results in voiced or voiceless consonants (p. 26-27).

syllable shapes

refer to the structure of syllables within a word while syllable constraints note any restrictions and limitations in the realization of syllable shapes (see Table 8.1) (p.236).

Syllable shapes

refer to the various forms in which syllables can be structured in languages. Examples in American English include consonant + vowel (CV), vowel + consonant + vowel (VCV) or consonant + vowel + consonant + vowel (CVCV) structures. During the later babbling periods, open syllables (those syllables which do not have a coda) were found to be most prevalent, accounting for about 94% of all syllables produced (Kent and Bauer, 1985) (p. 122).

Substitution processes

refer to those processes in which specific production features are substituted for the norm features (pp. 82-83). The substitution of a voiceless coronal-alveolar stop for a postdorsal-velar stop, a [t/k] substitution, exemplifies this type of process. A [t] for [k] substitution would be labeled fronting, the production features of [k] are "fronted," the end product being [t].

Intelligibility

refers to a judgment made by a clinician based on how much of an utterance can be understood (p. 250). Although measurements of the degree of intelligibility remain subjective, they are generally related to the percentage of words that are understood by the listener (perceptual judgment). The perception of intelligibility can be influenced by many factors, including the number, type and consistency of speech sound errors. Measures of intelligibility for several different clinical populations are referenced in Box 8.2 page 251.

Unreleased

refers to a modification of stop-plosives in which the articulatory closure is maintained and not, as usual, released (p. 48). The symbol for this is an unreleased stop-plosive is [̚] placed following the consonant, for example [tɑp̚] indicates an unreleased [p]. Only stop-plosives can be unreleased.

Nonaspiration

refers to a sound which is typically aspirated (in this case, voiceless stop-plosives) produced without this aspiration (p. 48). The diacritic for unaspirated stop-plosives is [=] which is placed after the symbol in question. Therefore, [t=i] is the production of "tea" without the aspiration of [t].

Lowered tongue position

refers to a vowel which is produced with the tongue elevation somewhat lowered, perceptually in the direction of the next lowered vowel on the quadrilateral (pp. 50-51). A lowered [i] will attain certain [ɪ] like qualities but, again, still be perceived as an [i] vowel. A lowered [i] would be transcribed as [ɪ̞], with the t-shaped arrow pointing downward.

Assimilation

refers to adaptive articulatory changes in which one sound becomes similar to (or identical to) a neighboring sound (p. 30). Many assimilatory changes are natural consequences of articulatory adjustments which make speech easier and faster.

Prelinguistic behavior

refers to all vocalizations prior to the first word (pp. 112, 119-121).

Lateralization

refers to an articulatory variation in which the airstream is released laterally (p. 46). There is one lateral sound in General American English, [l]; for this sound the lateralization symbol would not be used. Clinicians often encounter lateral [s] and [z] which are considered misarticulations. The IPA symbols [ɬ] (voiceless) and [lʒ] (voiced) lateral alveolar fricatives, are used to transcribe these sounds (p. 41).

Palatalization

refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue approaches the palate (p. 44). This diacritic is only used for sounds in which their articulation does not involve the palate, for example dental or alveolar sounds. In this case, palatalized sounds are those produced with the tongue tip further back than is normally the case. Velar sounds, such as [k] and [g], can also be palatalized. In this case, palatalization refers to a more forward placement of active and passive articulators. Palatalized [k] and [g] sounds may be produced if they are in a phonetic context with [i], for example, in [kip]: The high-front vowel placement can move the [k] production more anteriorly.

Dentalization

refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue approaches the upper incisors (p. 44). It is only used with consonants that are not normally articulated with this place of articulation. Dentalized sounds are those produced with the tongue tip further forward than is normally the case.

Velarization

refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue approaches the velum (p. 46). A prominent example of a velarized sound is the production of the so-called dark l-sound. See pages 291-292 for additional information about the dark l-sound ([ɫ]).

Language disorder

refers to impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and/or other symbol systems (p. 4). A language disorder may involve one or more of the following areas: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Phonological disorder

refers to impaired comprehension of the sound system of a language and the rules that govern the sound combinations (p. 8). Several reports (for example Fey, 1992; Pollack and Rees, 1972) have documented that children with phonological disorders can say the particular sound (thus, they do not have difficulties with the actual speech sound production) but, for some reason, do not understand the pattern of phoneme usage within the language system. Phonemic inventory is the repertoire of phonemes used contrastively by an individual. It includes all the speech sounds the individual uses, including their specific production features.

