midterm+final

The Wolf and Leopold

"thoughtless competition with other species was causing ecological harm" made him realize that maintaining ecological health is all about balance and that there should be cooperation over competition - better to work with the wolves rather than against them for ecological health

Ralph Waldo Emerson

- Self Reliance (authenticity) is necessary for living a life of meaning - Transcendentalist, essayist, philosopher - thought that reflection is needed for each individual to avoid conformity and false consistency, and that if you do not follow your instincts/ideas and come to truth for yourself then all of your truths are false - justification - necessary to have a robust ethic - reason alone is not sufficient we must also experience the world

Animal Ethic Evolution

- historically a hybrid of personal and social ethics - traditional ethic was an ethic forbidding cruelty/deliberate unnecessary infliction of suffering and pain on animals - bible and religious texts, Aquinas, Kant condemn animal cruelty - prior to 1950's animals used in farming context as a symbiotic relationship, good husbandry, thriving animals mean thriving humans - now need a new animal ethic bc social changes allowed for animal testing + industrialized agriculture - meant cruelty to animals, "bad husbandry," was more prevalent due to overcrowding and advancements in science (antibiotics, vaccines) - old ethic built on punishment of intentional cruelty and on self interest no longer works

Bernie Rollins

- historically a hybrid of personal and social ethics - its not saying that animals should have the same rights of humans, saying that animals, too, have natures - "fish gotta swim, birds gotta fly" Pillars or Domains of Animal Welfare - Standard Veterinary Health Indicators (Body) -Species-Typical Behaviors (Nature) - Affective States (Mind)

The Land Ethic

- moved land into the ethical sphere - extension of ethics to the third element in the human environment - ecological necessity b/c the first two steps of the ethical sequence have already been taken - society must affirm that the destruction of land is wrong - basically we need to accept nonhuman animals and the water/land into the biotic community in order to have true conservation - "the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively the land"

Transcendentalism

- particularly interested in the natural world and its relationship to humanity - believed that if they explored nature thoroughly, they would come to know themselves and the universal truths better - thought that the human spirit is reflected in nature - built on the Kantian idea that, in order to understand the nature of reality, one must first examine and analyze the reasoning process which governs the nature of experience

Social contract theory

- persons moral and/or political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them Key characteristics: -signifies the transition from one state to another (nature to society, jungle fowl to chickens) -implies limitations on some freedoms (in order to get other benefits, farms reduce roaming of animals, but have increased protection) -all parties of the contract are free and equal who can consent (no language means no explicit consent, uneven power dynamic, can have tacit consent/hypothetical consent) -"win-win"

Ethical Sequence/Ethical Development - written in "The Land Ethic" + Community Concept

- the extension of ethics is a process of ecological evolution - symbiosis - tendency of interdependent individuals to evolve modes of cooperation - requirements for a state of cooperation: - - individual interactions - - relations between the individual and society - - humans and the land (including plants and animals) Philosophy: - an ethic is a differentiation of social from anti-social conduct Ecology: - an ethic is a limitation of freedom of action in the struggle for existence

Virtue Ethics

- theories that emphasize the role of one's character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one's duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences - based on Aristotlean idea that a virtuous person has ideal character traits that develop from natural tendencies - nature helps us identify ideal character traits and nurture these traits

Rachel Carson

-"Silent Spring" -marine biologist, author, conservationist -sparked a real environmentalist movement: which introduced the adverse environmental effects of DDT and fertilizers -brought agriculture and cities/towns into the environmental sphere -"man is a part of nature and a war against nature is a war against himself" - NONANTHROPOCENTRIC -recognition of the intrinsic value of non-human beings provides benefits that outweigh the restrictions such recognition places upon us - economic value should not always be prioritized - humans often forget the true nature of their planet due to artificial cities and towns

gifford pinchot

-forester and politician -first chief of USFS -governor of pennsylvania -coined the term "conservation ethic" -ANTHROPOCENTRIC - UTALITARIAN

Aldo Leopold

-A Sand County Almanac -scientist, ecologist, forester, conservationist, environmentalist -worked in the forest service under Pinchot -developed a unique land management ethic : LAND ETHIC Nelson - thought that our inherited social instincts would be activated when we begin to see plants and animals, soils and waters as an integral part of the biotic community

Clare Palmer

-British philosopher - do we have a moral obligation because of domestication? - do we have a contract with animals? -social contract theory

John Muir

-Father of National Parks, Sierra Club -naturalist, author, environmental philosopher -early advocate for PRESERVATION -advocated for preservation for anthropocentric uses-aesthetics/recreation

