module 5 - FORSENSICS

The Relative Judgement Conceptualization This conceptualization is a huge part of how we should be thinking about identification, and it stipulates that....

This conceptualization is a huge part of how we should be thinking about identification, and it stipulates that a witness isn't looking for an absolute fit to their memory of a perpetrator in a lineup, they are looking to identify who looks MOST like the perpetrator out of the lineup (which is qualitatively different as an evaluation). This only works well if the actual perpetrator is in the lineup. It is terrible if he is not. We know that not telling the witness that the perpetrator might not be in the lineup makes this effect even worse (they are less likely to simply state that the person is not present).

after doing factor analysis not he checklist what 2 general factors did they find? what are the two facts for each factor? what are some criticisms ppl have about this?

factor 1 - affective/interpersonal components (last two dont correlate that well) factor 2 - impulsive/antisocial components criticimss - 2 factors or 4? - predictor criterion overlap - psychopathy and crime have something overlapping (eg. juvenile delinquency - circular)(should get rid of these traits cuz of course they predict it - it is it )

in the false memory turning point what did he find

were given a list at begging of class asked to say which word appeared in the list --> 50% said taste, 50% of the classs said sweet (wasn't on list) its cuz all the words were related to sweet

MODULE 5.1 FORENSICS for quiz 5 Don't memorize p. 500 in "Forensic" reading (focus on the Magnificent Seven in this lecture instead)

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Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) - how does it work?

◦ A picture memory test ◦ Pictures are shown and then the patient is asked whether they recognize them 20 minutes later - eg. horse picture, after test u have to point to the one you've seen Test is out of 50 Normal functioning: average score ~50 (100%) --> so easy the ppl should get 100% most of the time Malingering strategies: ◦ Get them all wrong (score = 0) ◦ Answer "randomly" (score = 25%) ◦ Sophisticated malingerer--> slightly better (score = 25-50%) BUT, base rate for severe brain injury is actually around 40 (80%) **so malingerers will do way worse than worse case scenario cuz they dont know this base rate

So is it possible to predict rare (but important) events? examples

◦ E.g., murder ◦ E.g., suicide ◦ E.g., radicalization to terrorism Not really. of base rate is 1 million - theres no test to asses that - if u do try to predict it you'll get a bunch of false positives You can say some people are at higher risk, butmost of them still won't participate in the rare event.

what is another fundamental problem he brings up?

Another fundamental problem: Are those labeled with a psychological disorder held accountable? - Balme the mad (psychotic) the sad (depressed/anxious) and the bad (antisocial) differently - dont Balme ppl with psychotic, sort of blame depressive and definetly blame antisocial - even tho they all have genetic inputs etc. and environemtnal factors but we blame them all so diff - we have a tendency to want to blame the bad ◦ If so, they are blamed for their condition but are also empowered to change it (responsibility + empowerment) ◦ If not, they are excused for their illness but are disempowered to change it wife example - short cuz pf genes and Mal nourished - is this her fault? no. because of her genetics and env - she's less likely gonna want to go for a walk (1 step of her husbands is 3 of hers) - makes sense to not want to walk - similarly with depression.... person gets depressive genes and has env. - like his wife trying to go for a walk up the hill - getting tired, not enjoying it, avoiding It - of course they can get out of bed etc. but tits so much more punishing and less rewarding - there are ways to get around this and help this depressive person etc. like making her like walks more - good for getting rid of stigma but the control is out of their hands - not empowered to make changes

Therefore, all things being equal, what kind of events do assessments best predict?

Close to 50% (50:50) as soon as u go to one way fo the extreme you're getting either type 1 or 2 errors - if u wanna be a suicide researcher ur gonna get stuck cuz its so rare - so hey try to predict more common things like self harm, attempts - so ur able to measure it, fit it ethology etc.

Let's take the last example (80% accurate): ◦ 100 diseased, 100,000 healthy 80/(80+20,000) = 0.4% can we correct this by making it more accurate?

Even if we made the test incredible (99% accurate): ◦ 100 diseased, 100,000 healthy 99/(99+1,000) = 9% --> But no test is 99% accurate (lower reliability and validity) --> wed end up with way too many false positives

With an 80% accuracy rate... For every 100 diseased people, the test will say For every 100 healthy people, the test will say Therefore, test is 80% correct whether you are healthy or not BUT, that's assuming......

For every 100 diseased people, the test will say ◦ 80 are diseased (true positive) ◦ 20 are healthy (false negative; Type II error) (doc tells pregame's women ur not pregnant) For every 100 healthy people, the test will say ◦ 80 are healthy (true negative) ◦ 20 are diseased (false positive; Type I error) (tell someone she's pregnant when she's not) Therefore, test is 80% correct whether you are healthy or not BUT, that's assuming the base rates are the same (the example uses 100 diseased:100 healthy) Usually disease is rare, not a 1:1 ratio What does this mean for the usefulness of tests?

