MLT 102 TEST 1

Atomic properties that correlate with the periodic table

- Atomic size - Ion size - Ionization energy - Electron Affinity

Conclusions of Bohr

- Nucleus is at the center & the negatively charged particles are called electrons - atoms absorb energy by excitation of electrons to higher energy levels, farther from the nucleus - atoms release energy by relaxation of electrons to lower energy levels - energy that is emitted upon relaxation is observed as a single wavelength of light, collection of photons - spectral lines are a result of electron transitions between allowed levels in the atom - allowed levels are quantized energy levels, or orbits - electrons are found only in these energy levels - highest energy orbits are located farthest from the nucleus

Mixture more in depth

- alcohol and water can be combined in a mixture - substances can coexist as pure substances because they do not undergo a chemical reaction - they exist thoroughly mixed discrete molecules - composition may be homogenous or heterogeneous

1,2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol)

- antifreeze - given color to make sure it is properly ID'd - when added to water in the radiator, lowers the freezing point and increases the boiling point of water

essential features of ionic bonding

- atoms with low ionization energy and low electron affinity tend to form positive ions (true with metals) - atoms with high ionization energy and high electron affinity tend to form negative ions (true for nonmetals) - ion formation takes place by the transfer of electrons - positive & negative ions are held together by electrostatic force between ions of opposite charge in an ionic bond - reactions with metals and nonmetals tend to form ionic compounds

Proton

- charge: +1 - Mass: 1 AMU - Symbol: p+,p, + - # of protons determines the identity of the atom

Neutron

- charge: neutral - mass: 1 AMU - symbol: N

methanol

- colorless, odorless that is used as a solvent - starting synthesis of formaldehyde - Robert Boyle produced the first isolated pure methanol "spirit of the box" - can cause blindness and death

the atom is composed of

- electron (e-) - neutron (N) - proton (p+)

Modern Theory

- electrons do not move in simple orbits. - motions are too complicated to know with exactness - probability of finding an electron in a region of space within the principle energy level (atomic orbit)

Atomic size

- energy level in which the outermost electrons are found increases as we go down a group - magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus increases - decreases from left to right with very few exceptions

Transition elements tend to

- form positive ions by losing electrons, just like representative metals - characterized as variable valence elements. depending on the type of substance they react with, they form more than one stable ion ex: Fe2+, Fe3+ (two stable ionic forms)

nonmetals

- found on the right side of the stair case shape line - tend to gain an electron during chemical reactions, forming negative ions

classification of organic compounds

- hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons) - substituted hydrocarbons

Metals and nonmetal ions

- metallic elements tend to form positively charged cations - nonmetals tend to form negatively charged anions

Properties of alkanes

- non-polar - insoluble in water - less dense than water - flammable in air - 1-4 carbons are gases - 5-17 carbons are liquids - more than 18 are white, waxy solids

physical properties of organic compounds

- nonpolar - not water soluble - soluble in non polar organic solvents - low melting points - low boiling points

unstable isotopes

- radioactive isotopes; either natural or artificially made - unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays - the nucleus of these atoms break apart spontaneously ex: x-ray and barium

Energy Levels

- regions around a nucleus where electrons may be found - electron orbits can hold only a certain number of electrons - energy levels correspond with the particular period (horizontal) the element is found - principle energy level is related to the average distance from the nucleus - electrons further from the nucleus are easier to remove than those closer to the nucleus ex: n=1: 2(1)^2 = 2 electrons / n=2: 2(2)^2 = 8 electrons

2-propanol

- rubbing alcohol - colorless and has odor, slightly toxic when ingested

Factors that influence reaction rate

- structure of the reacting species - molecular shape and orientation - concentration of reactants - temperature of reactants - physical state of reactants - presence of a catalyst

Electron

- surrounding the nucleus - determines the chemical behavior of atoms - charge: negative 1 - symbol: e or e- - mass: ZERO practically , but specifically 1/1832 AMU - when the # of protons = the # of electrons the atom is neutral because charges are balanced

The atom has two distinct regions

- the nucleus - the negatively charged area surrounding the nucleus (electron cloud)

ethanol

- the type of alcohol in alcoholic beverages - ethanol is denatured to prevent illegal use - colorless and odorless - used as a solvent and as a raw material for preparation of other organic chemicals

1,2,3-propanetriol

- viscious, sweet tasting, nontoxic liquid - very soluble in water - used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and lubricants - glycerol is obtained by the hydrolysis of fats

meth-

1

Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) all matter consists of tiny particles called atoms 2) an atom cannot be created, divided, destroyed, or converted to any other type of atom --- DISPROVED 3) atoms of a particular element have identical properties --- DISPROVED 4) atoms of different elements have different properties 5) atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to produce compounds 6) chemical change involves joining, separating, or rearranging atoms