Fortis

refers to relatively more articulatory effort, whereas lenis refers to comparatively less (p. 48). Most voiceless consonants are realized as fortis productions while voiced consonants are lenis. Due to the amount of articulatory effort, voiceless, fortis stop-plosives are typically aspirated while voiced; lenis stop-plosives are unaspirated. Exceptions to this statement have been previously noted.

Generative markedness

refers to sounds that are relatively more difficult to produce and found less frequently in languages (p. 74). The affricates are considered to be marked sounds; they are relatively difficult to produce and occur seldom in languages.

Phonological development

refers to the acquisition of speech sound form and function within a given language system (p. 112).

Item learning

refers to the child's acquisition of word forms as unanalyzed units rather than by contrasting phonemes to establish words (Cruttenden, 1981). Item learning occurs during the first-50-word stage. Ingram (1989) labeled a similar observation the presystematic stage (p. 126).

Appraisal

refers to the collection of relevant assessment data in at least four different areas: Case history, interviews with parents and other professionals, school and medical records, evaluation by the clinician (pp. 156-157). Data collection begins as you greet the client and observe family interaction

Coarticulation

refers to the constant positioning of the articulators as they move over a stretch of speech (p. 30). Ladefoged and Johnson (2010) describes coarticulation as the overlapping of adjacent articulations while Shriberg and Kent (2003) use the term to refer to speech modifications in which the production of a sound is influenced by other sounds around it, that is, by its phonetic context. The effects of coarticulation are clinically significant in that the surrounding phonetic context may assert a positive or negative articulatory influence on a specific sound.

Phonotactics

refers to the description of the allowed combinations of phonemes and in a particular language (p. 7). Both the inventory of phonemes and their possible combinations are unique and vary according to the particular language.

Code switching or code mixing

refers to the developmental process in which speakers alternate between L1 and L2 (p. 142). This may occur with one word being embedded in a sentence or as a phrase within a sentence.

Interference or transfer

refers to the errors that children make in their second language (L2) as a direct result of their knowledge of L1, their first language (p. 141). For example, certain similar speech sounds of L1 may be substituted for those in L2.

Subtractive bilingualism or language loss

refers to the fact that second language learners may lose skills and fluency in their native language as they become more proficient in English (p. 142).

Speech sound development

refers to the gradual articulatory mastery of speech sound forms within a given language (p. 112).

Minimal pair contrast therapy

refers to the therapeutic use of word pairs differing by one phoneme only (p. 327). These words, then, serve to establish phonemic contrasts not present in the child's phonological system. A child might not differentiate between stop-plosives and fricatives, realizing [s] as [t], and [f] as [p], for example. In one type of minimal pair therapy, word pairs such as fin and pin are used; [f], representing the fricatives, [p] the stop-plosives. The underlying principle of minimal pair contrast therapy is that by establishing the linguistically relevant contrast between [f] and [p], generalization will occur to other stops and fricatives.

Vocal play

refers to the third stage of the babbling period, typically occurring between 4 and 6 months of age. This stage is marked by longer strings of sound segments, prolonged vowel- and consonant-like productions often actualized with extreme variations in loudness and pitch (p. 120).

Articulation

refers to the totality of motor processes that result in speech (p. 4). It represents a highly complex activity in which - respiratory, phonatory, resonatory, and articulatory mechanisms included - as many as 100 muscles may be involved. In the articulatory mechanism alone up to 22 muscles may alter their degree of tension many times during the utterance of a simple sentence (Hanson, 1983). The sequencing and timing of speech muscle activity is an integral portion of articulation.

Manner of articulation

refers to the type of constriction the active and passive articulators generate (p. 24-25). This constriction may consist of a complete closure or a relatively wide opening between the articulators. In General American English, the manners of articulation consist of the stop-plosives, fricatives, nasals, affricates, glides, laterals, and rhotics.

Coda

refers to those segments following the peak (p. 33). These are also labeled syllable arresting sounds.

Distribution of speech sounds

refers to where the norm and aberrant productions occurred within the word (p. 224). Most articulation tests categorize this distribution according to three positions: initial, medial, and final. However, word-medial is an imprecise term. The categorization used in this text classifies distribution according to where the consonants occur in relation to the vowel nuclei, i.e., pre-, post-, or intervocalic. In contrast to written syllables, syllabication of spoken syllables remains problematic and is not precisely rule-governed.

