MLT 102 TEST 1
Atomic properties that correlate with the periodic table
- Atomic size - Ion size - Ionization energy - Electron Affinity
Conclusions of Bohr
- Nucleus is at the center & the negatively charged particles are called electrons - atoms absorb energy by excitation of electrons to higher energy levels, farther from the nucleus - atoms release energy by relaxation of electrons to lower energy levels - energy that is emitted upon relaxation is observed as a single wavelength of light, collection of photons - spectral lines are a result of electron transitions between allowed levels in the atom - allowed levels are quantized energy levels, or orbits - electrons are found only in these energy levels - highest energy orbits are located farthest from the nucleus
Mixture more in depth
- alcohol and water can be combined in a mixture - substances can coexist as pure substances because they do not undergo a chemical reaction - they exist thoroughly mixed discrete molecules - composition may be homogenous or heterogeneous
1,2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol)
- antifreeze - given color to make sure it is properly ID'd - when added to water in the radiator, lowers the freezing point and increases the boiling point of water
essential features of ionic bonding
- atoms with low ionization energy and low electron affinity tend to form positive ions (true with metals) - atoms with high ionization energy and high electron affinity tend to form negative ions (true for nonmetals) - ion formation takes place by the transfer of electrons - positive & negative ions are held together by electrostatic force between ions of opposite charge in an ionic bond - reactions with metals and nonmetals tend to form ionic compounds
Proton
- charge: +1 - Mass: 1 AMU - Symbol: p+,p, + - # of protons determines the identity of the atom
Neutron
- charge: neutral - mass: 1 AMU - symbol: N
methanol
- colorless, odorless that is used as a solvent - starting synthesis of formaldehyde - Robert Boyle produced the first isolated pure methanol "spirit of the box" - can cause blindness and death
the atom is composed of
- electron (e-) - neutron (N) - proton (p+)
Modern Theory
- electrons do not move in simple orbits. - motions are too complicated to know with exactness - probability of finding an electron in a region of space within the principle energy level (atomic orbit)
Atomic size
- energy level in which the outermost electrons are found increases as we go down a group - magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus increases - decreases from left to right with very few exceptions
Transition elements tend to
- form positive ions by losing electrons, just like representative metals - characterized as variable valence elements. depending on the type of substance they react with, they form more than one stable ion ex: Fe2+, Fe3+ (two stable ionic forms)
nonmetals
- found on the right side of the stair case shape line - tend to gain an electron during chemical reactions, forming negative ions
classification of organic compounds
- hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons) - substituted hydrocarbons
Metals and nonmetal ions
- metallic elements tend to form positively charged cations - nonmetals tend to form negatively charged anions
Properties of alkanes
- non-polar - insoluble in water - less dense than water - flammable in air - 1-4 carbons are gases - 5-17 carbons are liquids - more than 18 are white, waxy solids
physical properties of organic compounds
- nonpolar - not water soluble - soluble in non polar organic solvents - low melting points - low boiling points
unstable isotopes
- radioactive isotopes; either natural or artificially made - unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays - the nucleus of these atoms break apart spontaneously ex: x-ray and barium
Energy Levels
- regions around a nucleus where electrons may be found - electron orbits can hold only a certain number of electrons - energy levels correspond with the particular period (horizontal) the element is found - principle energy level is related to the average distance from the nucleus - electrons further from the nucleus are easier to remove than those closer to the nucleus ex: n=1: 2(1)^2 = 2 electrons / n=2: 2(2)^2 = 8 electrons
2-propanol
- rubbing alcohol - colorless and has odor, slightly toxic when ingested
Factors that influence reaction rate
- structure of the reacting species - molecular shape and orientation - concentration of reactants - temperature of reactants - physical state of reactants - presence of a catalyst
Electron
- surrounding the nucleus - determines the chemical behavior of atoms - charge: negative 1 - symbol: e or e- - mass: ZERO practically , but specifically 1/1832 AMU - when the # of protons = the # of electrons the atom is neutral because charges are balanced
The atom has two distinct regions
- the nucleus - the negatively charged area surrounding the nucleus (electron cloud)
ethanol
- the type of alcohol in alcoholic beverages - ethanol is denatured to prevent illegal use - colorless and odorless - used as a solvent and as a raw material for preparation of other organic chemicals
1,2,3-propanetriol
- viscious, sweet tasting, nontoxic liquid - very soluble in water - used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and lubricants - glycerol is obtained by the hydrolysis of fats
meth-
1
Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory
1) all matter consists of tiny particles called atoms 2) an atom cannot be created, divided, destroyed, or converted to any other type of atom --- DISPROVED 3) atoms of a particular element have identical properties --- DISPROVED 4) atoms of different elements have different properties 5) atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to produce compounds 6) chemical change involves joining, separating, or rearranging atoms
Naming cycloalkanes
1. determine name of alkane with the number of carbon atoms 2. add the prefix cyclo-
IUPAC Nomenclature Steps: alkanes
1. determine the name of the parent compound (the longest carbon chain in the compound) 2. number the parent chain to give the lowest number to the carbon bonded to the first group encountered on the parent chain 3. name and number each atom or group attached to the parent compound 4. if the substitutent occurs more than once in the compound, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and so on will be used 5. place the names of the substituents in alphabetical order before the name of the parent compound (halogens always come first)
Alkene and Alkyne IUPAC nomenclature
1. name the parent compound 2. replace -ane with -ene for an alkene or the -yne ending for an alkyne A= 1 bond E= 2 bond Y= 3 bond
dec-
10
eta-
2
prop-
3
but-
4
pent-
5
hex-
6
hept-
7
oct-
8
non-
9
polar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
Physical Chemistry
A discipline that attempts to explain the way in which matter behaves
saturated hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon in which all the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds
Gaseous State
A physical state of matter characterized by a lack of fixed shape or volume and ease of compressibility
functional group
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions.