Naming cycloalkanes

1. determine name of alkane with the number of carbon atoms 2. add the prefix cyclo-

IUPAC Nomenclature Steps: alkanes

1. determine the name of the parent compound (the longest carbon chain in the compound) 2. number the parent chain to give the lowest number to the carbon bonded to the first group encountered on the parent chain 3. name and number each atom or group attached to the parent compound 4. if the substitutent occurs more than once in the compound, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and so on will be used 5. place the names of the substituents in alphabetical order before the name of the parent compound (halogens always come first)

Alkene and Alkyne IUPAC nomenclature

1. name the parent compound 2. replace -ane with -ene for an alkene or the -yne ending for an alkyne A= 1 bond E= 2 bond Y= 3 bond

dec-

10

eta-

2

prop-

3

but-

4

pent-

5

hex-

6

hept-

7

oct-

8

non-

9

polar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally

Physical Chemistry

A discipline that attempts to explain the way in which matter behaves

saturated hydrocarbon

A hydrocarbon in which all the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds

Gaseous State

A physical state of matter characterized by a lack of fixed shape or volume and ease of compressibility

functional group

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions.

tertiary alcohol

An alcohol in which the hydroxyl (-OH) group is attached to a carbon that is in turn attached to three other carbons.

Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

stable isotopes

Atoms that do not breakdown spontaneously

decane

C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3

ethane

C2H6

propane

C3H8

butane

C4H10 / CH3(CH2)2CH3

pentane

C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3

hexane

C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3

heptane

C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3

octane

C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3

nonane

C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3

methane

CH4

cycloalkanes formula

CnH2n ex: C6H12 (6x2=12)

formula for alkane

CnH2n+2 ex: C4H10 (2x4)=8+2=10

Line formula

Condensed version of the structural formula, written all on one line and demonstrating the relationship of substituent groups in the molecule.

benzene ring

Consists of six carbon atoms, have alternating double and single bonds

unsaturated hydrocarbons

Contain at least one carbon-to-carbon double or triple bonds

Metalloids

Elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals. - boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium

Cycloalkanes

Family having C-C single bonds in a ring structure

allotropes

Forms of an element that have the same physical state but different properties

Groups of the periodic table

Group A: representative elements Group B: transition elements Group IA: alkali metals Group IIA: alkaline earth metals Group VIIA: halogens Group VIIA: Noble gases

alkenes

Hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds

Cations

Loss of one or more electrons by the parent atom (positive ions) - we like cats

Periodic Table History

Mendeleev and Meyer found a way of arranging elements in order of increasing atomic mass and such that elements with similar properties were grouped together in a table of elements

substituted hydrocarbon

Molecule in which one or more hydrogen atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms

Scientific Method Steps

Observation, Formulate a question, Pattern recognition, theory development, experimentation, information summarization

alkyne

R-C=-C-R 3 bonds propyne

alkene

R-C=C-H-H-R 2 bonds propene

aldehyde

R-C=O-H "I'm allergic to death" ethanal or could be formaldehyde

amide

R-C=O-NH2 aminos larger of the two ethanamide

ester

R-C=O-O-R "ester likes her coors" methyl ethanoate

ketone

R-C=O-R keto diet for core fat propanone

carboxylic acid

R-COOH "the cooh guy brings the OJ" ethanoic acid

amine

R-NH2 aminos smaller of the two aminoethane

ether

R-O-R used to be used in surgeries as sedative methoxymethane

alcohols have a general structure of

R-OH

alcohol

R-OH "OH this sucks" ethanol

carboxylic acid structure

RCOOH very polar mixes well with water think of vinegar and palm oil

alkanes

Saturated hydrocarbons; contain only carbon and hydrogen bonded together through C-H and C-C single bonds

condensed formula

Shows all the atoms in a molecule and places them in a sequential order.

Octet Rule

States that atoms lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of eight valence electrons

Inorganic Chemistry

Study of matter that consists of all the elements other than carbon and hydrogen and the combinations

Organic Chemistry

Study of matter that's comprised principally of carbon and hydrogen

Chemsitry

Study of matter, its chemical/physical properties, the chemical/physical changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes

Stock System

System of using a Roman numeral after the name to indicate the oxidation state. ex: CuCl = Copper(I) Chloride CuCl2 = Copper(II) Chloride FeCl2 = Iron(II) Chloride FeCl3 = Iron(III) Chloride

Aliphatic hydrocarbons

The 4 families of aliphatic hydrocarbons are alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

ionization energy

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom - the magnitude of the ionization energy should correlate with strength of the attractive force between nucleuses/ outermost election

esterfication

The formation of an ester in the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol dehydration reaction

Subscript

The numbers below the element symbols that show how many atoms of that element are in a compound - presence of only one atom is understood when no subscript is present

Common Nomenclature System

Uses -ous to indicate lower of the valence and -ic to indicate higher of the valence ex: FeCl2 = ferrous chloride / Cu2O = cuprous oxide FeCl3 = ferric chloride / CuO = cupric oxide

Mixture

a combo of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own identity.