Tom Regan

-The Case for Animal Rights -Thinks "kindness, indirect rights, and utilitarianism" are all flawed -"can't change institutions by tidying them up" -"what's wrong isn't the pain its the system that allows us to use animals as resources" -a good end does not justify an evil means -animals have intrinsic value -NOT CONSEQUENTIALIST -all "experiencing subjects of a life" are in the moral sphere - "conscious creature having an individual welfare that has importance to it whatever its usefulness to others - undergo pain and pleasure - experience satisfaction - have a sense of self

preservation

-The maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible To Muir: -aesthetic and spiritual worth -nature has intrinsic work apart from human uses -views nature as a refuge from economic activity and not as a resource for it -wanted to protect large swaths of land for aesthetic and recreational reasons (instrumental)

Henry David Thoreau

-Walden + Civil Disobedience -transcendentalist, essayist, poet, philosopher, naturalist -urban areas were exploding and he thought we needed to value nature more

Varner

-biocentric individualism -uses hunting to highlight tensions between animal ethics and environmental ethics, argues that animal ethics cannot ground an adequate environmental ethic because animal ethics are opposed to the environmental agenda 1. hunting to control overpopulation: env. ethics would require hunting of animals to protect local env. 2. predators: from env. perspective, predators are important. 3. endangered species: endangered plant species could be harmed and animal ethics would value all individuals equally

Thoreau's Environmental Ethic

-by recognizing nature's value, we enrich our own lives -nature provides us with opportunities for personal development (of self-reliance) and access to fundamental truths - founded in nature

Cafaro on Carson

-contemporary ecofeminism -importance of direct experience -wants preserved beachland -Carson "muted her animal welfare advocacy, out of concern that it would undermine her case against the misuse of pesticides" -she wanted to talk about Fish and Wildlife's poisoning activities -"love and appreciation for all nature and its creatures can bridge the gaps between environmental ethics and animal welfare ethics, anthropocentric urban environmentalists and biocentric advocates of wildlands"

three principles of conservation

-development (current generations) -prevention of waste (fire etc.) -the common good

Cafaro on Thoreau

-most important contribution is that we "go out and live our ethics" -wisdom comes from nature

callicotts criticisms

-practical original rational was not articulated in the terms of biological conservation, emphasized the way wilderness satisfies human aesthetic, psychological, spiritual needs this led to choosing national parks that are not useful for biological conservation -political wilderness preservation philosophy of conservation is a losing strategy -international forced wilderness is not a universal approach to conservation some around the world are being evicted from their homes (glacier, Yellowstone) -historical this "wilderness" was actively managed by native people -theoretical wilderness preservation has meant freeze-framing the status quo -philosophical the wilderness idea perpetuates the pre-darwinian myth that humans exist apart from nature

Callicott's three results

-starvation -environmental degradation -extinction each are problematic, thus rights approaches are problematic instead of imposing artificial legalities and rights no nature we instead must affirm biological laws and limitations

Regan's animal ethic

-total abolition of the use of animals in science -total dissolution of commercial animal agriculture -total elimination of commercial and sport hunting and trapping

Merchant's Ethic

-wants to swing pendulum back to balance, better equality between human and nonhuman communities Synthesis of : -ecocentric approach based on moral consideration for all living and nonliving things -homocentric approach based on the social good and fulfillment of basic human needs 1. equity between human and nonhuman communities 2. moral consideration for humans and other species 3. respect for cultural diversity and biodiversity 4. inclusion of women, minorities, and nonhuman nature in the code of ethical accountability 5. ecologically sound management is consistent with the continued health of both the human and nonhuman communities Partnership ethic "the greatest good for the human and nonhuman communities in their mutual living interdependence"

palmer environmental ethics

1. Environmental Ethics, a growing and diverse subfield of philosophy since the 1970's, examines ethical questions re: human relationships with the nonhuman environment. 2. Researchers in the field investigate which things in the world have value and how much or what kind of value they have. 3. Human values to be fostered in human-environment interactions include justice, sus- tainability, and instrumental values, such as ecosystem services, recreation, and natural resources. 4. Many environmental ethicists believe nonhuman entities and places are also bearers of value, including sentient nonhuman animals, individual organisms, ecosystems, and species. 5. Environmental ethicists employ three main theoretical approaches: consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. 6. Ecofeminism and environmental pragmatism have challenged mainstream views and methodologies within environmental ethics. 7. Climate change and the emergence of new technologies raise novel ethical challenges and questions that are beginning to be addressed by environmental ethicists.