MODULE 5.3 ETHICS

Most of what we assess is relatively rare Is it ethical to assess these kind of events? Recall our discussion of Base Rates ◦ Test for a disease, "positive" means you have the disease, "negative" means you don't have the disease ◦ If a test is 80% accurate, there are four possible outcomes...

Psychologists often assess for psychopathic traits in prisoners as part of a risk assessment Most common measure is the ________

Psychologists often assess for psychopathic traits in prisoners as part of a risk assessment -- get a detailed history of their case etc before meeting them in person -> looking at persons file - but problem is person can never change their file - if their psychopathic traits go away that won't be represented in their file Most common measure is the Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R) The PCL-R is a 2-hour interview ◦ Asks about life: childhood, school, work, relationships, criminal acts, substance use, etc. ◦ More than gathering facts, the interview is used to gain a sense of their interpersonal, emotional, and behavioural nature ◦ After the interview, the psychologist gives the individual a score of 0, 1, or 2 on the 20 PCL-R items - made by haier

what about predicting very COMMON events? E.g., getting married (90%) ◦ E.g., getting a cold in the next 20 years (99.9%) ◦ E.g., not murdering someone (99.999%) - do we have the same problem?

Same problem, but proliferation of false negatives rather than false positives

the concept of psychopathy can be traced back to Emil Kraepelin, but is usually attributed historically to Cleckley, who published the ________, which identified a number of personality traits and behavioral signs. The key qualities appear to be the following (according to Cleckley):

"The Mask of Sanity The key qualities appear to be the following (according to Cleckley): Lack of remorse Charming qualities Usage of other people A life that lacks any goal or direction Good at lying Poor judgement Incapable of love

What is the extent of our power? Is it ethical to assess and diagnose personality disorders—who are we to say what the right personality is?

- personality disorders are essentially saying you yourself are wrong - diff than saying u have this thing - are we ever right to say who u are as a person is wrong and sick?

optical illusions - what do they tell us ? honey bee vs human

--> brain generates reality based on the info it has - has no way of telling what's rlly there - top down: u see what u know ---> its an interpretation of a signal eg. when we see movement in these *ur mind generates the planet in front of u as it sees fit for your specific task - allows u to survive best on the planet eg. what a honey bee sees a flower like vs how we do --> same energy field in nature but honey bee has a totally different perception of it - what is "reality" then??? which of these minds gives the accurate relfectiopn - We dont know what actually Is out there - many worlds are possible and it depends on the mind interacting with "what is out there" and how the world of this mind will look like -- - our interaction with energy int he environment makes the energy take a specific form - eg. like matter - defined by ur interactions with it - it forms with eowlrd as we know it - because human minds fundamentally are using the same operations, we agree substantially on what the human world looks like --> honey bee would complete disagree on what the world looks like

INDUCING FALSE MEMORIES Present short movie of car accident. Two weeks later, answer several questions about accident. The two critical questions are:

1. "How fast were the vehicles when they ..." G1: "... smashed into each other?" G2: "... hit each other?" 2. "Did you see broken glass?" - do u have a visual memory of broken glass - ppl who have higher speed estimates are more likely to declare they've seen broken glass - use your knowledge to reconstruct the visual scene

What does this case illustrate? 6

1. A general misunderstanding about human memory which says that memory gets better over time This is the only reason, other than a need for a perpetrator, that the judge might have been willing to accept an identification over 3 850 days after the offence occurred. 2. Detectives' lack of understand of the power of suggestion More than what I wrote before this, the detectives also predict the outcome of the subsequent lineup for her ("you identify this individual as absolutely unequivocally, without a doubt the guy that was there"). 3. Source Monitoring Problems The victim is completely unaware that the reason she recognizes this person is that police have shown her his picture before. 4. Certainty of an Eyewitness does not correlate to its accuracy 5. Eyewitness accounts are a product of variables that can include thing other than the memory 6. The justice system fails to take advantage of what is known about human memory