Heterogeneous Mixture

a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout

diatomic molecule

a molecule that consists of two atoms of the same element

Solid State

a physical state of matter characterized by its rigidity and fixed volume and shape

Chemical Reactions

a process of rearranging, removing, replacing, or adding atoms to produce new substances

Extensive Properties

a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample

what families of organic compounds contain oxygen atoms bonded to carbon?

alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers

carboxylic acids

aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids, where as ketones don't undergo further oxidation

alkyl groups

alkanes with one fewer hydrogen atom (replace -ane with -yl)

which hydrocarbon contains at least one double bond?

alkene

Valence electrons in group IA

all have 1 valence electron (H, Li, Na, K)

Crooks and Goldstein Conclusions of Thompson Conclusions of Chadwick Conclusion of Rutherford

all indicate an atom has a positive, negative, and neutral most of an atom's mass & its positive charge is concentrated at the very small center of the nucleus

medically important amines

amphetamines, analgesics, anesthetics, decongestants, sulfa drugs

oxidation of a primary alcohol yields

an aldehyde

monatomic ion

an ion formed from a single atom

Analytical Chemistry

analysis of matter to determine the composition and quantity of each kind of matter that is present. LAB TECHS DO THIS

Atomic Theory

atoms are indestructible but can be relocated in chemical reactions

isotopes

atoms of the same element having different masses because they contain different numbers of neutrons ex: hydrogen, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), hydrogen-3 (tritium)

medically important amides

barbiturates sedatives anticonvulsants acetaminophen analgesics antibiotics

Atom

basic structural unit of an element

Major subdivisions of chemistry

biochemistry analytical chemistry physical chemistry organic chemistry inorganic chemistry

-CH2CH2CH2CH3

butyl

Horizontal rows of the periodic table

called periods

Physical properties

can be observed/measured without changing the chemical composition/identity of a substance

Chemical properties

change in composition and can be observed only through chemical reactions

Matter involved in a chemical reaction may

change structural composition and physical state

Chemical Properties

characteristics of a substance that relate to the substance's participation in a chemical reaction

Liquid

characterized by a fixed volume and the absence of a fixed shape

Gas

characterized by a lack of fixed shape, volume and an ease of compressibility

Solid

characterized by rigidity and fixed volume/shape

polyatomic ions

composed of two or more atoms bonded together - overall has a positive or negative charge

Covalent compounds are

compounds characterized by covalent bonding/collections of molecules

cis-trans isomers (geometric isomers)

consequence of the absence of free rotation

unsaturated hydrocarbon

contain at least one C-C double or triple bond

aromatic hydrocarbons

contains a benzene ring or derivative of the benzene ring

amines

derivatives of ammonia

aldehydes and ketones

dissolve in water the smaller members of the two families are reasonably soluble in water as the carbon chain increases, the less water soluble it will be

Valence electrons in noble gases

either have 2 valence electrons (He) or 8 valence electrons (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

two different types of pure substance

element/compound

in aldehydes, the carbonyl group is always located at the

end of the carbon chain

Atomic number

equal to the number of protons

mass number

equal to the total number of protons and neutrons of the atom # of protons + # of neutrons

The reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohol forms

ester and water

simplest alkene

ethene C2H4

CH2CH3

ethyl

simplest alkyne

ethyne (acetylene) C2H2

Chemical changes of matter will result in

formation of at least one entirely different substance with different chemical/physical properties

common carboxylic acids

formic acid - HCOOH - ant bite acetic acid - CH3COOH - vinegar propionic acid - CH3CH2COOH - Swiss cheese butyric acid - CH3CH2CH2COOH - stinks of rotten butter and gas gangrene lactic acid, citric acid, salicylic acid

the chemistry of organic and biological molecules is usually controlled by the

functional group found in the molecule

carbonyl compounds

functional group made up of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom

Anions

gain of one or more electrons by the parent atom (negative ions) - we don't like snakes

Alkenes

hydrocarbon with at least one C-C double bond

Alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)

hydrocarbon with at least one C-C triple bond

alkynes

hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms

Theory

hypothesis supported by extensive testing that explains scientific facts/can predict new facts

increase in a number of hydroxyl groups along a carbon chain will

increase the influence of the polar hydroxyl group

Covalent bonds

involve the sharing of electrons

what is a compound with the same molecular formula but different structure called?