Five Faces of Oppression

1. Exploitation using people's labors to produce profit while not compensating them fairly 2. Marginalization relegating or confining a group to a lower social standing - exclusion 3. Powerlessness some people have power and others don't - only can take orders not give them (culture of silence falls under this) 4. Cultural Imperialism taking the culture of the ruling class and establishing it as the norm 5. Violence members of some groups live with the knowledge that they must fear random unprovoked attacks

Taylor's biocentric principles

1. INTRINSIC VALUE 2. MORAL CONSIDERATION

environmental ethics studies

1. moral relationship of humans to the environment and its non-human contents 2. what ethical duties we have to the environment and non-human animals 3. the value and moral status of the environment and its non-human contents

Callicott

American philosopher - taught the worlds first course in environmental ethics in 1971. Believes that an adequate environmental ethic must be holistic. Moral status depends on upon its social and ecological relationships ie its membership and role within a social or biological community. - an attempt at correcting the interpretation that Leopold's philosphy is too "abbreviated, unfamiliar, and radical" - Callicott: "moral expansion" is not merely an historical trend, but a biological one grounded in natural selection and evolutionary processes 1. human moral horizons have expanded over course of history 2. next step in human social evolution is to extend our moral horizons to include biotic communities 3. if including biotic communities is next step in human social evolution, then we shouldn't harm them by causing large scale distruptions

Anti-Urban Bias

Andrew light need to evaluate an anti-urban bias if the natural world is measured only. by the yardstick of human needs then what justification will exist to preserve it - we need more than instrumental arguments - need to give intrinsic value Light - cities are considered sources of environmental disvalue - are artifacts rather than part of nature built on nature/culture divide earth contains three environments - rural, urban, wild Rolston this is where the argument of a fully human life cannot be achieved in a city comes in - if you never evaluate your worldview in the wild it is not complete Rolston says urban people are one-dimensional Light however this is elitist and city dwellers actually generally have less of a carbon footprint

Paul Taylor

Both Varner and Taylor: - biocentrism is rooted in a philosophical worldview -if we adopt a biocentric worldview, then we could organically come to recognize a biocentric ethic -BEGINS with the intuition that something is wrong with killing another living being 1. humans are nonpriveleged members of the earth's community of life -humans are contingent biological beings, we have biological requirements for life that are not totally under our control -kinship, we share the same origin with other species and have kinship with them we are part of a community -newcomers in the long term -we depend on other forms of life 2. The world is an interdependent system - science of ecology + Leopold 3. All organisms or teleological centers of life - that have goods of their own that we can morally consider for their own sake - we are all goal-directed, have a point of view this pushes against animal ethics, bc desire is not required for organisms to be in the moral sphere, even insentient organisms aren't ruled out we are not superior - just because we have capacities nonhumans lack ignores that they have capacities that we lack

Environmental Virtue Ethic

Cafaro - actions which affect the environment affect us - our environmental decisions make us better or worse and create better or worse societies - any virtue ethic must include an environmental ethic

On a hike case study - deer and wolf, do we have the duty to help wild animals

Capacity-oriented consequentialist views -singer, Tom Regan, bernie rollins -most people are consequentialist -capacity+utility=basic animal ethic -in this view, the hiker should assist both -BUT, long term impacts not always considered in this, emphasizes ACTS -suffering is suffering, no difference between wild and domesticated animals -all pain and pleasure in the scope of moral c concern contextual, non-consequentialist view -animals capacities ARENT all that matters morally, certain relations between humans and animals matter too - domestication matters bc we bred them to be vulnerable, so we have to take care of them -we don't necessarily have a duty to help wild animals because they are independent

Environmental Ethics v. Animal Ethics

Environmental Ethics moral sphere: Ecosystems + Communities of Animals Animal Ethics moral sphere: Individual animals

Utalitarianism

Greatest good for greatest amount of people, cost and benefit analysis accepts two principles - equality - everyone's interests count - utility - do the action that brings about the greatest happiness/pleasure and the least pain for everyone -aggregated, not concerned with individuals