tertiary alcohol
An alcohol in which the hydroxyl (-OH) group is attached to a carbon that is in turn attached to three other carbons.
Matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
stable isotopes
Atoms that do not breakdown spontaneously
decane
C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3
ethane
C2H6
propane
C3H8
butane
C4H10 / CH3(CH2)2CH3
pentane
C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3
hexane
C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3
heptane
C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3
octane
C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3
nonane
C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3
methane
CH4
cycloalkanes formula
CnH2n ex: C6H12 (6x2=12)
formula for alkane
CnH2n+2 ex: C4H10 (2x4)=8+2=10
Line formula
Condensed version of the structural formula, written all on one line and demonstrating the relationship of substituent groups in the molecule.
benzene ring
Consists of six carbon atoms, have alternating double and single bonds
unsaturated hydrocarbons
Contain at least one carbon-to-carbon double or triple bonds
Metalloids
Elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals. - boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium
Cycloalkanes
Family having C-C single bonds in a ring structure
allotropes
Forms of an element that have the same physical state but different properties
Groups of the periodic table
Group A: representative elements Group B: transition elements Group IA: alkali metals Group IIA: alkaline earth metals Group VIIA: halogens Group VIIA: Noble gases
alkenes
Hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds
Cations
Loss of one or more electrons by the parent atom (positive ions) - we like cats
Periodic Table History
Mendeleev and Meyer found a way of arranging elements in order of increasing atomic mass and such that elements with similar properties were grouped together in a table of elements
substituted hydrocarbon
Molecule in which one or more hydrogen atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
Scientific Method Steps
Observation, Formulate a question, Pattern recognition, theory development, experimentation, information summarization
alkyne
R-C=-C-R 3 bonds propyne
alkene
R-C=C-H-H-R 2 bonds propene
aldehyde
R-C=O-H "I'm allergic to death" ethanal or could be formaldehyde
amide
R-C=O-NH2 aminos larger of the two ethanamide
ester
R-C=O-O-R "ester likes her coors" methyl ethanoate
ketone
R-C=O-R keto diet for core fat propanone
carboxylic acid
R-COOH "the cooh guy brings the OJ" ethanoic acid
amine
R-NH2 aminos smaller of the two aminoethane
ether
R-O-R used to be used in surgeries as sedative methoxymethane
alcohols have a general structure of
R-OH
alcohol
R-OH "OH this sucks" ethanol
carboxylic acid structure
RCOOH very polar mixes well with water think of vinegar and palm oil
alkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons; contain only carbon and hydrogen bonded together through C-H and C-C single bonds
condensed formula
Shows all the atoms in a molecule and places them in a sequential order.
Octet Rule
States that atoms lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of eight valence electrons
Inorganic Chemistry
Study of matter that consists of all the elements other than carbon and hydrogen and the combinations
Organic Chemistry
Study of matter that's comprised principally of carbon and hydrogen
Chemsitry
Study of matter, its chemical/physical properties, the chemical/physical changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes
Stock System
System of using a Roman numeral after the name to indicate the oxidation state. ex: CuCl = Copper(I) Chloride CuCl2 = Copper(II) Chloride FeCl2 = Iron(II) Chloride FeCl3 = Iron(III) Chloride
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
The 4 families of aliphatic hydrocarbons are alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom - the magnitude of the ionization energy should correlate with strength of the attractive force between nucleuses/ outermost election
esterfication
The formation of an ester in the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol dehydration reaction
Subscript
The numbers below the element symbols that show how many atoms of that element are in a compound - presence of only one atom is understood when no subscript is present
Common Nomenclature System
Uses -ous to indicate lower of the valence and -ic to indicate higher of the valence ex: FeCl2 = ferrous chloride / Cu2O = cuprous oxide FeCl3 = ferric chloride / CuO = cupric oxide
Mixture
a combo of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own identity.