7 Ways of Detecting Malingering, "The Magnificent Seven"

1. Rare Symptoms. Malingerers are often unaware of which symptoms are rare among patients with genuine disorders. Malingerers over-endorse these rare symptoms. 2. Absurd Symptoms. Malingerers can present unlikely symptoms that have a very bizarre or fantastic quality. E.g., a patient reports seeing Satan's head growing from his wife'sshoulder and that it keeps singing Selena Gomez songs. 3. Unlikely Symptom Combinations. Many malingerers do not consider which symptoms are unlikely to occur together (i.e., symptom combinations). E.g., hopelessness and grandiosity are unlikely to occur together. - if they just endorse all symptoms - some are negatively correlated 4. Extreme Symptoms. Most genuine patients experience symptoms on a continuum from mild to moderate or even extreme. Malingerers often do not appreciate this continuum and report many/all symptoms as extreme. 5. Diverse symptoms. Some malingerers endorse nearly all of the symptoms presented for a disorder(s). Genuine patients typically do not report such an array of diverse symptoms. - not about if they're common - just that they usually don't endorse only 5/11 - they'll do 11/11 6. Obvious vs. Subtle Symptoms. Malingerers tend to focus on "obvious" symptoms clearly indicative of a mental disorder and overlook "subtle" symptoms that are not immediately associated with that disorder. In feigning schizophrenia, positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations) may be emphasized and negative symptoms (e.g., facial masking) ignored. 7. Reported versus Observed Symptoms. When a clinician mentions these inconsistencies between reported symptoms and observed symptoms (e.g., a patient reports having poor concentration but seems capable of focusing on an extended interview), genuine patients are unlikely to deteriorate suddenly. Malingerers can suddenly show worse symptoms.

Here are a few of the reasons that a false memory might arise: (3) When these 3 factors are present, it is particularly easy to elicit false memories. Overall, you could define this process as the process of...

1. Researchers exert some pressure on participants in a study to come up with memories 2. Memory construction by imagining events can be explicitly encouraged when people are having trouble remembering 3. Individuals can be encouraged not to think about whether their constructions are real or not When these 3 factors are present, it is particularly easy to elicit false memories. Overall, you could define this process as the process of taking real memories and adding details/implications that make it impossible to monitor the source of something.

Defining Competency to Stand Trial This term refers to 4 elements/distinctions that are crucial to its definition: diff between mental illness and incompetency to stand trial?

1. The Capacity to Understand to Criminal Process 2. The Capacity to Participate in that Process (ex. Prepare a defense with a lawyer) 3. The Capacity to relate to Counsel and to Understand the Proceedings (not just their willingness) 4. A reasonable degree of understanding (does not have to be full or complete) It is important to recognize that legal insanity and legal incompetency to stand trial are different (most importantly, they both measure levels of functioning, but at different times). Incompetency also doesn't necessarily mean mental illness (although it sometimes does).

A question that wasn't really addressed in our class are the specific differences between the M'Naughten Rule and the Model Penal Code Rule. Here they are:

1. The Penal Code acknowledges the emotional determinants of criminal action (it uses the word "appreciate"). 2. The Code does not require a TOTAL lack of appreciation, the lack of appreciation just has to be fairly large. 3. It includes volitional and cognitive elements of criminality (the inability to control ones' actions is crucial).

The Federal Rules for Evidence (1975) govern the standards for expert witnesses in courts (4)

1. The witness has to be a qualified expert (the judge makes this decision) 2. The expert has to provide knowledge that goes further than the knowledge and experience of the average juror 3. The knowledge cannot prejudice members of the jury or confuse the issue at hand 4. The testimony must map on to a generally accepted theory

Determining Competency to Stand Trial what is the amendment that guarantees are citizens the rights to an impartial, speedy and public trial with benefit of counsel?

6th US Amendment: an amendment that guarantees are citizens the rights to an impartial, speedy and public trial with benefit of counsel. Mental illness or incompetency to stand trial gets in the way of such a rightful process. The term "competency to stand trial" in itself is a little bit confusing, though.

Proving Incompetency to Stand Trial A lot of different tests can actually be used for this. _____is sometimes cited as a source (moderate and any higher levels of mental retardation are grounds for this). esides the classic intelligence tests, we can also use the ________ which consists of 22 items grouped into three subscales of psycholegal abilities: what are the 3 sub scales? how does the test work?

A lot of different tests can actually be used for this. Low IQ is sometimes cited as a source (moderate and any higher levels of mental retardation are grounds for this). The MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool - Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA) 3 psychological abilites: 1. Understanding ("what is the job of the defendant's lawyer") 2. Reasoning (options for the defendant) 3. Appreciation (ability to function in the story, etc.) A hypothetical short story is read out about a trial, and questions are asked for each of the psycholegal abilities above (see parentheses). The questions are score 0, 1 or 2. There are 8 items for the two first subscales, and 6 for the last. Factor analysis has confirmed these three subscales. A serious concern here is obviously the issue of malingering.

structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) - what does it use to detect malingering? - good____, bad_____

A widely-used structured clinical interview that goes through many different symptoms and disorders Uses magnificent seven criteria to detect malingering Good sensitivity (correct detection of malingerers) Bad specificity (it can also "catch" real patients) Invalid in prisoners/intellectual disability cases? - cuz the specificity isn't great they dont use it here

how do our connections change after making an estimate?