Carolyn Merchant

One of the first environmental historians to include a critique of how environmental stories ignored the role of gender relations in shaping those stories and histories. Berkeley -each approach to policy goes in a pyramid structure base: env. ethics and assumptions middle: management approaches top: policy this is illustrated by fish management strategies in the Pac. NW 1. -1800s started w/ laissez-faire - egocentric assumes 1. what is good for the individual (human) is good for society, 2. that fisheries are inexhaustible 3. fish are passive objects -started to realize salmon runs were declining 1894. State+Federal laws change to a homocentric, communitarian ethic - humans come first fish come second also entails utilitarian idea of cost-benefit analysis - greatest good for greatest number for longest time 2. Late 19th and early 20th centuries - HOMOCENTRIC - max sustainable yield , still didn't work 3. ECOCENTRIC approach - late 1950's - fish had a right to survive and one should cooperate with each stocks own strategy for survival - we should maintain health and stability of marine ecosystems this still involves assumptions - management of nature entails dominance

Varner's three types of hunting

Therapeutic - designed to secure the welfare of target species across generations or the ecosystem, Subsistence - for food or other essentials -most env. philosophers support this Sport - to maintain cultural traditions, practicing skills, or for trophies -is acceptable as long as it is managed in ways to prevent harm to ecosystem -is acceptable only when it is needed to prevent harm The main issue is whether or not animal ethics can endorse therapeutic hunting? - Regan against all hunting (obviously), but supports subsistence hunting when it is the only way to survive bc humans higher value - Singer - for (utilitarian)

"we do not ride on the railroad: it rides upon us"

Thoreau means that technology is going to take us over

Environmental Movement

a diverse scientific, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues.

Justice as Fairness *

all citizens, regardless of race class and ethnicity should have access to safe drinking water and housing

Varner argument

animals are NOT moral agents, they are moral patients, as such, it is not unethical when they kill each other. Letting die - ok Kiling - ethical import Varner believes that an animal ethic could support therapeutic hunting

universal ethical theory

applied in all cases

impartial ethical theory

applies to all people

David Schmidtz

argues against species egalitarianism he says to have moral standing they must at a minimum command respect - be more than a mere thing Taylor believes that every species has a moral standing even in this most minimal sense Schmidtz says other species command our respect but they do not command equal respect. believes we should have respect for nature, but dont need to be a species egalitarian to do so Another argument is that seeing all other species as commanding respect is transcending our animal nature

Evrette

argues that animal ethics could be compatible with environmental ethics

Rights-based ethics

belief that individual rights provide the vital protection of life, liberty, expression, and property -Tom Regan wants to apply this to animals -adult mammals have basic moral rights including the right to life and LIBERTY -no animal testing, no industrial agriculture, not even pet ownership

A Triangular Affair

callicott animal ethic -animal liberation is an environmental ethic -both individual animals and ecosystems ethics expand the moral sphere, he sees today's animal ethic as tomorrow's ecosystem ethic Triangular Affair -Relationship between -Ethical Humanists (reason)/Humanist ethics -Humane moralists/animal liberation (sentience)/Animal Ethics -The land ethic/environmental ethics (radical ecological vision of the world)/Environmental Ethics Can find a balance -invasive species can illustrate callicott's point -CALLICOTT WANTS TO POINT OUT THAT ANIMAL ETHICS ARE PROBLEMATIC BC THEY REUSE OUTDATED ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND OUTDATED SCIENTIFIC DATA ex. singer - viewing pleasure as always good and pain as always bad is outdated, and blanket applications of "rights" can be wrong-headed - rethink in terms of ethical holism - disagrees w palmer, no special duty to domesticated animals "our seeds and breeds have been selectively bred for thousands of years, as such they are TECHNOLOGIES and no longer wild animals" this transformation is the ethical issue

wilderness debate

callicott v. noss

Acrosanti

central arizona - experimental town based on principles of arcology - combines architecture and ecology

Environmental Justice

community focused environmental movement that seeks to bring about change on the ground regardless of race, class, and ethnicity correct injustices concerning how environmental burdens were and are distributed in the US term has two distinct uses 1. a social movement whose focus is the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens for all communities regardless of race ethnicity or class 2. an interdisciplinary body of literature, capturing this movement

Conservation v. Preservation

conservation: - active management - wise/sustainable use - maintenance of ecosystem health preservation - "hands off"/no management - no use/passive use - prevention of environmental change

Current rift in environmental movement

conservationists v. preservationists conservationists enlightened self interest anthropocentrism greatest good greatest number preservationists increasing the scope of the moral sphere

broad respect vs. equal respect

considerations: -relationships matter (palmer) -we can form bonds with some species and not others (rabbits v. mosquitos)