Heterogeneous Mixture
a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout
diatomic molecule
a molecule that consists of two atoms of the same element
Solid State
a physical state of matter characterized by its rigidity and fixed volume and shape
Chemical Reactions
a process of rearranging, removing, replacing, or adding atoms to produce new substances
Extensive Properties
a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample
what families of organic compounds contain oxygen atoms bonded to carbon?
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers
carboxylic acids
aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids, where as ketones don't undergo further oxidation
alkyl groups
alkanes with one fewer hydrogen atom (replace -ane with -yl)
which hydrocarbon contains at least one double bond?
alkene
Valence electrons in group IA
all have 1 valence electron (H, Li, Na, K)
Crooks and Goldstein Conclusions of Thompson Conclusions of Chadwick Conclusion of Rutherford
all indicate an atom has a positive, negative, and neutral most of an atom's mass & its positive charge is concentrated at the very small center of the nucleus
medically important amines
amphetamines, analgesics, anesthetics, decongestants, sulfa drugs
oxidation of a primary alcohol yields
an aldehyde
monatomic ion
an ion formed from a single atom
Analytical Chemistry
analysis of matter to determine the composition and quantity of each kind of matter that is present. LAB TECHS DO THIS
Atomic Theory
atoms are indestructible but can be relocated in chemical reactions
isotopes
atoms of the same element having different masses because they contain different numbers of neutrons ex: hydrogen, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), hydrogen-3 (tritium)
medically important amides
barbiturates sedatives anticonvulsants acetaminophen analgesics antibiotics
Atom
basic structural unit of an element
Major subdivisions of chemistry
biochemistry analytical chemistry physical chemistry organic chemistry inorganic chemistry
-CH2CH2CH2CH3
butyl
Horizontal rows of the periodic table
called periods
Physical properties
can be observed/measured without changing the chemical composition/identity of a substance
Chemical properties
change in composition and can be observed only through chemical reactions
Matter involved in a chemical reaction may
change structural composition and physical state
Chemical Properties
characteristics of a substance that relate to the substance's participation in a chemical reaction
Liquid
characterized by a fixed volume and the absence of a fixed shape
Gas
characterized by a lack of fixed shape, volume and an ease of compressibility
Solid
characterized by rigidity and fixed volume/shape
polyatomic ions
composed of two or more atoms bonded together - overall has a positive or negative charge
Covalent compounds are
compounds characterized by covalent bonding/collections of molecules
cis-trans isomers (geometric isomers)
consequence of the absence of free rotation
unsaturated hydrocarbon
contain at least one C-C double or triple bond
aromatic hydrocarbons
contains a benzene ring or derivative of the benzene ring
amines
derivatives of ammonia
aldehydes and ketones
dissolve in water the smaller members of the two families are reasonably soluble in water as the carbon chain increases, the less water soluble it will be
Valence electrons in noble gases
either have 2 valence electrons (He) or 8 valence electrons (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
two different types of pure substance
element/compound
in aldehydes, the carbonyl group is always located at the
end of the carbon chain
Atomic number
equal to the number of protons
mass number
equal to the total number of protons and neutrons of the atom # of protons + # of neutrons
The reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohol forms
ester and water
simplest alkene
ethene C2H4
CH2CH3
ethyl
simplest alkyne
ethyne (acetylene) C2H2
Chemical changes of matter will result in
formation of at least one entirely different substance with different chemical/physical properties
common carboxylic acids
formic acid - HCOOH - ant bite acetic acid - CH3COOH - vinegar propionic acid - CH3CH2COOH - Swiss cheese butyric acid - CH3CH2CH2COOH - stinks of rotten butter and gas gangrene lactic acid, citric acid, salicylic acid
the chemistry of organic and biological molecules is usually controlled by the
functional group found in the molecule
carbonyl compounds
functional group made up of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom
Anions
gain of one or more electrons by the parent atom (negative ions) - we don't like snakes
Alkenes
hydrocarbon with at least one C-C double bond
Alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)
hydrocarbon with at least one C-C triple bond
alkynes
hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms
Theory
hypothesis supported by extensive testing that explains scientific facts/can predict new facts
increase in a number of hydroxyl groups along a carbon chain will
increase the influence of the polar hydroxyl group
Covalent bonds
involve the sharing of electrons
what is a compound with the same molecular formula but different structure called?