Speech sounds

represent physical sound realities; they are end products of articulatory motor processes (p. 5).

Phonetic transcription

represents the attempt to reflect actualities of spoken language by written symbols (pp. 165-166). Using phonetic transcription is the best way to capture the client's speech sound realizations. Broad and narrow transcription provide the most précises analysis of speech are used universally among professionals.

Diagnosis

represents the end result of studying and interpreting all collected data leading to therapeutic decision making and prognostic predictions (pp. 156-157).

Jargon stage

represents the fifth and last of the babbling stages (10 months and older). It is characterized by strings of babbled utterances modulated by intonation, rhythm, and pausing. This stage may overlap with the first meaningful words (pp. 120-121).

transition from babbling to first words

shows many production similarities to those of the babbling stage (pp. 124-125). Stop productions followed by nasals and fricatives in primarily monosyllabic utterances occur to a high percentage in this transition.

Canonical babbling

stage four of the babbling period, is a collective term for reduplicated and nonreduplicated (or variegated) babbling stages. This is a typical stage of prelinguistic development from the age of 6 months on (p. 120). During this prelinguistic stage true babbling begins as the child begins to communicate to adults through imitation games with vocal productions. Reduplicated babbling is marked by similar strings of consonant-vowel productions, especially pertaining to the consonant-like babbles (p. 120). Nonreduplicated or variegated babbling demonstrates variation of both vowel- like and consonant-like realizations with typically smooth transitions between them. Reduplicated and nonreduplicated babbling stages do not necessarily follow one another sequentially. Nonreduplicated babbling does not seem to evolve out of reduplicated babbling (Mitchell and Kent, 1990) (p. 120).

Contrastive stress

starts to develop when children begin to talk in two-word utterances (p. 140). A developmental pattern has been observed: First, it seems, a single prosodic pattern for both words is maintained with a pause between them. Next, a tone unit (or sense- group) is established between them, i.e., the pause between the words disappears and one of the two words becomes more prominent within a single intonation contour. Toward the end of this process, a unifying rhythmic relationship between the words is achieved without a pause (Crystal, 1986). Although the acquisition of stress patterns begins at an early age, clearly before the age of two, true mastery of the whole prosodic feature system is achieved only by much older children, and may not be fully acquired until age 13.

Linguistic development

starts with the appearance of first words, includes meaningful sound productions. (p.119)

Phonetic placement methods

stress detailed instruction by the clinician on how the target sound is normally produced and then positioning the articulators accordingly (pp. 265-266). The phonetic features of the target sound are compared to those of the error sound in order to determine the necessary articulatory adjustments to be made. instructs the client how to position the articulators in order to produce a typical production.

Morphology

studies the structure of words; it analyzes how words are built out of morphemes, the basic unit of morphology (p. 2).

How do you guide a client though the spontaneous speech or carryover phase while still focusing on the client's articulatory goals?

systematic manner vary length of conversation time

Offglide

the second or end portion of the diphthong (p. 19). Thus, the diphthong that is typically heard in the word pie, [paɪ], has [a] as the onglide and [ɪ] as the offglide. Since diphthongs represent one phoneme (and not two), it is important to distinguish their transcription from two distinct vowels which occur one after the other. There are various ways to transcribe this distinction (see page 21). Note: The transcription of diphthongs varies from text to text and, of course, according to the actual pronunciation. The transcriptions used in this text are those which reflect the pronunciation of the author. Instructors will often have other transcriptions which they use to represent the diphthongs in question.

Inventory of speech sounds

typically denotes a listing of sounds that the client can articulate within normal limits (p. 223). However, some clients might demonstrate a regular production of a speech sound in one context but not in another. For example, a child might substitute t/s at the end of a word but realize [s] in a normal manner at the beginning of a word or syllable. In addition, children may realize a sound correctly but in the wrong context, i.e., as a substitution for another sound. This is exemplified by the child who substitutes [t] for all sh-sounds but uses [] as a substitution for [t]. Such inconsistencies provide important information and must be noted. In actuality, the inventory of speech sounds consists of all productions the client demonstrates, both norm and aberrant realizations.

Binary systems

use + and - signs to indicate presence or absence of distinctive sound features (p. 68). Both /m/ and /n/ are + nasal whereas /n/ is + coronal, /m/ is - coronal.