Cahoone

contemporary hunting is not a sport - it is a neotraditional cultural practice in which contemporaries re-enter archaic pursuit of meat wild animal death by hunter is on average less painful than by farmer or nature and allows it to live its wild life regulated ethical hunting embodies the good of trophic responsibility, ecosystem expertise, anachronistic self-sufficiency, a rare experience of animal inter-dependence, and a kind of honesty, Hunting is a moral good when these two conditions are held 1. preservation of species or ecosystems requires Neo-traditional hunting as the only viable wildlife management tool or 2. the animal cost of farming per unit of nutrition is equal to or greater than that of hunting

deep v. shallow

deep - radical shallow - reform mainstream environmentalism is an extension of anthropocentrism - tied to the health and welfare of the western world deep ecology questions the fundamental assumptions of anthropocentrism

arne naess

deep ecology if we develop a deep ecological worldview then critiques of politics public policy and western civilization itself naturally flow from this

Ecofeminism

draw on the concept of gender to theorize relationship between humans and natural world Carolyn Merchant feminism has tools that could be useful in environmental movement singer's principle suffering being equal with the like suffering of another being

Deep Ecology

emphasizes the interdependent value of human and nonhuman life, ecosystems, and natural processes (ecology) if we accept this, critiques of politics, public policy, and western civilization follow (deep)

Rise of Environmentalism

environmental movement of 1960's-70's in reaction to: - H bomb test at Bikini Atoll - oil tanker spill Torrey Canyon - no environmental laws - events + scientific advances cause a rise in activism - earth day

conservation and preservation

environmental philosophers and political theorists: -mutually exclusive because conservation is anthropocentric and preservation is nonanthropocentric Bryan Norton: -the terms are non statements about the fundamental value of nonhuman nature, but rather are pragmatic expressions of conceptually distinct, but complementary, and often overlapping management approaches conservation - prudent use of natural resources with an eye to the maintenance of future availability and productivity preservation - protection of an ecosystem or resource base from resource production

Peter Singer

founded on moral equality ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL - requires SENTIENCE to be in the moral sphere -requires INTERESTS to define if you can be harmed -ANTHROPOCENTRISM -UTALITARIANISM -CONSEQUENTIALIST - Bentham -most pleasure and least pain - australian born moral philosopher, specializing in applied ethics- committed utilitarian, his arguments typically aim at maximizing welfare - not wrong to kill an animal provided it lives a good life but best to adopt vegetarian diet

biocentric egalitarianism

four components: - humans are members of the earths community of life in the same sense and on the same terms in which other living things are members of that community - human species, along with all other species, are integral elements in a system of interdependence -all organisms are teleological centers of life in the same sense that each is a unique individual pursuing its own good in its own way - humans are not inherently superior to other living beings

reasonable ethical theory

guided by rational argumentation

ecofeminism and deep ecology

have come to similar conclusions ecofeminism adds that we need to look at who is at the table and recognize oppression

Light's Urban Environmental Ethic

highlight - the importance in ecological terms of environmental issues in the urban context - the regressive social dimensions of an anti urban bias in environmental thought

Lionfish

holistic ethics - focus on what duties we have to ecosystems and guide wildlife management projects -EAT THEM - promotes ecosystem health animal ethics -focus on what duties we have to individual animals and guide dietary choices Singer - lion fish would be placed in the moral sphere and their interests would be weighed against others in the utilitarian calculus EAT THEM Regan - well don't really know if it applies in this situation bc we dont know if it fits the ESL definition -pleasure and pain -satisfaction -sense of self not in moral sphere

anthropocentric

human beings are the most important entity in the universe (ego v. eco)

Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

humanitarian ethic - appreciation of the welfare of animals will not help us to understand or justify an environmental ethic

integrative approach

humans are unified in environmentalism not by shared value but by shared commitment and duty all contextual

Bryan Norton

intergenerational equity, sustainable theory, biodiversity policy and on valuation methods Norton's dilemma - sand dollars at the beach economic (utilitarian) value versus biocentrism

legal versus moral rights

legal rights - created and exist within legal systems moral rights - created from inherent value of a being - cannot be waved or traded, factored into calculations, replaced

Personal Ethic

made up of your personal values, principles, or rules of thumb that guide your individual decision making

Christopher Stone

natural objects should have legal standing some things that have rights: trusts corporations nation-states cities and municipalities thinks there will be initial resistance but that it will happen rights will give value to things

environmentalists dilemma

no shared understanding of human's relationship to the natural world

Biocentric Individualism

or egalitarianism -all organisms have equal intrinsic worth and should be considered when making decisions -do not put humans at the center of the moral system -human centered environmental ethic can value the environment or even require people to sacrifice for the environment but the ethical value of the environment has derives from the value of human beings - the forest is valuable because it has resources for us, because we get pleasure from walking in it, etc.