CHANGES OF CONNECTION WEIGHTS (RECALL PROBABILITY) when u produce that estimate, something happens in the knowledge base u have - the estimate becomes part of the image set and the things u used to generate that estimate increase in weight because they were relevant - more likely to be used in the future. - the answer (eg. 423 bones) will be integrated and things that are relevant and support that will be weighted heavier too - new image set after u produced the question - completely altered -after all this if ur asked to estimate again - the chance that u take the original info to generate ur estimate is lower cuz the items that support the conclusion before are more weighted now - now u reproduce ur recollection its biased towards that wierghte info basically: each time u use ur knowledge it will change the way its used in the future !!! u can't go back to the original state - theres no rest button - all ru memories u have at this very moment is what u have - u can't go back to the original memory - have to relearn

How do These Memories form, then? what was a key point of aid in creating false memories? Studies of blame assignment in which a confederate claims they saw a participant break a computer by pressing a key often lead to....

Corroboration by a trusted source that something happened was certainly a key point of aid in creating false memories in many of the studies mentioned in this reading. Studies of blame assignment in which a confederate claims they saw a participant break a computer by pressing a key often lead to confessions (and the development of false memories to support those feelings of guilt).

Bartletts seminal studies - he defined the "_____" what were his experienmtns based on? - memories are a mix of ...

DEFINITION OF "SCHEMATA" Frederic Bartlett 1886-1969 gave college students stories to read - based this experiment on this... "'Schema' refers to an active organisation of past reactions, [...]. That is, whenever there is any order or regularity of behaviour, a particular response is possible only because it is related to other similar responses which [...].Determination by schemata is the most fundamental of all the ways in which we can be influenced by reactions and experiences which occurred some time in the past." - believes we acquire knwoledge in our existence and this is transformed into an abstract concept of certain things- whenever we encounter something that can be fit into this schematic representations - it can be considered an instance of this - and this knowledge can be used to organize what u experience right now - experience based on what u know from the past - a mix of what's happening rn and what u know from the past - all gets taken together to form a memory of what just happened - a memory of what is enriched or abstracted by what u already know

updating conditioned responses - when they disrupted conditioned fear with drugs that blocked learning in rats - explain experiment

DISRUPTING CONDITIONED FEAR WITH DRUGS THAT BLOCK LEARNING - learned to fear a tone cuz paired with foot shock - will be afraid when hear tone - do the same thing but on day two when u remind the animal of fear by playing tone - u give a drug that blocks learning - the next day the rat isn't afraid - reminding them of the fear - this becomes plastic - needs to be updated cuz info in the envirnemnte might be relevant - if u mess with these processes the memory can't stabilize - reconsolidation - can fundamentally change.erase the memory in this moment

what are the top 9 assessment-related behaviours to avoid?

Don't use assessments that produce poor- quality data or scores or you are not qualified to administer, score, and interpret. Don't base high-stakes decisions on the results of a single assessment Don't let your personal preferences and biases impact the scoring of assessments (can happen in a positive way if they need services) Don't breach confidentiality regarding assessment information Don't use technical jargon without a clear, commonsense explanation Don't ignore the special assessment needs of persons with disabilities or diverse linguistic/cultural backgrounds Don't make changes to standardized materials, or to administration procedures, without validation work indicating how these changes affect performance Don't assume that because an "expert"(you included) made up a set of test questions, they will work as intended Don't assume that the name of the scale isactually what the scale measures

Dr. Robert Hare at the University of British Columbia is the first to develop a scale used to then identify people who might qualify as psychopaths: The______________. We've discussed all of the details of this scale in class. The ratings are based on a......the ratings are based on .....instead of just the...

Dr. Robert Hare at the University of British Columbia is the first to develop a scale used to then identify people who might qualify as psychopaths: The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). We've discussed all of the details of this scale in class. The ratings are based on a semi-structured interview, and the ratings are based on lifetime functioning instead of just the present state.

which factor is linked to Antisocial PD? which is

Factor 2 Impulsive/Antisocial Components --> linked to ASPD factor 1 - Affective/Interpersonal Components - Sometimes referred to as the primary essence of psychopathy ---> if ur rlly callous and manipulative thats what makes psychopathy diff from ASPD

Loftus Research In this experiment, participants were shown footage of an automobile accident occurring at a stop sign. After the viewing, half the participants received a suggestion that the traffic sign was a yield sign. They later asked them what kind of traffic sign they had seen at the scene. findings? Throughout other studies as well, Loftus has consistently (and with a lot of ease) been able to..... We know a lot of things about it now, including the fact that the misinformation effect is especially efficient when ....

Finding: When asked later what traffic sign they remembered seeing at the intersection, those who had been given the suggestion tended to claim that they had seen a yield sign. Throughout other studies as well, Loftus has consistently (and with a lot of ease) been able to make participants "recall" incredibly specific things that had been suggested to them without their explicit knowledge. We know a lot of things about it now, including the fact that the misinformation effect is especially efficient when we let some time pass during which the original memory might fade.

