Midterm1

What is autoregulation? diagram?

In most tissues when arterial pressure changes there is a corresponding chang in blood flow in the same direction but the blood flow normally returns back to near normal levels = auto regulation

What affect withh Atropin have on the heart?

Increases HR, blocks the effects of Ach.

Vestibulospinal:

Indirect pathways of descending motor tract. influence neurons innervating extensor muscles in trunk and proximal portion of lower limbs; help maintain upright posture.

Reticulospinal:

Indirect pathways of descending motor tract. maintenance of posture.

Rubrospinal:

Indirect pathways of descending motor tract. upper neurons synapse in red nucleus. Similar to comparator function of cerebellum. Regulates fine motor control of muscles in distal part of upper limb.

How do COMT inhibitors work to treat parkinsons?

Inhibit dopamine metabolism, adjunct ot leodopa, Nausea, dry mouth, Hypotension Dystonia; muscle cramps work mainly in periphery, used only as an adjunct

What are the different rhythmicities/intrinsic rates of the heart?

Intrinsic rate of SA node discharge 70-80 times/min VS. 40-60/min for AV node and 15-50 for Purkinje fibers

Ischemia angina pectoris myocardial infraction

Ischemia - decreased blood supply which usually results in hypoxia • Angina pectoris - severe or intense chest pain over heart • Myocardial infarction (necrosis of cardiac muscle),

____ contracts before _____ in the heart. allowing____. ventricles contract ____. ____ and ___ may impar the conduction system of the heart producing?

atria, ventricle, filling of the ventricles. simultaneously. heart disease and ischemia (deficit blood supply and O2) abnormal heart rhythm or abnormal seqence of contraction

loss of muscle mass is called? muscle mass is added how?

atrophy add to size of myofibrils not the number, add actin and myosin filaments

Atropine /Propanolol) blocks binding of acetylcholine. This will cause a(n) ( increase /decrease) in heart rate. (Atropine/ Propranolol ) is a beta blocker, which means it blocks binding of beta adrenergic receptors, therefore this will cause a(n) (increase/ decrease ) in heart rate.

atropine increase propranolol decrease

How does acute/short term control of the microcirculation blood flow occur?

autoregulation and vasomotion Rapid changes in blood flow occurring within seconds to minutes

What substances cause vasoDILATION in the microcirculation?

bardykinin, histamine, prostaglandins

valves have a _____ cire. they are rich in ____. lines by___. attached to_____. _____ is the dense ct framework

fibroelastic CT core Collagen. endothelium cordae tendonae cardiac skelton

Sarcoplasm of smooth muscle is rich in ____ mainly ______. also contains _____ and _____ esp by sarcolemma,

filaments (actin) dense plaques numerous caveolae(small vesicles)

What does the naming of a sensory nerve indicate?

first half indicates origin, second half indicates termination

What is S1? What does it signal? What is happening?

first heart sound,"lub", begining of systole, ventricles contract and AV valves close (mitral - L, tricuspid - R)

types of atrophy? casues?

focal atrophy - nerve damage systemic atrophy - whole body inactivity, diseases, bed-ridden, casts, starvation, aging, deficient diet, metabolism, nerve innervation to muscles

What is Bells Palsy

lesion of facial nerve, usual unilateral, paralyzed facial distortion, drooping eyelind, sagging of mouth, etc. herpes as potential cause. resolves

How does carvadopa/Levodopa treat parkinsons?

Prevents peripheral L-dopa metabolism, Dopamine replacement, Stimulation of D1 & D2 receptors Stimulation of D1 can cause psychotic symptoms one of the most effective treatment options

Functions of cartilage?

Provides flexibility &support • Reduces friction &absorbs shock at joints • Provides strength & elasticity • Maintains shape of certain organs • Essential for growth of long bones

Pulse pressure =?

Pulse pressure = SBP - DBP

What does the lymphatic system do? What does it contain? What doesnt it contain? rich in _____

Recovers fluids & protein from tissue spaces. Lacks RBCs but contains lymphocytes & WBCs -in lipids following a fatty meal

Where is smooth muscle found? CT? Nervous stimulation?

arteries, organs, veins, has CT but not precise some nervous stimulation, mostly not, just gap junctions

What areas have the greatest sympathetic nervous system innervation?

arterioles > > Small arteries > venules > Large arteries > > capillaries

explain the sarcoplasmic reticulum in smooth muscle

less developed in smooth muscle, less abundant, has caveolae (similar to transverse tubule in skeletal muscle), contraction dependant on extracellular Ca concentration

smaller than the maximal sarcomere length then the force is _________, ________leads to __________ in tension.

less than maximal collision between actin and myosin filaments decrease

WHy is the ligamentum arteriousum important during development?

needed for O2 from placenta at birth turns to a ligament (problem if it doesnt becasue then arterial and venous blood mixes. )

What is juvenile rheumatoid arthritis

no rheumatoid factor in the serum

How does tachy arrythmia decrease CO?

not enough time to let ventricle fill during diastole

___ is ventricular contraction ___ valves open, ____ valves closed ____ is atrial contraction,____ valves open, ___ valves closed

systole - semilunar, cuspid diastole - cuspid, semilunar

during the cardiac cycle a period of contraction is? when what occurs?

systole, ventricles contract

What dysfunctions of systole and dyastole can cause heart failure? Ejection fraction?

systolic not pumping anough blood (ejection fraction <40%) diastolic not filling enough blood (normal ejection fraction)

___ penetrate from outside to interior or SR in muscle cells. these are important for?

t tubule. depolarization from the membrane into the t tubules to the SR where Ca is released

tachycardia brady cardia irregular/unsynchronized contraction is?

t= >100bpm b=<60bpm cardiac fibrilation

What can decrease CO?

tachy/rapid arrythmias heart disease

Monocytes

largest of the white blood cells, phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments, and other debris, chronic infection

bone matrix stains what color?

pink. due to collagen

at rest myosin does or doesnt interact with actin on a skeletal muscle cell?

Does

2 functions of microcirculation

1. Exchanges nutrients, water, gases, hormones and waste products a. Diffusion (concentration gradients) b. Bulk Flow (pressure gradients) 2. Regulates vascular resistance to maintain adequate arterial pressure

What is S3? What does it signal? What is happening?

3rd heart sound, may signal cardiac abnormality due to rapid filling of ventricles heard in younger ppl and patients with heart failure

What are the three neurotransmitters depleted in Parkinson Disease (PD)?

Dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

Group Ia vs. II sensory afferents

Ia dynamic responce to stimulus II static responce to stimulus

What is S4? What does it signal? What is happening?

4th heart sound, may be due to abnormality, atrial systole blood movement due to atrial contraction heard in conditions that increase resistance to filling

repair in cartilage?

Poorly done, periosteum not present in articular cartilage cartilage.

end-systomic volume

50-60mL volume left in the ventricles after ejection

ejection fraction

60% fraction of end-diastolic volume that is ejected

Reynold Number

A dimensionless number in fluid mechanics Convenient parameter for predicting if a flow condition will be laminar or turbulent. o Less than 2100: flow tends to be laminar o Greater than 4000: turbulent o Transitional Flow prevails between these two limits

How is automaticity acheived (4 things)

Lesser negativity of SA nodal fiber during the resting potential Inactivated (blocked) sodium channels at this membrane potential Slow calcium channels can open "leaky" sodium channels make membrane potential less negative causing RMP to gradually rise to threshold potential

What is vasomotor tone? How does O2 levels affect this?

Vessels in partial state of contraction for control of blood flow in the microcirculation -requires O2, activity changing O2 causes dialtation/ constriction, increased metabolic activity uses O2 conc. decreaes and the vessels dilate

Normal cardiac output?