isomers

oxidation of secondary alcohol

ketone

negative ions (anions) are

larger than the parent atom. - more electrons than protons and the pull is reduced for a larger radius

oxidation

loss of a hydrogen and gain of oxygen

Number of neutrons

mass number - number of proton

Extensive property examples

mass, volume, energy, solubility, concentration

Intensive property examples

melting point, boiling point, density, specific gravity

CH3

methyl

Homogeneous Mixture

mixture that consists of only one phase. uniform throughout

Alkane formula types

molecular formula, structural formula, condensed formula, line formula

hydrocarbon

molecule that consists only of carbon and hydrogen

isomers

molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures

stereoisomers

molecules that have the same structural formulas and bonding patterns but different arrangements of atoms in space

alcohols with 7 or more carbon atoms become

more insoluble

Benzene nomenclature

most simple benzene compounds are named as derivatives of benzene

Saturated hydrocarbons

no double or triple bonds can be cycloalkane or alkane

electronegativity differences

non polar = 0.6-1.9 covalent = </= 0.5 ionic = >/= 2.0

Scientific Law

nothing more than the summary of a large quantity of information

N=

number of carbons

Number of protons

number of electrons IF positive and negative charges cancel; the atom charge = 0

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

primary amine

one of the hydrogens is replaced by an organic group

primary alcohols

only one carbon attached to the carbon with the hydroxyl functional group

halide

only one with halogens R-Cl (or Br-, F-, I-) chloroethane

Valence Electrons

outermost electrons in an atom, which are involved, or have the potential to become involved in the bonding process - the group corresponds with the valence electrons

Oxygen Containing Radicals

oxygen containing ions with varying amounts of oxygen More oxygen = -ate Less oxygen = -ite ex: NaNO2 = sodium nitrite NaNO3 = sodium nitrate NaSO3 = sodium sulfite NaSO4 = sodium sulfate

carbon atoms can form stable bonds with

oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens

crystal lattice

positive & negative ions arrange themselves in a 3D repeating array to produce a stable arrangement

amides

products formed in a reaction between a carboxylic acid derivative and ammonia or amine

Physical Properties

properties that can be exhibited, measured, or observed without changing the chemical composition or identity of the sample

Intensive Properties

properties that do not depend on the amount of matter present

CH2CH2CH3

propyl

Element

pure substance that can't be changed into a simpler form ex: Na and Cl

element

pure substance that cannot be changed into a simpler form ex: hydrogen/oxygen

Isotope notation

representation of a specific isotopes

Formula

representation of the fundamental compound using chemical symbols and numerical subscripts

lewis symbols

show the valence electrons for an atom along with its symbol

propanone is the

simplest ketone (acetone)

Hypothesis

simply an attempt to explain an observation or a series of observations in a common sense way

Nucleus

small, dense, positively charged region in the center of the atom composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons

Positive ions (cations) are

smaller than the parent atom. - more protons than electrons and pulls closer to the nucleus

States of matter

solid, liquid, gas

amines of six or fewer carbons are

soluble in water

classify matter according to

state and composition

The Periodic Law

states that physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers The periodic table is the visual representation of the periodic law

compound

substance resulting from the combination of two or more elements in a definite, reproducible way ex: hydrogen & oxygen that form water (H2O)

Compound

substance resulting from the combo of two or more elements in a definite, reproducible way

Pure Substance

substance that has only one component

metals

substances who lose electrons during chemical reactions, forming positive ions - found on left hand side of the staircase shape line - characteristically luster and good conductors - most are solids at room temperature

Scientific Method

systematic approach to the discovery of new information

molecular formula

tells the kind and number of each type of atom in a molecule but DOES NOT SHOW THE BONDING TYPE

Energy

the ability to do work

structural formula shows

the arrangement of the atoms in a molecule

Nomenclature

the assignment of a correct and unambiguous name to each and every chemical compound

water solubility decreases as

the carbon chain increases

Writing ionic formulas

the cation appears first, followed by the anion

electron affinity

the energy change when a single electron is added to an isolated atom - typically decrease down a group and increase across the period

ethanal is produced in

the liver and is responsible for the symptoms of a hangover

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

the organization responsible for establishing and maintaining a standard universal system for naming organic compounds

Biochemistry

the study of life at the molecular level and processes associated with life, such as reproduction, growth, and respiration

Vertical columns of the periodic table

these elements share many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Called groups or families

alkatrienes

three double bonds

tertiary amines

three hydrogens are replaced

Ionic bonds

transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another

the system for naming ionic compounds is different from the system for naming covalent compounds

true

secondary alcohols

two carbons attached to the carbon with the hydroxyl functional group

alkadienes

two double bonds

secondary amine

two hydrogens are replaced

when fatty acids are

unsaturated=results in liquid (olive oil/canola oil) saturated=solid fat

chemical bonding

when two or more atoms form a chemical compound

in ketones, the carbonyl group is located

within the carbon chain of the molecule