It is physically impossible for young children to remember things about the first year of their life for brain maturation reasons (hippocampus development). is it still possible to implant memories in this period in people? Spanos Research This team used both hypnotism, imagination/mnemonic restructuring to make the people in the study believe that the reason they had good hand-eye coordination was because of a mobile they had in their crib at the hospital. findings? this means that.......

Findings: Both groups remembered the mobile at high rates (the guided restructuring group a little bit better than the others (95% VS 70%). A lot of people who did not recall the mobile could still muster up some information about the scenes (ex. Nurses and doctors). 49% felt that these were real memories. This means that hypnosis and other intense measures are not even crucial, this can be done in much simpler ways.

For some of the defenses that can be used in court, an evaluation of the _____(MSO), and one of these is the insanity plea/the _______ plea. This plea is, first and foremost, not at all as common as is depicted in media, and it is largely responsible for less recidivism rates and positive outcomes. The definitions used to decide whether the insanity plea might be appropriate have developed over time. In class, we discussed the M'Naughten Rule, the Durham Rule and the Model Penal Code Rule. There is an additional one mentioned in this reading: the_______ ________ are also added to the M'Naughten Rule in this reading, which is the idea that.....

For some of the defenses that can be used in court, an evaluation of the Mental State at the time of the Offense (MSO), and one of these is the insanity plea/the not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) plea. This plea is, first and foremost, not at all as common as is depicted in media, and it is largely responsible for less recidivism rates and positive outcomes. The definitions used to decide whether the insanity plea might be appropriate have developed over time. In class, we discussed the M'Naughten Rule, the Durham Rule and the Model Penal Code Rule. There is an additional one mentioned in this reading: the Guilty But Mentally Ill (GBMI) verdict. Irresistible impulses are also added to the M'Naughten Rule in this reading, which is the idea that if there was an irresistible impulse to act a certain way, you could plead NGRI.

Forensic assessment is not necessarily the same as regular assessment, which is what will be detailed in this section. Forensic assessment, for example, is molded by the .... what are 4 notable differences that we need to consider when comparing these 2 types of assessment?

Forensic assessment is not necessarily the same as regular assessment, which is what will be detailed in this section. Forensic assessment, for example, is molded by the requirements of the legal system. 1. Forensic Assessments focus on something specific. This is different from regular assessment, in which assessments generally look at global functioning and provide much larger-scope. Judges usually just want a "yes" or " no" answer to the question of competency. 2. In forensic assessment, the client has little control over those assessments. This is not the case for regular assessment, in which participation in the assessment is largely voluntary by the client. In court, the real client is the judge who requests for these assessments to take place. 3. Patients in Forensic Assessment have an unusually intense incentive to act worse off then they are mentally. This is what we call Malingering (the process of faking symptoms to appear mentally ill), and it is incentivized by the possibility of not going to jail (but going to an asylum indefinitely instead). 4. Reports from Expert Witnesses includes less clinical jargon than usual assessments. This is largely justified by the fact that the audience for this report is very different.

SCRIPTS: EPISODIC SCHEMATA what is Frame Theory? what is a script?

Frame Theory Definition of "script" A memory structure for encoding general knowledge of a certain situation-action routine. eg. someone asked u - 5 years ago we went to a resort together - you will use your generalized knowledge of restraunt experiences to reconstruct what happened

what are the 20 traits not he psychopathy checklist? (theres 2 general sits what are each of them describing)

Glib and Superficial Charm Grandiose Self-worth Pathological Lying Conning and Manipulative Lack of Remorse or Guilt Shallow Affect Callousness or Lack of Empathy Failure to Accept Responsibility Many Short-term Marital Relationships Promiscuity ***more about interpersonal affective (manipulation nd social issues) Parasitic Lifestyle Poor Behavioral Controls Early Behavioral Problems Lack of Realistic Long-term Goals Need for Stimulation Impulsivity IrresponsibilityJuvenile Delinquency Revocation of Conditional Release Criminal Versatility***more behavioural

what is the explanation for the false memory thing we just did?

INDIRECT ACTIVATION OF KNOWLEDGE NODES CAN INDUCE MEMORY BIAS FIGURE 1. A schematic representation of concept relatedness in a stereo-typical fragment of human memory (where a shorter line represents greater relatedness) Knowledge is represented in a network consisting of concept nodes and connections between them. Length of connection represents "relatedness" of "concepts". Using a node leads to activation spreading to connected nodes. The closer a connection, the faster activation spreads from an activated node to linked nodes. Some models also assume that the amount of activation a node receives depends on proximity of nodes (the closer, the more). *if u activate a node eg.taste - the activation will spread to related node - the closer a node is conceptually, the faster it will be activated and STRONGER - sweet received activation cuz they were all close to it - it was activated so u generate a memory that has nothing to do with what rlly happened but its just how ur system is organized to make predictions - so its likely that sweet was on the list cuz it was activated - this knowledge is useful in the moment "something sweet is in the air"

hindsight bias - what is this about? experiment on "how many bones are in the human body?" - what did they find what was the only case where they could eliminate this bias?