60-100 x 70mL 4,000 - 7,000 ml/ min 4-7L/min

2 ways of Ca mobilization

(a) Transfer to blood (b) By hormones

Regulation of smooth muscle by hormones. _____ binds to its receptor (_____). that activates ____ and ____. This converts ____to _____ which has what function -This phosphorylates ___, ______ing it. What is the normal function of this?

- Epinephrine (transmembrane) - heterotrimeric g protein and adenylate cyclase -AC converts ATP to cAMP -cAMP binds to/activates protein kinase -PK phos's myosin light chain kinase, inactivating it. -MLCK active normally combines with Ca-CaM to phosphorylate myosin light chain enabling myosin crossbridge formation to actin filament for contraction

Why the smooth muscle contraction is slower than the skeletal muscle contraction?

- In smooth muscle, influx of Ca2+ is required from extracellular fluid and sarcoplasmic reticulum. This makes Ca2+ ions to diffuse longer distance and slows down the rate of action potential propagation between smooth muscle cells, resulting in the slower rate of cross bridge formation between actin and myosin filaments

What are the characteristics of smooth muscle that are distinguishable to skeletal muscle?

- Slow cycling myosin cross bridges to actin and longer contaction - Less energy to sustain contraction - Max force of contraction is greater in smooth muscle

three parts of a reflex arc?

-Afferent limb(sensory receptors and axons) that carries information to the CNS detect stimulus. -A central component (synapses and interneurons within the CNS) feed into CNS -Efferent limb (motor neurons) that causes the motor response

function of lymphatic system

- blind ended lymph cappliary, recovers fluids and protein from tissue spaces, flow back to systemic circulation, lymph leaving the GI after a fatty meal contain lipids -wall structure is even thinner and floppier than veins

How does the nervous system control microcirculation blood flow

-Affects blood flow in large segments of the systemic circulation -Sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves innervate blood vessels -Neurotransmitter (norepinephrine) stimulates alpha receptors

treatment for parkinson?

-Carbidopa/levodopa -Dopamine agonists -MAO inhibitors -comt inhibitors -anticholinergic agents

Spinothalmic tract?

-Conveys pain, temperature, light touch, pressure, tickle, and itch Three neuron system primary - periphery to posterior horn of spinal cord Synapse with interneurons secondary - cross to opposite side, enter spinothalamictract, ascend to thalamus tertiary - thalamus to somatic sensory cortex

What "special circumstances" lead to nervous system control of blood flow?

-body temp regulation may need to shift blood flow -shifting blood flow to muscle during exercise

What is TRAP? what is the triad of perkinsons? early symptoms of parkinsons? Tremor? Cogwheeling and masked facies?

-Tremor, regidity, akenesia, posture -TRAP, Dementia, and Autonomic symptoms -slowed due to rigidity, aches, pains, paresthesias(tingling), numbness, coldness -Tremor initially unilateral, 2-4 cycles/sec, occurs at rest and absetn during sleep. -cogwheeling - type of rigidity catch and release with resistance to passive movement -masked facies - face muscles dont move much

How much dopamine levels is lost before parkinsons is symptomatic? Why dont we see them before?

60-80% • Compensatory mechanisms • Increase dopamine production by remaining cells • Increase afferents to dendrites of other dopaminergic neurons

Stroke volume

70mL ventricles empty this amout more important than end-diastolic volume

Systolic murmurs found in pts who are?

-anemic, less blood cells, lower viscosity, increases reynolds number, increases turbulence

What does a depressed ST segment imply? elevated? to what levels is alarming?

-depressed (0.5mm or more) it can give clues with regard to whats going on with the cardiac muscle (myocardial ischemia or digoxin toxicity) -elevation (1mm or more) may indicate cardiac injury, S.T.E.M.I - ST (segment) elevation myocardial infraction

Veins

<1mm-4cm larger lumen, thinner wall, thicker adventitia, than arteries. layering of veins is indistinct compared to arteries. venules 5-20um, few smooth muscle cells or only pericytes

What is the effects of histamine on the circulatory system? when is it released?

-inflammatory responce -released in responce to injury -increase permeability of capillaries to t-cells+ -causes vasodilation in the long term (not like endothelin which is short term vasoconstriction to prevent blood loss)

_____ valve betwen R atrium and ventricle. ____ valve between L A and V _____ valve between body and R ventricle _____valve bewteen body and L ventricle

-tricuspid/ AV valve -bicuspid/mitral -pulmonary semilunar -aortic semilunar

What is the effects of angiotensin on the circulatory system? when is it released?

-vasoconstrictor -released in responce to decreased renal blood flow

What is the effects of epinephrine on the circulatory system? where is it released from? what receptors does it act on?

-vasocontricts AND vasodilates (lungs w/ b2 receprtors) -released from adrenal medulla -stimulates alpha1, beta2 receptors

How does intramembranous ossification occur?

1)ossification center appears in fibrous CT membrane 2) bone matrix/osteoid secreated by osteoblasts - become osteocytes as they are surrounded by bone matrix 3)bv woven into bone network of trabeculae 4) bone collar of compact bone formed, osteoblasts on the outside backed by dense CT and formation of periosteum membrane

order of the cardiac electrical conduction system monitor HR with?

1)sinoatrial node 2)atrioventricular node 3)AV bundle (of HIS) 4) r. l. bundle branches 5) purkinje fibers holter monitor

What are the 5 stages of parkinsons?

1- unilater 2-bilateral 3- bilateral, posture imbalance 4- bilteral, pusture imbalance, pt. needs help 5- bed ridden

Arryhthmogenesis

1. Abnormal impulse generation Abnormal rhythmicity of the pacemaker Shift of the pacemaker from SA node to other parts of the heart Spontaneous generation of abnormal impulses in almost any part of the heart 2. Abnormal impulse conduction Blocks in transmission of impulses through the heart Abnormal pathways of impulse transmission

Factors affecting BP?

1. Age 2. Gender 3. Diet 4. Weight 5. Pregnancy 6. Behavioral (smoking, Etoh intake, illicit drugs, medications)

importance of myosin heads

1. Can bind to active sites on the actin molecules to form crossbridges. 2. Attached to the rod portion by a hinge region that can bend and straighten during contraction. 3. Are ATPase enzymes: activity that breaks down adenosine triphosphate (ATP), releases energy. Energy is used to bend the hinge region of the myosin molecule during contraction.

As blood flows through one arterial vascular segment after another: 1. Number of vessels: 2. Diameter of vessels: 3. Total cross· sectional area: 4. Velocity of blood flow: 5. Pressure: 6. Vascular resistance:

1. Number of vessels: increase 2. Diameter of vessels: decrease 3. Total cross· sectional area: increase 4. Velocity of blood flow: decrease 5. Pressure: decrease 6. Vascular resistance: decrease (segment) increase(individual tube)

cardia conduction system pathway(5)

1. S-A node: pacemaker normal rhythmic self-excitatory impulses are generated. to the atria 2. Internodal pathways: conduct impulses from the S-A node to the A-V node 3. A-V node: impulses from the atria are delayed/slowed propogation before passing into the ventricles (0.04sec) 4. A-V bundle: conducts impulses from the atria to the ventricles 5. Purkinje fibers: conducts cardiac impulses to all parts of the ventricles

3 basic steps in sensory transduction

1. stimulus arrives at receptor 2. ion channels opened, depolarization 3. intial change in membrane potential is the generator potential, bring membrane potential closer to threshold. maybe leads to AP

Mean arterial pressure? How to measure non invasivley?