Shortening of a sound

uses a rounded u-type diacritic which is placed above the sound in question (pp. 53-54). Thus, [s̆] is an extra-short [s]. Unlike lengthening, different degrees of shortening are not marked.

Maximal oppositions approach

utilizes minimal word pairs as well (331-335). However, in direct contrast to the minimal opposition contrast therapy, target sounds are selected which are productionally quite different in respect to their distinctive features: Two sounds are selected which are not in the child's inventory and maximally different in their distinctive feature components. This intervention strategy appears to be especially effective with children who demonstrate moderate to severe phonological impairments.

Multiple oppositions approach

utilizes the child's collapse of phonemic contrasts within minimal pair therapy (pp. 337-338). Thus, several sounds which are produced the same, i.e., the phonemic contrasts are lost. Target selection is based on identifying the sounds that neutralize phonemic contrasts. The supposition is that by treating a larger number of contrasts several phonemic oppositions could be added to the child's system.

Natural Phonology

was designed to explain the orderly development of the phonological system in children on the basis of naturalness theories (p. 78). Natural phonology grew out of several concepts developed in generative phonology. According to Stampe, an innate, universal set of phonological processes is said to govern this development. The theory assumes that a child's innate phonological system is continuously revised inn the direction of the adult phonological system. Stempe proposed three mechanisms to account for these changes: (1) limitation, (2) ordering, and (3) suppression.

according to the metrical phonology the word potato has which one of the following stress patterns?

weak branching to "po" strong prancheing to "tato"; further divided into strong branching of "ta" weak branching of "to"

Phonetic transcription systems

were devised to document real speech events (p. 40). There is a long history of attempts to develop phonetic notation systems. One of these systems is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which originated at the end of the 1800's. The IPA has been revised several times, most recently in 2005. It is important to realize that the IPA is a dynamic, evolving system.

Phonological rules

were used in generative phonology to help explain actual phonetic realizations of surface forms (p. 71). Rules were generated which showed the transformation from the assumed underlying representation to the surface level realization. These theoretical concepts also underscore the construct that effective phonological descriptions are dependent on information from other linguistic levels, foremost morphological and syntactic information.

Sonority

when referring to speech sounds, is the loudness of a particular speech sound relative to others of equal length, stress, and pitch (p. 17). "There is roughly a 700-to-1 range of intensities between the weakest and strongest speech sounds made while speaking at a normal conversational level. The vowels are the strongest sounds but, even among these, there is a three-to-one range. The strongest vowel is the "aw" (as in "talk"), which is usually pronounced at three times the intensity of the weakest vowel, "ee" (as in "see"). The strongest of the consonants, the "r" sound, has about the same intensity as the "ee" vowel, but is two and a half times more intense than "sh" (as in "shout"); six times more intense than "n" (as in "no"); and 200 times greater than the weakest consonant, "th" (as in "thin") " (Denes and Pinson, 1973, p. 150-151).

Factors to consider when selecting a measure of articulation (p.160-163)

• The test's appropriateness for the age or developmental level of the client • The test's ability to supply a standardized score • The test's analysis of the sound errors • The test's inclusion of an adequate sample of the sound(s)relevant to the individual client at hand

Problems inherent to articulation tests include that they:

• examine sound articulation in selected isolated words • do not provide enough information about the client's phonological system • do not test all sounds in all the contexts in which the occur in General American English • The sounds actually tested do not occur in comparable phonetic contexts • Are selected probes into rather limited aspects of an individual's total articulatory behavior and/or abilities.

Advantages to using an articulation test

• relatively easy to give and scores • necessary time expenditure is usually minimal • provides quantifiable list of sounds production in different word positions • provide standardized cores

Therapy procedures for cycles training

•Establish a cycle: Each phoneme within a pattern should be targeted for 60 minutes per cycle. •Preparing word cards for therapy: •Structuring the Remediation Session: The following format is given for each session: o Review o Auditory bombardment (amplified auditory stimulation while the target words are read by the clinician) o Target word cards (utilizing objet and action words) o Production practice through experiential play o Stimulability probes o Auditory bombardment o Home program • (p. 343-344).

Consonant cluster problems

•Initial remarks (p. 313). •Therapeutic suggestions (p. 313): Production of word initial clusters (p. 314), production of word final clusters (p. 314), Production of word medial clusters (p. 314). •Coarticulatory conditions (pp. 314-316) include variables such as the length of the cluster, the position of the cluster in the word, and the coarticulation between the specific elements of the cluster.