INFLUENCING RECONSTRUCTIONS OF PREVIOUS ESTIMATES - u estimate the answer - half a day later u come back to the lab and asked to estimate but then told the answer (eg, 423) - asked to recall what u answered results: ur reconstruction of ur estimation is biased to the answer u got on the second day - it will move closer to the info u got - the only time ppl were able to eliminate this bias is if right after giving them this info u told them these were all lies - then it eliminates the bias - but even if u say "they're estimates of the class" or "randomly generated"

what was the experiment done on post-memory modifications that changed policies around court proceedings ?

INFLUENCING SPEED ESTIMATES Present short movie of car accident. Then answer several questions about it. One question is critical one that contains leading statement. Finally, estimate speed of cars during accident. Critical question came in 5 variants: "About how fast were the cars when they ..." G1: "... smashed into each other?" G2: "... collided?"G3: "... bumped into each other?" G4: "... hit each other?" G5: "... contacted?" speed estimate goes up or down based on what vocal they used to ask - u deduce from the vocal - knowledge changes

learn a list of words come 2 days later and they remind them of the event new list 2 days later - have them recall the first list - what did they find? - what were the conclusions drawn?

INTRUSIONS INTO MEMORY REQUIRE REMINDER/REACTIVATION learn a list of words come 2 days later and they remind them of the event new list 2 days later - have them recall the first list when asked to recall the first event they have intrusions from the second event - believe the words they saw on the second list were In the rogincial - this is due to being REMINDED before learning --> in the group where they dont get reminded of first learning before 2nd - they have way less intrusions if ur reminded - u mix two things up - because u think these two things are linked - u think it is relvant so u updtate ur memory - can no linger make the distinction

_______plays a huge part in our ability to create these false memories. Studies that utilize _____give us an understanding of the way that false memory works without the usage of a trusted source for a memory (ex. Conversations with participants' parents).

Imagination plays a huge part in our ability to create these false memories. Studies that utilize imagination give us an understanding of the way that false memory works without the usage of a trusted source for a memory (ex. Conversations with participants' parents).

Thomas Brewster Case Study - explain the case

In 1984, a killing and sexual assault resulted in the identification, based on eyewitness sketches, of Thomas Brewster as the criminal that should be charged for the crime. Eleven years and many lineups later, the victim identified Brewster. The court sought out the death penalty, and eventually Brewster was identified as not having been at the scene of the crime (because semen collection did not match up with his DNA). This happens a lot, but the difference in some cases is that we don't have the biological evidence to disprove these false recognitions. The reading then shows some excerpts of the interview 11 years after the crime of the victim (in which the detectives are obviously trying to get her to say she recognizes Brewster, while fully aware that she has been shown photos of him before and that that is why she has an odd feeling about him all of a sudden). The detective tells Gillaspey (the victim) what her emotional reaction was and interprets himself her body language.

In Canada, our version of NGRI is called, "_______" what is this defined as in the criminal code?

In Canada, our version of NGRI is called, "Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder (NCRMD)" group of psychologists in a room deciding Section 16 of the Criminal Code, "No person is criminally responsible for an act committed while suffering from a mental disorder that rendered the person incapable of understanding their crime or knowing that it was wrong" (similar to the Model Penal Code) But they could stay in a mental institution indefinitely... - idea of control, knowing what ur doing is wrong

In personal injury lawsuits, attorneys may hire psychologists to testify as to the lifelong consequences of traumatic stress or acquired brain damage. It must pass the______

In personal injury lawsuits, attorneys may hire psychologists to testify as to the lifelong consequences of traumatic stress or acquired brain damage. It must pass the Frye Standard. Frye Standard: testimony must be based upon tests and procedures that have gained general acceptance in the field We know that courts have been increasingly likely to grant lawsuit money to people who have endured mental injuries in addition to physical injuries.

Specialized Personality Assessment in Forensic Settings In prison populations, it is not uncommon for people to want to test for things like antisocial tendencies or pedophilia. The text focuses here on the assessment of _________ (similar but not the same to Antisocial Personality Disorder, which we've discussed extensively in class).

In prison populations, it is not uncommon for people to want to test for things like antisocial tendencies or pedophilia. The text focuses here on the assessment of psychopathy (similar but not the same to Antisocial Personality Disorder, which we've discussed extensively in class).

In the 1990s, the rules were refined further following a court few court decisions (3, to be more precise). - called.... what are the newly reformed guidelines? 7

In the 1990s, the rules were refined further following a court few court decisions (3, to be more precise). The Daubert Trilogy: the series of three rulings in the 1990s that led to reform in the rules for expert witnesses

Insanity is a _____ term, not a ______term The insanity defense is technically known as "__________" The public image is that ....but the reality is much different.... explain

Insanity is a legal term, not a psychiatric term The insanity defense is technically known as "Not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)" The public image is that NGRI is used to by slimy lawyers to help guilty clients evade punishment... but the reality is much different NGRI plea is used in less than 1/1,000 cases - very rarely Only succeeds in less than 1/4 of these cases (most approaches are 50% successful) The NGRI plea is outlawed in some states

EYEWITNESS READING protocols for eyewitness evidence collection are a lot less clear than for physical evidence - Why is this gap present between physical and memory evidence present?