100 mmHg -Arterial Pressure = CO x PR (PeriferalResistance = total resistance in systemic circulation) -determined by volume of blood in arteriole system -avg. pressure that pushes blood through systemic circulation -measured by sphigomonamater

End diastolic volume

120-130 ml end of diastole volume in each ventricle a.k.a. pre-load

Heart weight? location? volume of blood pumed?

250-300g(f-m) middle mediastinum 10million L/year

What is S2? What does it signal? What is happening?

2nd heart sound, "dub," end of systole aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves close

3 elements of ground substance in cartilage?

3 GAGs hyauronic acid chondroitin sulfate keratan sulfate

arterioles capillaries

<5mm, thin intimaminimal amount of smooth muscle, less elastic tissue,typically has wider companion venule smallest BV, 7-9um. accomadotes 1 RBC, wall of squamous epi, basal lamina, pericytes (dont have the 3 coats)

Explain thermodilution? risks?

A cold solution (ex. normal saline) is injected into the right atrium from a proximal catheter port. ◦ This solution causes a decrease in blood temperature, which is measured by a thermistor (sensor) placed in the pulmonary artery catheter ◦ The decrease in temperature is inversely proportional to the dilution of the injectate Pneumothorax, dysrythmias, perforation of the heart chamber, tamponade and valve damage

regulation of smooth muscle. Innervated by ____ that secrete neurotransmitters from ____ neurotransmitters? Hormones? receptors present on ____ for _____

ANS - varicosities Ach and Norepi epi and oxytocin Receptors present on plasma membrane; which neurotransmitters or hormones bind determines response

myosin globular heads are sites of _____ that use _____ to?

ATPase, ATP. shift their linkage thus acting like a ratchet and making new linkages to shorten the sarcomere

______ (NT) from the parasympathetic nervous system reduces the rate of spontaneous depolarization by pacemaker cells by increasing the number of open __ channels, and decreasing the number of open _ _ channels. __ _ (NT) from the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate by opening _ _ channels and closing __ channels.

Acetylcholine, K, Ca, Norepinephrine, Ca, K

Neuromuscular junction what is released here? causing? electrical impulse carried by? this triggers?

Ach depolarization of membrane/wave. T tubules Ca from SR

Frank Starling Law mechanism?

As stretch increases(typiicall due to increased filling), the volume of blood ejected with each systolic contraction (stroke volume) increases Intrinsic ability of heart to adapting to changing of the loads increased stretch = increased contractility

What are the causes of parkinsons relating to genetics?

Associated with early onset • Small minority of cases • Autosomal dominant PARK 1,3,4,5. • Autosomal recessive PARK 2,6,7,9,10 and PINK1

Two types of actin?

Both thin filaments globular / g actin come together into double helix to form the filamentous / F actin

facial muscles innervated by

CN VII facial nerve

How do you measure cardiac output?

CO = HR x SV volume of blood that flows per unit of time

SR in muscle cells has rich store of ?

Ca

Uses of Ca?

Ca for muscle contraction, nerve and enzyme activity, membrane permeability regulation, blood coagulation

Relaxation in smooth muscle? (4steps)

Ca must be removed, but smooth muscle can remain contracted longer than skeletal and cardiac muscle cells 1) Intracellular calcium levels decrease by SERCA or calcium is pumped out of the cell 2) Calmodulin released from complex with calcium 3) Myosin phosphatase removes phosphate from myosin head 4) Myosin detaches from actin very slowly

What is the frank starling Law?

Cardiac muscle Stretch of the heart increases force of contraction. due to increase in sensitivity of contraction to Ca and closer interation between actin and myosin. ensures the ejection of extra blood is suffecient

What happens are HR increases?

Cardiac output increases up to a point Eventuall ventricular filling will be comprimised and over utilization of substrates will limit CO/ HR

Elastic Arteries Muscular arteries

Conducting-Pulmonary trunk, aorta, common carotid, subclavian smooth muscle producing elastic membrane. contains vasa vasorum for blood supply Distributing- tunica media is dominant, smooth muscle, contract and produce pumping for artery

Electrocardiogram? What do you look for to say the heart is normal.

Continuous record of cardiac electrical activity Provides info about rate and rhythm of excitation as well as pattern of conduction, extent, location, and progress of injury of the heart. expect to see p wave preceeed every qrs and see similar size and shape p wave and normal size and shape qrs wave and a normal pr interval about .12 seconds HR 60-100 bpm

What are the different dopamine receptor families?

D1 Family: D1, D5, stimulate cAMP production by adenylate cyclase D2 Family: D2, D3, D4, induce inhibition of adenylate cyclase

What are the 5 dopamine receptors? Which related to parkinsons?

D1 and D2 - most relevant to PD dopamine inhibits muscle activity that lets muscle movement be smooth as Ach stimulates movement. D1, D5 - stimulate cAMP(post-synaptic) D2,D3, D4 - inhibit adenylate cyclase (pre and post syn)

In parkinsons Dopamine is _______, thus _________influences are lost and ______ mechanisms are unopposed • Therefore, neurons of basal ganglia (controls _____) are overstimulated leading to ______ muscle tone, _______ and _______

DEPLETED inhibitory excitatory movement EXCESS TREMORS & RIGIDITY

What is the order of the pericardium layers starting from the inside of the heart to outside?

Endocardium->myocardium->epicardium (visceral layer of serous pericardium)->pericardial cavity (houses serous fluid)->parietal layer of serous pericardium->fibrous pericardium

True or False: Cartilage have better repair capability than bones due to the present of stems cells in cartilage.

False

. True or False Activated PKA by epinephrine/norepinephrine-initiated cellular cascade decreases cytosolic Ca2+ concentration

False - PKA increases Ca2+ concentration

What is occuring during the phases of action potential in a working cell or the heart?

Fast responce -RMP potential at rest -90mV -Phase0 excited, increase in MP,Na+ moves in via fast Na channels depolarizes, -Phase 1, K channels open, K+ leaves, early repolarization, -Phase 2, the slow opening Ca channels (Ca++ in) that remain open for longer than Na channels, plateau, repolarization -Phase 3, K continutes to leave cell, late repolarization -Phase 4 cell return to resting mem potention. Na/K ATPase pump, pump Na out and K in. Na/Ca exchange Ca out/Na in

Poiseuilles Law?

Fluid flows when a pressure gradient exists Volume of fluid flowing through a rigid tube per unit time (flow) is proportional to the pressure difference between the ends of the tube behavior of circulation sometimes deviates from the predictions

DHPR receptor?

For excitation contraction coupling • Dihydropyridine • L-type voltage gated Ca2+ channel • DHPR has conformational change as action potential travels down T tubule • Causes conformational change in RYR that releases Ca2+ into myoplasm

What is SERCA?

For excitation contraction coupling • sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase • SERCA is the most abundant protein in the SR of skeletal muscle • Distributed throughout the longitudinal tubules and the terminal cisternae • It transports two molecules of Ca ++ into its lumen for each molecule of ATP hydrolyzed -without this the muscle could not contract again

How can iron leads to parkinsons disease?

Found to be increased by 50% in substantia nigra of PD brains • Increased serum iron levels may be associated with decreased PD risk -plays role in oxidative metabolism and NT synthesis

What is responsible for hormonal control in the cardiac muscle cell? neural regulation? What affect does Ach have?

H: epinephrine N: norepi They bind to beta adrenergic receptor, activates the heterotrimertic g protein, activates adenylate cyclase, increases cAMP which increases PKA activity which phosphorylates proteins (ryanidine receptor and ca channel) increasing the accumulation of Ca ions in the SR leading to muscle contraction Ach binds to muscarinic receptor inhibits the gprotein cascade leading to less contraction.