Voicing problems

•Initial remarks (pp. 311-312). Voicing problems manifest themselves in the substitution of a voiced for a voiceless cognate, or a voiceless for a voiced cognate. •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 312-313): Auditory discrimination exercises, tactile feedback method, auditory enhancement method, whispering method, singing method, and developing voiced stop-plosive productions are contained in this section.

Misarticulations of [s] and [z]

•Phonetic description (p. 272): Norm productions of [s] and [z] are typically articulated in two different ways, as apico-alveolar or predorsal-alveolar fricatives (sibilants). They are both fricatives/longest sounds in duration. For production differences see Table 9.1 (p. 273). apico-alveolar (narrow opening between tongue tip and alveolar ridge. Sagittal grooving of tongue, lateral edges of tongue elevated) predorsal-alveolar (Tongue arches toward alveolar ridge, narrow opening between predorsal section of tongue and alveolar ridge. Sagittal grooving of tongue, lateral edges of tongue elevated.) •Linguistic function (pp. 272-273) [s] top five sounds Both [s] and [z] can occur initiating and terminating a syllable. Word-initiating and word-terminating consonant clusters with [s] and [z] can be found in Tables 9.2 (p. 274) and 9.3 (p. 274). morphophonemic function: Word-final clusters ending in [s] and [z] can be used for plurality, third-person singular, and possessives. Minimal pairs are often used to test the perceptual accuracy of the error production vs norm production. Sounds that are frequently contrasted [s] and [z] include [θ] and [ ð], and [ʃ] and [ʒ] and [t] and [d]. Appendix 9.1 (pp. 319-320). •Initial remarks (273) Disorders may be the result of hearing loss, minor structural changes (missing teeth), or tongue trust. •Tongue thrust (oral muscle pattern disorder) Box 9.1 (p. 275). Not everyone with tongue thrust develops [s] problems. Oral myofunctional therapy may facilitate in the correction of [s] difficulties. •Types of misarticulations Figure 9.2 (p. 277) -interdental -addental -lateral -palatal -strident -[t] for [s] substitution -nasal (organic and functional) Organic problems will usually have an effect on all speech sounds, especially those with high degree of occlusion and the buildup of air pressure (stops, fricatives, and affricates.) •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 278-281) include phonetic placement method (pp. 278-279) and several different sound modification methods (pp. 279-280) are outlined. Functional problems which lead to nasalized productions of [s] and [z] are discussed (pp. 280-281) as well as some advantages and disadvantages of beginning therapy with [s] versus [z] (p. 281). •Coarticulatory conditions are given which might prove favorable for the production of [s] and [z] (pp. 281-283). Word examples are given which follow a specific coarticulatory sequence (p. 282).

Misarticulations of [ʃ] and [ʒ]

•Phonetic description (p. 283): In norm productions, [ʃ] and [ʒ] are realized as voiceless respectively voiced coronal-postalveolar or coronal-prepalatal fricatives with lip rounding. •Linguistic function includes the frequency of occurrence of [ʃ] and [ʒ], consonant clusters and their morphophonemic function (pp. 283-284). Appendix 9.1 (p 321-322) contain some minimal pair words and sentences contrasting [ʃ] and [ʒ] with [s] and [z] and [t] and [d]. •Initial remarks (p. 284). •Types of misarticulations (p. 285). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 284-286): The phonetic placement method (pp. 284-285) and several sound modification methods (pp. 285-286) are provided. •Coarticulatory conditions are outlined which might prove favorable for the production of [ʃ] and [ʒ] (pp. 286-287). Word examples are given which follow a specific coarticulatory sequence based on whether the misarticulation is caused by tongue placement versus lack of lip rounding. Word lists are provided which demonstrate coarticulatory possibilities for both types of problems (p. 287).

Misarticulations of [θ] and [ð]

•Phonetic description (p. 303): [θ] and [ð], among the latest sounds to develop in the speech of children, are normally produced in two ways, as interdental or apico-dental (addental) voiceless (respectively voiced) fricatives. •Linguistic function (pp. 303-304). The frequency of occurrence for [θ] and [ð], their morphophonemic function, and consonant clusters with [θ] and [ð] (Table 9.9, p. 304) are outlined. Minimal pair words and sentences contrasting [θ] and [ð] to [s], [z], [t], and [d] can be found in Appendix 9.1 (p. 324). •Types of misarticulations (p. 304). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 304-306): Phonetic placement method (pp. 304-305), Sound modification methods (p. 305). •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed that might prove favorable for the production of [θ] and [ð] (pp. 305-306). Word examples are given which follow a specific coarticulatory sequence (p. 306).