isomers
oxidation of secondary alcohol
ketone
negative ions (anions) are
larger than the parent atom. - more electrons than protons and the pull is reduced for a larger radius
oxidation
loss of a hydrogen and gain of oxygen
Number of neutrons
mass number - number of proton
Extensive property examples
mass, volume, energy, solubility, concentration
Intensive property examples
melting point, boiling point, density, specific gravity
CH3
methyl
Homogeneous Mixture
mixture that consists of only one phase. uniform throughout
Alkane formula types
molecular formula, structural formula, condensed formula, line formula
hydrocarbon
molecule that consists only of carbon and hydrogen
isomers
molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures
stereoisomers
molecules that have the same structural formulas and bonding patterns but different arrangements of atoms in space
alcohols with 7 or more carbon atoms become
more insoluble
Benzene nomenclature
most simple benzene compounds are named as derivatives of benzene
Saturated hydrocarbons
no double or triple bonds can be cycloalkane or alkane
electronegativity differences
non polar = 0.6-1.9 covalent = </= 0.5 ionic = >/= 2.0
Scientific Law
nothing more than the summary of a large quantity of information
N=
number of carbons
Number of protons
number of electrons IF positive and negative charges cancel; the atom charge = 0
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
primary amine
one of the hydrogens is replaced by an organic group
primary alcohols
only one carbon attached to the carbon with the hydroxyl functional group
halide
only one with halogens R-Cl (or Br-, F-, I-) chloroethane
Valence Electrons
outermost electrons in an atom, which are involved, or have the potential to become involved in the bonding process - the group corresponds with the valence electrons
Oxygen Containing Radicals
oxygen containing ions with varying amounts of oxygen More oxygen = -ate Less oxygen = -ite ex: NaNO2 = sodium nitrite NaNO3 = sodium nitrate NaSO3 = sodium sulfite NaSO4 = sodium sulfate
carbon atoms can form stable bonds with
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens
crystal lattice
positive & negative ions arrange themselves in a 3D repeating array to produce a stable arrangement
amides
products formed in a reaction between a carboxylic acid derivative and ammonia or amine
Physical Properties
properties that can be exhibited, measured, or observed without changing the chemical composition or identity of the sample
Intensive Properties
properties that do not depend on the amount of matter present
CH2CH2CH3
propyl
Element
pure substance that can't be changed into a simpler form ex: Na and Cl
element
pure substance that cannot be changed into a simpler form ex: hydrogen/oxygen
Isotope notation
representation of a specific isotopes
Formula
representation of the fundamental compound using chemical symbols and numerical subscripts
lewis symbols
show the valence electrons for an atom along with its symbol
propanone is the
simplest ketone (acetone)
Hypothesis
simply an attempt to explain an observation or a series of observations in a common sense way
Nucleus
small, dense, positively charged region in the center of the atom composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons
Positive ions (cations) are
smaller than the parent atom. - more protons than electrons and pulls closer to the nucleus
States of matter
solid, liquid, gas
amines of six or fewer carbons are
soluble in water
classify matter according to
state and composition
The Periodic Law
states that physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers The periodic table is the visual representation of the periodic law
compound
substance resulting from the combination of two or more elements in a definite, reproducible way ex: hydrogen & oxygen that form water (H2O)
Compound
substance resulting from the combo of two or more elements in a definite, reproducible way
Pure Substance
substance that has only one component
metals
substances who lose electrons during chemical reactions, forming positive ions - found on left hand side of the staircase shape line - characteristically luster and good conductors - most are solids at room temperature
Scientific Method
systematic approach to the discovery of new information
molecular formula
tells the kind and number of each type of atom in a molecule but DOES NOT SHOW THE BONDING TYPE
Energy
the ability to do work
structural formula shows
the arrangement of the atoms in a molecule
Nomenclature
the assignment of a correct and unambiguous name to each and every chemical compound
water solubility decreases as
the carbon chain increases
Writing ionic formulas
the cation appears first, followed by the anion
electron affinity
the energy change when a single electron is added to an isolated atom - typically decrease down a group and increase across the period
ethanal is produced in
the liver and is responsible for the symptoms of a hangover
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
the organization responsible for establishing and maintaining a standard universal system for naming organic compounds
Biochemistry
the study of life at the molecular level and processes associated with life, such as reproduction, growth, and respiration
Vertical columns of the periodic table
these elements share many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Called groups or families
alkatrienes
three double bonds
tertiary amines
three hydrogens are replaced
Ionic bonds
transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another
the system for naming ionic compounds is different from the system for naming covalent compounds
true
secondary alcohols
two carbons attached to the carbon with the hydroxyl functional group
alkadienes
two double bonds
secondary amine
two hydrogens are replaced
when fatty acids are
unsaturated=results in liquid (olive oil/canola oil) saturated=solid fat
chemical bonding
when two or more atoms form a chemical compound
in ketones, the carbonyl group is located
within the carbon chain of the molecule