What conditions can alter the contractile state of the heart? how does this affect stroke volume?

Hypoxia, loss of myocardium, drugs, etc. The frank starling curves are lower, the stroke volume does not increase as much as it normaly would with increased ventricular stretch/filling

JG cells? found where?

Kidney, modified smooth muscle cell, produce hormone (renin)

What factors signal changes in development of collateral circulation? what will this control?

Long term control of microcirculation - A1ternate routes - Result of blocked blood flow to tissue or relative lack of oxygen to level of metabolism - Especially important in the heart - coronary arteries may become blocked and accessary routes may form around the block

What factors signal changes in tissue vascularity? What will this control?

Long term control of microcirculation - May result from constant lack of oxygen or stretch - Age dependent, change more rapid in younger individuals - Influenced by aerobic exercise

excitation contraction coupling? Involves?

Mechanism where an action potential causes muscle fiber contraction. • Sarcolemma • Transverse (T) tubules: invaginations of sarcolemma • Terminal cisternae • Sarcoplasmic reticulum: smooth ER • Triad: T tubule, two adjacent terminal cisternae • Ca2+ ions • Troponin

What causes edema?

Medications, infections, pregnancy, small vessel leak, release fluid into surrounding tissues, bee stings, bug bites, skin infections, allergies etc.

Blood Flow measure? most important determinants are?

Most important determinants of blood flow are ΔP(pressure, fairly consistent) and r (radius of tube, largest compenent) N is viscosity (mostly constant) L length of tube(constant)

Relaxation in smooth muscle occurs when

Myosin phosphatase removes phosphate from myosin

What is Nebulin? Titin?

N :Function is to serve as a ruler to gauge the length of the F-actin filament during assembly • Large protein (600-900 kDa) T: • Elastic chains of amino acids; make muscles extensible and elastic; like a spring • Extremely large protein (~3000 kDa)

What are TRP proteins?

Nocireceptors. Thermal receptor proteins, each has a specific temperature that they are activated. they are important for determining temperature change. TRPV1 activated by capsaicin

How does spicy food get phyical reactions?

Nocireceptors. capscacin causes TRPV1 to remain open, it lets in ions into the cell which creat action potential in the CNS causing burning stinging and itching sensations. if open long enough it can overload the mitochondria causing localized dysfunction

How do you measure resistance to flow?

Not measured by any direct means (calculated from P and Flow) Depends on the diameter of blood vessels first should be R rearrangement of blood flow measure

oseoarthritis vs. rheumatoid arthritis

O: thinned cartilgae in joints. wear and tear. noninflammatory. osteophytes/bone spurs, narrowed joint space R: swollen/inflammed synovial membrane, abnormal immune responce leads to inflammation and vasodilation causing fluid buildup. causes joint stiffness (ankylosis), deformity, articular catilage degenerates

in an electrocardiogram what do each of the part represent?

P wave -atrial depolarization QRS complex -ventricals depolarizing (b4 contraction) t wave -ventricles repolarizing QT interval - measures ventricular de and re polarization, 0.35seconds, QTc - QT interval, corrected for HR PR interval - PR interval - The delay in the AV node, normal is 0.12 seconds ST segment--isoelectric, baseline, lies on same level as PR. when is is elevated or depressed give clue to myocardial damage or injury

Where does the heart receive sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation? What effects do they have?

PS: SA and AV, Ach reduces rate of spontaneous depolarizations, open K+ channels, closes Ca ++ channels, decrease HR S: all areas, NorEpi acts on alpha1/2 and beta1 receptors, opens Ca channels and closes K channels, HR increases contration force increases

Ca mineral homeostasis?

PTH - from PT glands promotes Ca reabsorption from bone (a) Blood Ca levels raised via uptake from GI tract (b) Acts on kidneys to decrease loss of Ca increases serum calcium Calcitonin - Opposite effect from PTH. Promotes Ca into bone (a) Lowers blood Ca levels by decreasing uptake from GI (b) Acts on kidneys to increase loss of Ca

What affects blood viscosity?

Percentage of blood that is cells Greater the Hct hematocrit, greater the friction Contribution is minimal

pericarditis? cardiac tamponade? pericardiocentesis?

Pericarditis - inflammation of serous membranes of the pericardium • Cardiac tamponade - blood in the pericardial cavity • Pericardiocentesis - a procedure which removes fluid or blood from the pericardial cavity

Inflammation of CT and aponeurosis in the foot common on runners

Plantar fascitis

How do anticholinergic agents work to treat parkinsons?

Restore cholinergic/dopamine balance by reducing levels of acetylcholine, Peripheral anticholinergic (constipation) effects, Central effects at higher doses, Not well-tolerated with advanced age

Sympathetic to SA node & cardiac muscle = PSNA(vagus) to SA node =

S= increase HR PS=decrease excitability of AV node, decrease HR

What heart fibers display the greatest self-excitation (automaticity)? Where else? Why is the SA node the pace maker? What is this called?

SA node AV node, perkinje fibers -it can deplaroize, and recover at a rate much faseter than the other cells with automaticity can. Called Overdrive suppression

SVR?

SVR, systemic vascular resistance, is frictional resistance to blood flow, total resistance within systemic circulation

Secondary causes of parkinsons disease?

Secondary Parkinsonism • Postencephalitic • Arteriosclerotic • Drug-induced • CO, manganese toxicities • Brain tumors or trauma • Syphilis

excitation contraction in cardiac muscle relaxation?

Similar to skeltal muscle AP along sarcolema to T tubules, allows Ca ions to be released, ryanadine receptor in SR opens for Ca release into sarcoplasm of cell, insitiate muscle contraction SERCA plays largest role in geting Ca back out of sarcoplasm as well as 3Na-1Ca antiporter, and carcolemma Ca pump.

three types of muscle, volunary or involuntary? striated of unstriated?

Skeletal (voluntary, striated) Cardiac (involuntary, striated) Smooth (involuntary, unstriated)

How does long term control of the micorcirculation occur?

Slow change in blood flow (hours, days, weeks) May involve increase or decrease in sizes and numbers of vessels supplying the tissue Provides "fine tuning" of blood flow through tissues/organs

_____, _____ and ____ account for 90% of vascular resistance. pressure ___ progressively. Decrease in arterial pressure in each segment is ______ proportional to the vascular resistance in the segment

Small arteries, arterioles & capillaries falls directionally

Eosinophils

Stain red, two-lobed nucleus, important in the defense against certain worm parasites, allergic reactions, asthma

Streamlined vs. Turbulent flow?

Streamlined Flow Fluid exerts least resistance to flow Concentric layers of fluid slip past each other Turbulent Flow Crosscurrents

3 sites of opening into the right atria?

Superior and Inferios Vena Cava, coronary sinus

Most bones are connected by fluid-filled joint space called

Synovial Joint

__ disorders ar the most common cause of orofacial pain

TMJ

First order neurons? found where

The primary afferent neurons that receive the transduced signal and send the information to the CNS in dorsal root or spinal cord ganglia

infoldings of the heart interior that prevent suctional effects on the heart wall;further specializations of tc that are attached to chordae tendinae of A-V valves.

Trabeculae carnae, papillary muscles

Intercalated discs at the_______level are zig-zag structures joining 2 adjacent cardiac m cells. Each intercalated disc includes sections of -------, ------, and ------- (two types of coupling) Therefore, not every cardiac m cell receives nerve innervation & nerve endings only modulate contraction.

Transmisison EM. desmosomes & intermediate junctions (structural coupling) & gap junctions (electrical coupling).