It is largely due to the fact that police have embraced the scientific model, but only for physical evidence. We know that witness information/evidence was a staple long before we started to look into it scientifically speaking, whereas the opposite pattern is true for physical evidence. The criminal justice system also does not have a focused theory of memory (and we think it might even have no theories at all). It seems to assume that memory traces stay unchanged, that it can't be influenced through suggestion, etc.

It is notable, as well, that some variables do not fit into just one of the categories. An example of this is the________ It is thought of as an estimator variable, but sometimes the legal system does have a say over this.

It is notable, as well, that some variables do not fit into just one of the categories. An example of this is the retention interval (the amount of time between the event and the recall). It is thought of as an estimator variable, but sometimes the legal system does have a say over this.

what is the Lineup As Experiment Analogy

Lineup As Experiment Analogy: the idea that police conducting a lineup is like experimenters conducting research

Imagination Inflation What happens when people imagine childhood experiences that did not happen to them? Loftus Research Loftus devised a mechanism to test this using 3 steps: findings?

Loftus Research Loftus devised a mechanism to test this using 3 steps: 1. Participants rate the likeliness that something happened to them in childhood (list of 40 items and a likert-like scale) 2. Participants are asked to imagine that some of these events had happened to them 2 weeks after the initial ratings 3. Participants engage in the same rating process as the first step Findings: When a participant was asked to imagine something, there was a 24% increase in the likelihood that this thing had happened to them. When they weren't asked to imagine it, the participants felts only a 12% increase in that likelihood.

Memories do not .... Memories are similar to... Memories probably____somehow from brain activity patterns. Memories are______in the sense that they ...... - Memories are not true in that they ....Memories strive to ....

Memories do not exist physically. Memories are similar to sensory experiences, like seeing the color red (red does not exist in the brain or anywhere else). - red is generated but its not a thing its an experience Memories probably arise somehow from brain activity patterns. - theres a correlated experience we dont know the causation pattern Memories are utilitarian in the sense that they allow us to optimally adapt to our biological niche, or to our unique challenges as homo sapiens. --allow u to predict what will happen next and they are only as good as what they predict - u dont know if they're accurate u just know if they're useful - only important for survival Memories are not true in that they preserve with high fidelity what caused them. Memories strive to be useful in predicting what will likely happen.

Misinformation Effect:

Misinformation Effect: when people who witness an event are later exposed to new and misleading in-formation about it, their recollections often become distorted.

3 TYPES OF DISTORTIONS CAUSED BY SCHEMATA - according to Bartletts

OMISSION Forgetting of unfamiliar material. RATIONALIZATION Attempts to increase coherence, also by considering present knowledge about the subject matter. TRANSFORMATION Attempts to change the unfamiliar into the familiar. eg. being a witness to something use never witnessed - u will use these processes so that its compatible with what u know - and you believe this is an accurate representation - u completely believe thats what u saw - we all have our own personal distortions of reality - this is main issues when couples fighting - always disagree with what happened and both are right - because those are the diff memories they've created

One thing that the reading does mention, which I think is valuable, is the idea that people that malinger should be measured as malingerers not with ....but with...

One thing that the reading does mention, which I think is valuable, is the idea that people that malinger should be measured as malingerers not with unstructured interviews in which a clinician just tries to see if the person might be lying or not, but with objective methods that measure actual discrepancies between usual presentations of a disorder and the one in front of us.

INFLUENCING SCENE RECOGNITION

Present 30 slides of car accident. Then fill in questionnaire. Critical question: "Did another car pass the red Datsun while it stopped at the ..." G1: "... STOP sign?" [correct] G2: "... YIELD sign?" [wrong] G3: "... intersection?" [neutral] Then read irrelevant story for 20 min. Afterwards, participate in 2AFC for slides. "Choose the slide you have seen before" --> if y ask which is the correct image - depending on the info u got in the critical question - as soon as u get the info in the critical question ur more likely to say u saw it

relationship between psychopathy and ASPD - Venn diagram Prison prevalence of ASPD: ____-___% Prison prevalence of psychopathy: ____-___% does the puppy population overlap?

Prison prevalence of ASPD: ~65-85% Prison prevalence of psychopathy: ~15-25% --> more rare puppy pollution - no overlap with any of these?

CHAPTER 21:Ethics and the Future of Psychological Testing There are three branches of issues that should be considered in the field (each with their own concerns) - what are these and what are the concerns under each?