biosphere reserves

protected areas consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact focus on protecting biodiversity globally applicable allows mixed use (Watertown biosphere reserve)

1st project in environmental ethics

provide justifications for including non-humans and the environment in the moral sphere

Toxic Wastes and Race in the US

research showed poverty pockets resulted in the coining of 'environmental racism' and 'environmental justice' environmental racism - a type of discrimination where people of low-income or minority communities are forced to live in close proximity of environmentally hazardous or degraded environments such as toxic waste, pollution, and urban decay movements combine both descriptive and normative components to mandate action or the completion of a goal

Ethical Holism

right and wrong are a function of the well being of the entire community, not the well being of individuals alone. Leopold - the biosphere is the most important thing ,but this doesn't mean that individuals are not important, bc individuals depend on the ecosystem to survive Environmental Ethics: Environmental holism: The view that ecosystems and species have intrinsic value Pure Holism: The view that ONLY species and ecosystems have intrinsic value Animal Ethics: Sentientism: the view that only sentient beings have intrinsic value - NOT holistic

Ethic

set of rules, beliefs, and principles about right and wrong, justice and injustice, and good and bad that guide peoples behavior

Justice as Equality

the belief that everyone should get the same kind/amount of stuff and carry some burdens

Distributive Justice *

the distribution or sharing out of goods (resources) and bass (harm and risk)

ethical (or moral) decision-making

the process of evaluating and choosing the best action in a manner consistent with ethical principles and values

Bernie Rollins Animal Telos

the telos of an animal is the needs and desires that stem from its nature - greek for purpose, end, goal, we should follow the "maxim to respect telos" - Rollins

Procedural Justice

the ways in which decisions are made, who is involved and has influence

reed noss' argument

these integrative concepts are compatible with wilderness protection claims that callicott is basing his arguments on out of date practices wilderness preservation has not failed, multiple-use management has failed we no longer choose wilderness based on aesthetics freeze framing is not a thing

conservation

to Pinchot: - the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man in general: - foresighted utilization, preservation, and/or renewal of forests, waters, lands, and minerals, for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time - maximize use for humans

environmental cosmopolitanism

toward unity the idea that all human beings belong to a single community based on a shared morality ex. sand dollars individual actions need to be limited for the good of the whole, humans are part of the larger context, which includes ecosystems

Chipko Movement

vandana shiva 1950-60s movement in northern India started by women to stop deforestation

Social Ethics

views of right and wrong that are encoded in laws and policies "social consensus ethics"

Hetch Hetchy Valley

was within Yosemite National Park and protected by the federal government, congress allowed the city of San Francisco to build a dam here to provide water major case of conservation v. preservation, Pinchot v. muir Pinchot was full conservationist about it - anthropocentric wanted to use it as a resource. this was a blow to preservationists such as muir, who argued that they could have gotten water from "abundant adjacent sources" but wanted it from hetch hetchy because it would be cheapest

deep ecology: biocentric equality

we are all intrinsically valuable all beings in a biosphere have a living right to blossom (telos) Naess' ethic an ethic of minimum impacts - we should strive to minimize our impacts on other species meaning: mutual predation is acceptable

Palmer's animal ethic

we should not adopt a domesticated animal contract - human-animal relationships do not exhibit key components of social contract theory -the use of contract language implies free consent, but is not obtained because of power relations - the language is used to justify unequal relationships BECAUSE DOMESTICATION IS IRREVERSIBLE, WE HAVE A SPECIAL DUTY TO DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

Species Egalitarianism

when there is a conflict of interest between humans and animals, it is morally permissible to subordinate the more peripheral to the more basic interest but not otherwise. Taylor's argument: rejecting the notion of human superiority entails its positive counterpart: the doctrine of species impartiality. One who accepts that doctrine regards all living things as possessing inherent worth (the same inherent worth)

Justice as Recognition

who is given respect and who is and isnt valued

Isle Royale

wolf removal, now overpopulated with deer

Varner's two principles

worst-off principle - we should avoid harming the worst-off individual miniride principle - override the rights of the few rather than the rights of the many death is worst harm+worst-off principle Varner believes the death of a human is worse than the death of an animal because we hav more complex desires

Sylvan's thought experiment

you're the last man on earth and you'll die soon, would you destroy everything for fun? what would be wrong with it?