What allows AP to go deep inside the muscle cell/ sarcolemma?

Tranverse tubules

Two neurons in the motor system?

Upper motor neurons: directly or through interneurons connect to lower. in motor cortex -Lower motor neurons: axons leave the CNS, extend through PNS to skeletal muscles. Cell bodies in anterior horns of spinal cord and in cranial nerve nuclei of brainstem

Compliance of the arterial system?

Vessels expand in proportion to compliance when blood in them is under pressure, eleastic properties With age, aorta becomes less compliant and aortic pressure rises more for a given increase in aortic volume Veins have greater volume capacity

Two ways smooth muscle cells are regulated by nervous system?

Visceral: Unitary, cells connected by gap junctions so that thedepolarization from the NT from the variscosities on the nerve fiber along the top of the cells can spread from one cell to another Multi-Unit: each cell is stimulated independently by a neurotransmitter released from autonomic nerve varicosities No neuromuscular junctions like in skeletal muscle

In most instances hypertrophy of cardiac muscle is_____. This is mainly due to ____. ____ is importan, beneficial for this reason.

abnormal. high blood pressure aerobic exercise

Coronary artery bypass surgery

With ACAD (atherosclerotic coronary artery disease), the narrowing of the coronary arteries may be so severe that the patient can barely walk a few steps & has severe angina. He is then a candidate for coronary artery bypass surgery.

What is the Z disk? i BAND? a BAND? h ZONE? M line?

Z disk: filamentous network of proteins. Serves as attachment for actin myofilaments • I bands: from Z disks to ends of thick filaments • A bands: length of thick filaments • H zone: region in A band where actin and myosin do not overlap • M line: middle of H zone; delicate filaments holding myosin in place

when looking at a microscope view of the dark areas are? the light areas are? the faint line in the light areas are?

a bands. i bands. z lines

Function of bone

a) Framework of the body, supports and protects soft tissue and organs b) Act as levers that multiply forces generated during contraction and transform them into body motions/movements c) Mineral Homeostasis - Ca reservoir. Maintained at 9-11mg/100ml. d)site of blood cell production e)site of fat storage

endochondral ossification

a)starts as hyline cartilgae in bone like shape. condrocytes inside, perichondrium outside with chondroblasts which will become chondrocytes b)cells in center diffusion wont reach, will calcify, outside become periosteum with bv's, bone collar c) bv's move into middle becomes cancellous bone, still bone collar, bone growth moving out and up d) at the ends the centers calcify, end up with a line across the epiphsis, e)epiphyseal plate eventually seals, then bone growth in length stops

What signals change short term/ acute microcirculation control. examples of something that vasodilates and one vasoconstrictor

a. Oxygen demands decreased [O2] → vessels relax → blood flow increased b. Release of vasoactive substances -EDRF (endotherliam derived relaxation factor)(probably nitric oxide) → relaxation of vascular smooth muscle ACH, histamine, ADP, ATP may also be involved -Endothelin (vasoconstrictor) - in responce to tissue damage, decrease blood flow to minimize blood loss

Factors influencing pulse pressure?

a. Stroke volume higher SV, high pressure b. Compliance higher compliance, lower pressure (and lower SV)

4 factors contributing to blood turbulence

a. high flow velocity b. large tube diameter c. high fluid density d. low viscosity combine to form reynolds number

pascinin corpuscle adapts fast how?

accomadation - Resulting from progressive inactivation of the sodium channels in the nerve fiber membrane Viscoelastic structure - Receptor potential appears at the onset of compression but disappears within a fraction of a second even though the compression continues

in the A band you have? i band you have? z band

actin and myosin just actin actin with other proteins that stabalize and show in staining

myofibrils made up of? ________ results in obvious striations. this is accomplished through?

actin and myosin (myofilaments) precise alignments interactions with additional types of proteins, e.g., dystrophin.

What is occuring at the level of myosin and actin in a relaxed muscle cell? contracted muscle cell?

actin and myosin myofilaments overlap slightly. visible H zone. as contraction occurs actin and myosin myofilaments slide past and z disks move closer together, sarcomere shortens Fully contracted a bands equal to length of myosin dont narrow, H zone dissappear, actin overlap in center of sarcomere

What is happeneind in muscular dystrophy?

actin and myosin not held in proper register. not well aligned.

In the heart contraction begins a few milicseconds after ____ and continues until_____

action potential begins a few miliseconds after it ends

APD?

action potential duration, time period from depolarization to repolarization

What does active phospholipase C do?

activated phospholipase C cleaves phospholipids into DAGs (diacylglycerols) and IP3s (inositol triphosphates). These act as second messangers that will activate Ca channels

Flexor withdrawl/ hot stove reflex

activation of nociceptor, important for balance and posture. polysynaptic pain activates flexion reflex afferents feeds into spinal cord/nervous system polysynaptic interactions, some activating some inhibitory. Activate flexor muscle and inhibit antagonistic extensor muscle. initiates the opposite effect on the other side of the body. results in crossed extension reflex

technique to clear a clogged artery using a ballon into the coronary artery thats inflatted to flatted the walls

angioplasty

Bone only grows by ______ to a surface, different from _____. each osteocyte is within a ______ and immersed in ______. the processes of the oteocyte project into _____

apposition cartilage lacuna tissue fluid ccanaliculi

What makes cancellous bone strong?

arches to distribute stress to outter sides where the bone is thicker

How does DAG act as a second messanger? How does IP3 work?

binds on plasma membrane to Ca receptors, open Ca channel for influx binds on sarcoplasmic reticulum to open Ca channels for outflux into cytosol (like above)

negative ionotrop, decrease the amount of Ca available to a cell examples

block Ca channels verapamil, diltiazem decrease force of contraction

How do MAO inhibitors work to treat parkinsons?

block metabolism of dopamine in the brain. adjunct for levodopa, Dizziness, confusion, vivid dreams, nightmares, hallucinations Dyskinesias

Joint definition

body region where 2 or more bones come together to perform a specific function

Site of blood cell production?

bone marrow

Which of the following have blood supply (bone, cartilgae, joints)

bone only

Muscle spindle golgi tendon organs

both muscle proprioceptors MS: involved in intrafusal muscle fibers, parallel with extrafusal fibers. signal information about length and velocity GTO: in series with extrfusal fibers, near tendons, signal information about the load/force

AFter the aortic arch there are 3 main arteries that supply the body from "left" to "right" (on paper)

brachiocephalic trunk, L common carotis artery, L subclavian artery

cardiac cells are ____ smooth muscle are ______

branched fusiform

What are 2 ways the rate cells depolarize can be changed? What does this cause?

by changing the slope at phase 4 or changing the max negativity that occurs at phase 3. more Neg at 3 = takes longer to reach AP, open K channels, slows firing frequency Flatten slope at 4 = block Na or Ca channels, make the cell take longer to reach threhold potential

Another word for spongy bone? where is this found? what is the outer and inner linning of bone called?

cancellous bone found inside bones outter layer is periostium innerlayer is endosteum

sarcoma is?

cancer of muscle cell

Trigeminothalamic Tract?

carial nerve V primary sensory info from face, nasal cavity and oral cavity Fibers join the spinothalamictract in the brainstem

ways bones can be united?

cartilage, CT, synovial joint

______ receives proprioceptive information. It does what?

cerebellum Actual movements monitored and compared to cerebral information representing intended movement

Each tissue controls its blood flow, how does the heart adapt to this?

changing stroke volume via sympathetic NS activation

cartilage composition?

chondrocyes in spaces called lacunae containing tissue fluid. Matrix consisting of water, collagen fibers, and ground substance. No calcified inorganic component.