Misarticulations of [f] and [v]

•Phonetic description (p. 307): [f] and [v] are voiceless and voiced labiodental fricatives. •Types of misarticulations (p. 307). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 307-308): Phonetic placement method (pp. 307-308), Sound modification methods (p. 308). •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed that might prove favorable for the production of [f] and [v] (p. 308). Word examples are given that follow a specific coarticulatory sequence (p. 308).

Affricate problems

•Phonetic description (p. 309): Affricates are not merely a stop followed by a fricative production. However, in an attempt to simplify the directions for their use with children, the treatment procedures will often be structured as if the goal is merely to fuse the stop with the fricative. See the discussion on page 309. •Types of misarticulations (pp. 309-310). •Therapeutic suggestions (p. 310): Phonetic placement method (p. 310), Sound modification methods (p. 310). •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed that might prove favorable for the production of [t] and [d] (pp. 310-311). Word examples are given which follow a specific coarticulatory sequence (p. 311).

Misarticulations of [k] and [g]

•Phonetic description (p.287): [k] and [g] are voiceless or voiced postdorsal-velar stop-plosives. •Linguistic function consisting of the frequency of occurrence of [k] and [g], phonotactics and morphophonemic function are outlined (pp. 287-288). Tables 9.5 and 9.6 (p. 288) contain consonant clusters with [k] and [g] while Appendix 9.1 (p. 322) gives examples of minimal word pairs and sentences contrasting [k] and [g] to [t] and [d]. •Initial remarks (p. 288). •Types of misarticulations (pp. 288-289). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 289-290): Phonetic placement method (pp. 288-289) and several different sound modification methods (pp. 289-290) are outlined. •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed which might prove favorable for the production of [k] and [g] (pp. 290-291). Word examples are given which follow a specific coarticulatory sequence (p. 291).

Misarticulations of [l]

•Phonetic description (pp. 291-292): [l] sounds are phonetically described as voiced apico-alveolar laterals. There are two varieties of [l] sounds in General American English, so-called "light" and "dark" [l]. •Linguistic function (p. 292). Frequency of occurrence, morphophonemic function, and consonant clusters with [l] (Table 9.7, p. 292) are provided while Appendix 9.1 (page 323) gives examples of minimal pair words and sentences contrasting [l] to [r], [w], and [j]. •Initial remarks (pp. 292-293). •Types of misarticulations (p. 293). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 293-294): Phonetic placement method (pp. 293-294), Sound modification methods (p. 294). •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed which might prove favorable for the production of [l] and [ɫ] (pp. 295-296). Examples are given for words which contain both [l] and [ɫ] (pp. 295-296).

Misarticulations of [r] and central vowels with r-coloring

•Phonetic description (pp. 296-297): There are many different forms of [r] articulations in General American English. The different types are usually placed into two broad categories, the so-called "bunched" and the "retroflexed" [r] productions. Bunched [r] articulations are phonetically classified as voiced mediodorsal-mediopalatal approximants, the retroflexed ones as voiced apico-alveolar approximants. The General American English vowels with r-coloring, [ɝ] and [ɚ], are central vowels. Both vowels show similar articulations, although lip rounding may be lacking when producing [ɚ]. The tongue actions for the rhotic vowels are similar to those for the rhotic consonants (p. 297). •Linguistic function outlines the frequency of occurrence of the consonantal [r] and the central vowels with r-coloring (p. 297). Table 9.8 (p. 298) contains consonant clusters with [r] while minimal pair words and sentences contrasting [r] with [l], [w], and [j] are contained in Appendix 9.1 (pp. 323-324). •Initial remarks (p. 298). •Types of misarticulations (p. 299). •Therapeutic suggestions (pp. 298-302): Phonetic placement method (pp. 298-300), Sound modification methods (p. 301), Where to begin therapy? (pp. 301-302). •Coarticulatory conditions are discussed which might prove favorable for the production of [r] and the central vowels with r-coloring (pp. 302-303). Word examples are given which contain [r] and the central vowels with r-coloring (pp. 302-303).