Mechanoreceptor thermoreceptors nociceptors electromagnetic chemoreceptors

compression temp pain light taste, smell

chinese fingertrap explains the ??? How?

connective tissue harness. endomysium containment transitioning into CT and tendon then into bone.

increased activity of nervous sytem leads to vaso ____.

constriction

3 types of capillaries

continuous - endothelium, most common, in muscle, lungs, exocrine glands, CNS (tight junctions) pinocytotic vesicles fenestrated - visceral capilaries, endothelial cells are porours, found in GI tract, kidneys, pancreas, endocrine glands sinusoidal - discontinuous capillaries, larger, numerous pores. discontinuous basal lamina, gaps between endothelial cells, found in liver, spleen, bone marrow

What is the pathophysiology of parkinsons

decreased Neuromelanin, Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine Reduced dopaminergic transmission • Decreased regional blood flow • Lewy bodies

In smooth muscle Hormone receptors in the membrane can affect the state of calcium or sodium ion channels resulting in __ and ___ These hormones include?

depolarization and AP epinephrine, norepinephrine, angiotensin II, endothelin, vasopressin, oxytocin, and serotonin

What is Hemodynamics?

describes the relationships governing the physical principles of pressure, flow, resistance and compliance as they relate to the cardiovascular system

during the cardiac cycle, a period of relaxation is called ___ this is when what occurs?

diastole, ventricle fill

corticobulbar

direct pathway of the descending motor Corticobulbar: direct control of movements in head and neck

corticospinal tract

direct pathway of the descending motor Corticospinal: direct control of movements below the head

What is Acromegaly?

disorder of GH excess in adults leadsing to enlarged hands, feet, face, jaw. GH tumor

How do dopamine agonists work to treat parkinsons?

dont require presence f dopamine, work on D1 and mainly D2, N/V, orthostatic hypotension, hallucinations, impulsive behaviors, sleep attacks. one of the most effective treatment options

What is the pressure and velocity like in different parts of the systemic circulation?As blood flows from the aorta back to the right side of the heart there is a progressive ... most of ths occurs in what 3 regions? directly proportional to.... Velocity ____ as blood flows

drop in pressue. small arteries, arterioles, and capillaries, vascular resistance decreases

in skeletal muscle cells the nucleas are at the_____? there are ? in cardiac the nucleas are where?

edges, many (multinucleate) just beneth the sarcolema in the middle of the cell

effective vs. relative refratory period

effective refractory period - between phase 0 and mid phase 3 - during this time another impulse reaching the cell will not be conducted/ depolarized. Relative refractory period - between mid 3 and phase 4, if another impulse is strong enough it may be conducted, the later it occurs (near end of repolarization) the more likely the impulse will be conducted.

What can lead to impaired electrical activity of the heart?

electrolyte abnormalities, acid base disorders, heart disease, ischemia, drug toxicities

What is the cardiac cycle?

end of one heart contraction to the begining of another

When you heart contracts stronger than usual ___ can decrease to as low as ____

end systolic 10-30mL

Sensory receptors activated by____. specialized ______. primary _____neurons.

environmental. epithelial, afferent

What substances cause vasoconstriction in the microcirculation?

epi(a1), norepi, angiotensin, vasopressin

What changes increase CO?

epinephrine, pregnancy, high environmental temps, exercise, eating, anciety and excitement

Achalasia

esophageal sphincter at end of esophagus does not relax to allow passage of food into the stomach, distorted peristalsis. likely due to abnormalities in nervous innervation of smooth muscle

all muscle cells are enveloped within a(n) ? equivalent to ?

external lamina. basal lamina

Heart murmur

extra sounds heard before, after or in between normal sounds • May be due to narrowing (stenosis) of aortic or mitral valve which is scarred by infection or is congenitally narrowed • Some are serious, others are not. May mask normal heart sounds

How are the phases of AP different in purkinje fibers vs. a working cell?

fast responce fibers Upward depolarizations at phase 4 until threshold potential is reached, represents a cell capable of automaticity. due to Ca/Na enter through funny/leaky channels

What is calsequestrin

for excitation contraction coupling • Low affinity Ca2+ binding protein • Allows Ca ++ to be "stored" at high concentration and thereby establishes a favorable concentration gradient that facilitates the efflux of Ca ++ from the SR into the myoplasm when the RYR opens

What affects the stroke volume?

force of contraction - end-diastolic fiber stretch (preload, frank starling law) contractility (sympathetic stimulation via beta receptors, drugs, diseases) Afterload-

Describe synovial fluid?

formed as ultrafiltrate from blood capillaries w/in the synovial membrane. hyaluronic acid, lubricin, proeinases, and collagenases also added. thick, viscous, egg white like lubricates joint, cushion supplies O2 and nutrients o chondrocytes of articular cartilage. removes CO2 and waste

What is a myoepithelial cell, where is it found? function?

found in mammary glads. sweat glands, lacrimal glands, and salivary glands. muscle cell on epithelial side of basement membrane. contraction aids in release of secretory material

Third order neurons? found where?

found in thalmus, after 2nd order. send info to cerebral cortex

Cardiac muscle is know as a _____ becasue of the presence of ___ and ____

functional syncytium intercallated discs many gap junctions quick spread of depolarization

How to tell if its smooth muscle by looking?

fusiform shape, centrally placed nucleus in fattest part of the cell, tappering ends.

the smaller the tube/arteyr/vein the __ the resistance to flow

greater

What are the effects of afterload on CO?

greater mean arterial pressue eventually decreases CO

the ___ the degress of metabolism in the organ the ___ the blood flow

greater x2

regarding the pacinian corpuscle stronger mechanicle compression/stimulus lead to ______ receptor potential, aplitude increases ___ at first. They have a ____ receptive field.

high rapidly (then slow) largeish

Ca2+ concentration in cardiac muscle cell cytosol is high due to ?

high buffering capacity of cytosolic protein such as parvalbumin and troponin C

Explain gigantism

high levels of GH from pituitary gland prior to closure of growth plate, rare. can also be due to increased hypothalmic GHRH. Alton Giant robert wadlow clinical feature is rapid acceleration in longitudinal growth

pt has aortic valve regurgitation, has __ pulse pressure. Why?

higher PP = SBP - DBP blood flows back into left ventricle during diastole which increases stroke volume increasing SV, systolic increases diastolic lower

3 types of cartilage. how do they differ?

hyaline fibrocartilage - fibrous bands of collagen elestic-matrix contain more elestic proteins Differ in the amount and nature of contained fibers

Autonomic symptoms of parkinsons? hyperhidrosis, sialorrhea 3 stages of parkinsons?

hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating) s: too much saliva 1-3 in pic, 4 pt requires substantial help 5. patient restricted to bed/chair

Older people tend to have systolic _____tension because their vessels are ______ compliant. As volume increase a ____ pressure increases ___.

hypertension Less a little a lot

How does the RYR receptor work?

in excitation contraction coupling: • Ryanodine receptor • Embedded in SR membrane and myoplasm • Serve as feet between T tubule and SR

atherosclerotic plaques?

in smooth muscle, proliferation of sm cells can contribute to plaque formation. cholesterol crystals.

cardiac muscle cells are found ? a variation in also found where?

in the middle layer of the heart, myocardium. endocardium (perkinje fibers)

Is hypertrophy of the heart good or bad?

in the short term it increases CO, over time it impairs filling and decreases CO

How can the heart increase stroke volume above the normal value?

increase end diastolic volume and decreasing end systolic volume

Under the influence of the sympathic nervous system / norepinephrine what occurs to the heart?

increases the number of open Ca channels HR faster, more contractile force

What is dwarfism

insufficient levels of GH or additional complicating facotrs, stature <4ft 10in. normal body proportions caused by deficiency of growth hormone or GHRH secretion 1-10,000 births, born to normal stature parents typically if due to pituitary there can be delayed sexual development, headaches, poly dipsia and uria treatment with GH replacement, can cause bone deformitiies

cardiac muscle cells are joioned by

intercalated discs

cardiac muscle cells have _____ that skeltal muscle cells dont have?

intercallated discs, branching, central nucleus.

two types of bone development?

intramembranous - no cartilage and endochondral ossification - cartilage model used

The fick principal is __ and __ but is ____. What is an alternative? what do they measure?

invasive, costly, most accurate thermodilution method measure cardiac output

Velocity of blood flow ______ proportional to cross-sectional area. slowest where?

inversely in the capillaries

the bony part of your butt that you sit on is called?

ischium

What is the function of ancor kinase protein?

it allows the PKA in the cardiac muscle cell to interact with the ryanadine recetor in the SR and the voltage gated Ca channel

What is the effect of isoproterenol on cardaic muscle contraction?

its a beta adrenergic recepto agonist that mimics the binding ot Nor epi and epi. increases the amount of intracellular Ca resulting in a high force of contraction and increased relaxation and increased frequency of contraction.

arthroplasty?

joint replacement

What causes Hypertrophy?

long term stress, repeated bouts of increased cardiac output result in increased synthesis of contractile proteins and enlargement of cardiac muscle cells Ventricular cell enlarges, walls thicken and is capable of greater force development

What is in the Haversian canal? how do products reach the osteocytes? What if the circular area surrounding this?

loose CT and vascularity that supplies osteocytes and nutrients. diffusion and canaliculi Osteon

Endomysium is?

loose CT, carries vasculature. contain myofibers/myosites

pt. has systolic heart failure has ____ puse pressure. Why?

lower stroke volume decreased due to decreased contractility

Heart Sounds 1st sound "____" due to ____ 2nd sound "_____" due to ____

lub closure of AV valves and blood turbulance dubb closure of semilunar valve and blood turbulance

what are perkinje fibers? (why do they stain light?)

mainly for electrical transmission. generally larger & more pale in staining, & function as key elements in propagation & coordination of cardiac m cell contractions. they branch. (more eleborate sarcoplasmic reticulum, and more rich in glycogen)

The 2 main functions of the mircocirculation may conflict, in the case the body tries to maintain ____ at the expense of ___

mean arterial pressure blood flow

knee has ____ to stabalize movement. repair is done how?

menisci as well as ACL arthroscopic surgery

_____ lines body cavities. ____ lines vasculature

mesothelium endothelium

pericardium is a _____ contains a small amount of ___ produced by_____.

mesothelium serous fluid - contains protein serous pericardium

When the ventricles contract what valves are closed? when do they open?

mitral and aortic valves aortic open at 80mmHg mitral when pressure drops to allow ventricles to fill

Myotatic stretch?

monosynaptic reflex - single synapse with CNS. important for posture and balance (propioception) tap, partela lig stretch, muscle spindle fiber detects the stretch in the intrafusal muscle fibers, sends signal 1a afferts to CNS synapses there with secondary neuron (in blue) alpha motor neuron and synapse with the inhibitory neuron (in black), inhibits motor neuron that feeds into opposite muscle

individual muscle cell = these contain many = these contain = made of= organization is stabalized by=

myofiber / myocyte myofibrils myofilaments actin and myosin additional proteins

3 coats of BV's

not on capillaries or venules tunica intima (endothelium, CT, elastic membrane) tunica media (smooth muscle with elastic fibers) tunica adventitia (outer elastic tise, enclosing connective tissue)

Smooth Muscle hypertrophy?

occurs in pregnancy, uterus

How does the pacinian corpuscle work?

ompression deforms connective tissue, leads to opening of various ion channels influx of + charge, leads to creation of generator/ receptor potential, reaches myelination and becomes action potential

What is the articular surface of a joint made of?

only cartilage

is atrial systole needed for ventricular filling?

only if increased cardiac output is required

if you know where a muscle ____ and where it _____ then when it shortens you know what it will do.

origin, insertion

age related joint disease?

osteoarthritis

organs, unlike veins and arteries, are arranged in ____. The total resistance is ____ than any individual resistance. As the number of "tubes" increases total resistance ____

parrallel the total resistance is less than any of the individual resistances decreases

Repair capability of smooth muscle

pericytes sort of sm that work as stem cells to replace danaged muscle, the sm its self can also replace itself. in skeletal and cardiac m, they cant replace themselves, produce new myocytes, scar tissue formes to retain stuctural/funtional continuity. "healing tendon" in the muscle

the ____ is seen when you make a scared face. from front surface of chest to corner of the mouth.

platysma

Neutrophils

polymorphonuclear neutrophils, or PMNs, usually the first of the white blood cells to respond to infection. secrete a class of enzymes called lysozymes

Volume of blood in ventricles at end of diastole (preload), sometimes expressed as ?

pressure (LVEDP)

axon terminal with synaptic vesicles

presynaptic terminal

Inverse of the myotatic reflex/autogenic inhibition

protective mechanism, disynaptic reflec 1B fiber afferent, sensing info from golgi tendon organ force felt by golgi tendon organ, causes firing through 1b fiber, sensory affert feeds into CNS, activates semitendonous and inhibits the rectus femoris, takes the leg back

Musculotopicorganization of motor neurons?

proximal muscles have motor neurons more medial in the spinal cord, distal more lateral

Second order neurons? found where?

receive info from primary neuron, transmit it to thalamus, can cross the midline! (contralateral thalmus) located in the spinal cord or brain stem

Action potential occurs when ____ is above ___

receptor potential aboe threshold.

during diastole BV ___ which pushes blood through circulatory system. this is facilitated by ___

recoil compliance

Satellite cells in skeltal muscle?

represent a potential stem cell for neomyogenesis. occupy a paramuscular positon. but evidence for this is weak, so skel muscle still viewed as havng poor regenerative ability, heals by scarring.

What is after load?

resistance against which the heart has to pump greater resistance = decreased stroke volume / ejection

What regulates the volume of blood pumped? (cardiac output)

responce to changes in blood flowing in heart (venous return) reflex control of the heart by the autonomic NS Stroke volume and HR

_______ inpulses generate cause _______ of the heart

rhythmic (mV potential) rhythmic contraction (muscle twitch)

cardiac muscle has inherent?

rhythmicity

2 vs. 3 coronary arteries

right, left, and circumflex branch (off of the left)

plasma membranes anr internal membranes are named? ___ (___)and ______(_____ )

sarcolema (plamsa membrane) and Sarcoplasmic reticulum (endoplasmic reticulum)

____ can arise from muscle but are not exclusively from muscle

sarcomas

a _____ is the basic functional unit of skeletal myofiber and cardiac muscle cell

sarcomere

z band to z band is the?

sarcomere

unique system of membranes in muscle cells sarcoplasm?

sarcoplamsic reticulum

muscle cell sytoplasms is ?

sarcoplasm

functions of capillaries

selective permeability, deactivate protaglandins, serotonin, bradykinin, catabilism of lipoproteins into tg's FA's, HAVE MANY DIVERSE FUNCTIONS

what kind of joint is in the skull elbow hip foot

skull = suture elbow = hinge hip = ball and socket foot = gliding

How are the phases of AP different in the SA/AV node vs. a working cell?

slow response fibers AP. The SA node is excitable because the RMP is not as negative as the working cell or purkinje fibers, its closer to -60mV, close to the threshold potential. It has automaticity! Phase 0 - SA node depolarizes due to Ca entry into the cell (slower to open). Phase 3 - K channels open, K leaves cell. repolarization.

___ changes in pressure may lead to ___ changes in volume in the circulatory system. Especially for people ____ in age.

small large younger

Pt. who lost a lot of blood has a ___ pulse pressure. Why?

smaller lower blood volume, preload decreased, stroke volume decreased

Lymphocytes

smallest white blood cells, b cells, antibodies

Asthma?

smooth muscle wall of bronchioloes constricts, doesnt relax to reopen the airway.

There are seven steps to explaining the importance of cerebellar comparator functions and how it leads to fine motor control. explain these 7 steps. to start the motor cortex sends info to ___ and ____

spinal cord and cerebellum

What is the cardiac cycle initiated by?

spontaneous generation of an action potential in the SA node

Basophils

stain blue/purple, increase in number in both allergic and inflammatory reactions, release heparin, which inhibits blood clotting

Dorsal/Column/ medial Lemniscal System?

status/position of body. two-point discrimination, proprioception, pressure, vibration to cerebrum, and cerebellum •Primary neuronshave cell bodies in dorsalroot ganglion. Axons enter spinal cord and ascend to the medulla oblongata without decussating where they synapse with secondary neurons. •Secondary neurons: axons decussate and ascend to thalamus •Tertiary neurons: project to somaticsensory cortex

Skeletal muscle cell shaped like ____ and _____

straws multinucleate

How does humoral control of blood flow occur?

substance in blood: hormones, ions, other chemicals can cause local increase or decrease in tissue blood flow or a widespread generalized change

What is lyphedema?

swelling directly linked to lymph vessels leaking. abnormal colloection of protein-rich fluid beneth skin, arm or leg usually, protein content worsens inflammation and fribrosis fibrosis prevents o2 and nutrient delivery slowing healing and promoting bacterial growth

axon terminal resting in invagination of the sarcolemma

synapse

function of veins

take deoxy blood back to heart, contain valves to prevent backflow of venous blood, venules major site of exchange for small molecules, Post capillary venules - HEV high endothelial venules - possess receptors that facilitate recognition of circulating lymphocytes and their movement through venule wall

of the face muscles what are big (compared to the rest thin and delicate?)

temporalis and masseter

how does the CT adhere to bone so well?

the CT cells enter the bone and become part of the matrix.

When a hormone binds to the receptor in smooth muscle what happens to the heterotrimeric g protin?

the alpha subunit binds to the Ca channel letting Ca in. the gamma unit binds to phospholipase C activating it

The arterial system converts ...to ...

the intermittent flow generated by the heart to a virtual steady flow through the capillaries

Mitral valve prolapse

the mitral valve is pushed up too far into the left atrium allowing a small amount of blood to flow into the left atrium • Usually not serious; found in 10% of otherwise healthy people • It is usually an inherited condition

What does a prolonged QT interval imply? what can this cause? leading to? What can cause this? What can shorted the QT interval?

the resting refractory period is longer, increases the chances of after depolarization, may lead to an abnormal sequence of contraction, arrythmia formation know as torsades de pointes prolonged QT interval may be due to medication including Class 1A anti arrythmic drugs (quinidine, prokenamide, disopurimide,) Digoxin toxicity- may shorten the QT interval(toxicity), and hypercalcimia may shorten QT as well. *torsades de pointes - life threatening ventricular arrythmia

What changed about the parkinsons diagnosis from its original definition?

the senses and itillects being uninjured. now people live long enough to get dementia

Explain contraction in smooth muscle. Excitation contraction in smooth muscle? (4 steps)

the thin filaments slide in opposite directions to contract the muscle, the thin and thick filaments cris cross the cell and thin filaments are connected by dense bodies 1)Ca ions from extracellular fluid and SR bind calmodulin, 2)the Ca-CaM complex activates myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), 3)MLCK phosphorylates myosin head 4) myosin can bind to actin and cause contraction

What is the fick principal?

the total uptake or release of a substance by an organ is the product of the blood flow through the organ and the arteriovenous concentration difference of the substance. dont memorize the equation

How are action potentials in the heart that reach the cell at the relative refratory period manifested (if they are conducted)

these get propagated through heart tissue as extra heart beats. get conducted during relative refractory period, arrhythmias.

Slow adapting receptors? Fast adapting examples of each

tonic - stimulated for minutes or hours, transmit to the brain as long as the stimulus is present. muscle spindle and golgi tendon organs stimulate only when rate/stimulus strenght changes pacinian corpuscle and phasic receptors

Three types of troponin? tropomyosin?

troponin is made of 3 subunits T - binds tropomyosin I - binds actin C - binds Ca2+ ions, important for revealing binding sites on actin thin filaments that binds as dimers

What is reentry? what conditions promote reentry?

type of Heart Arryhthmogenesis, unidirectional block. signal keeps traveling around the heart creating an abnormal rhythm and sequence of contraction. Linked to the refractory period/ promoted by long conduction pathway(dialated heart), slowed velocity of impulse, shortened effective refractory period.

bruits?

valves raise flow velocities which cause turbulece, in vessels this is called bruits -in the heart its called a murmur

What happens if valves in veins fail?

varicosities, spider veins, sclerotherapy, laser with heat, surgery

extra blood in the system is more likely to be stored were?

venous circulation

during what phase does blood fill the atria? what valves are closed?

ventricular systole AV valves close

What would happen to bone with out minerals? without collagen?

w/o m = bendy w/o c= fragile/brittle

what are the components of bone?

water 25% proteins, collagen 25% mineral 50% minerals include calcium salts in the form of tricalcium phosphate or crystalline hydroxyapatite organic/osteoid fibers include collagen embedded in ground substance of proteoglycans, glycoproteins,etc. osteoid is bone matrix before it is fuly mineralized

what is ectopic pacemaker?

when anothe rpart of the heart take over pacemaking for the heart either because the SA node is blocked or slowed or because another part of the heart is sped up. may cause abnormal sequence of contraction

Granulocytes?

white blood cells with large cytoplasmic granules

gamm motor neruons alpha motor neurons

y- go towards intrafusal muscle fibers, affect tension on muscle spindle a - go to extrafusal muscle fibers, affect contraction coactivated

the distance between 2 adjacent ______ at the center of each ______ is the functional unit of contraction called the?

z lines I band sarcomere

Cardiac or skeletal? -striated (at microscopic level) - has an intrinsic rhythmicity - has precise wrappings of connective tissue (ct harness), -does well on repairing after injury -well vascularized -does not get a "day off"

§ Both types are striated (at microscopic level) § Cardiac has an intrinsic rhythmicity, skeletal muscle does not § Skeletal muscle has precise wrappings of connective tissue (ct harness), cardiac does not § Neither type does well on repairing after injury § Both are well vascularized & of course cardiac does not get a "day off"

What are the causes of parkinsons relating to aging?

• Accelerated aging • Delayed response to substantia nigral injury • Apoptosis • Oxidative stress • Stroke/vascular PD • Stroke in basal ganglia (Does not respond well to dopamine therapy)

What are the causes of parkinsons relating to environment?

• Pesticides • Heavy metals • Rural living • Drinking well water

What disorders have parkinsons as a coincident?

• Striatonigral degeneration • Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) • Parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam • Shy-Drager syndrome

two pathwyas of descending motor tracts?

•Direct pathways(pyramidal system): maintenance of muscle tone, controlling speed and precision of skilled movements •Indirect pathways(extrapyramidal system): less precise movements