Professional Issues Theoretical Concerns Adequacy of Tests Actuarial VS Clinical Prediction Moral Issues Human Rights Labelling Divided Loyalties Responsibility of Test Users and Constructors social issues Dehumanization Usefulness of Tests Access to Psychological Testing Services

Should we be making judgments using Measures of ____... with imperfect ______... that are partially validated using-_______... in specific populations at specific times... by biased researchers incentivized towards interesting results...

Should we be making judgments using Measures of uncertain constructs... with imperfect reliability... that are partially validated using other uncertain constructs... in specific populations at specific times... by biased researchers incentivized towards interesting results... Should we determine rights, freedoms, and services on the basis of these tests? - strange ethical place where were deciding these improitnt things based on all these things^^ and essentially multiply these errors and end up with lots of uncertainty

simultaneous lineup vs sequential lineup - which prevents relative judgment and produces less mistakes in identification?

Simultaneous Lineup: a lineup in which all suspects and distractors are presented at the same time (elicits relative judgement) Sequential Lineup: a lineup in which all suspects and distractors are presented one at a time (prevents relative judgement) We also know that sequential lineups produce less mistakes in identification.

what 3 rules led to the NGRI?

The M'Naughten Rule (1843) - insanity must be clearly proven on the grounds that, at the time of the criminal act, the accused had a disease of the mind such that he: ◦ Did not know what he was doing (e.g., thought he was shooting at a target on the gun range) ◦ Or, even if he did know what he was doing, he did not know that it was wrong (e.g., thought he was shooting a robber attacking his child) The Durham Rule (1954) - insanity is a defensewhen the criminal act was a "product of the mind" Was left much left specific to allow psychologists much more room to argue their case and present different types of evidence - much more ambiguous - left more room for psychologists to interpret ext The Model Penal Code rule (1972) - is somewhere in between the last two rules: A person is NGRI if, at the time of his crime, a mental disease or defect prevented him from: ◦ Understanding the wrongfulness of his behaviour ◦ Or from being able to control his behaviour - pulled back the power of the psychologists to try to make It more specific - introduced the idea of will/control

The Other Race Effect

The Other Race Effect: this is the idea that we have more trouble recognizing individuals of a different race

There are 3 ways to evaluate malingering that are mentioned in this text:

The Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) This reading details once again the magnificent 7 that were covered in class, with the addition of one index (which won't be covered here because the professor told us to not remember any additional information on the SIRS that was not covered in class). The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) This is a recognition test with 50 items, which depends on the person's ignorance of the base rates of memory scores for intellectually disabled populations (they underestimate the performance they need to present as intellectually disabled). MMPI-2 Indices

According to the DSM, malingering is... - what doesn't count as malingering?

The intentional production of false or grossly exaggerated physical or psychological symptoms, motivated by external incentives such as: Evading criminal prosecution Avoiding military duty Avoiding work Obtaining financial compensation (e.g., disability, law suit payouts) Obtaining drugs (e.g., Pain killers, anxiety meds, ADHD meds) **most common are the last 2 - exaggerating depressive symptoms for INTERNAL motives doesn't count as malingering (eg. to get more attention, therapy time etc)

Misinformation Effects The process of eliciting a misinformation effect includes 3 steps:

The process of eliciting a misinformation effect includes 3 steps. 1. A complex event is witnessed 2. Half receive misleading information about the event 3. All witnesses attempt to recall the event (or something specific about the event)

How do we explain these findings of imagining events? There are a few explanations that are plausible, but a really famous hypothesis is that ...... Goff at al Research This team tested this finding with memories that would have been more recent (not from early childhood). Participants were asked to either just listen to the story statement, to act it out or to imagine doing it (ex. Knocking on a door or breaking a toothpick). In a second session, the participants are asked to imagine the actions that they had not yet performed results?

There are a few explanations that are plausible, but a really famous hypothesis is that just imagining that something happened increases its familiarity (and increased familiarity makes it likely that you will remember certain things) Goff at al Research This team tested this finding with memories that would have been more recent (not from early childhood). Participants were asked to either just listen to the story statement, to act it out or to imagine doing it (ex. Knocking on a door or breaking a toothpick). In a second session, the participants are asked to imagine the actions that they had not yet performed. RESULTS: The more times that participants had been told specifically to imagine performing an action (that wasn't actually performed), the more they were likely to remember doing it.

There are others ways to elicit these memories that don't fall into the categories that we have discussed. One is interpreting ..... _____ has also worked in the past.

There are others ways to elicit these memories that don't fall into the categories that we have discussed. One is interpreting dreams in a way that suggests they are the result of something (or a distant memory). Suggestive false feedback to some kind of task or experience of a participant has also worked in the past.

Determining Legal Irresponsibility Tools of Measurement There are scales that have been developed to assess the level of criminal responsibility as it relates to mental illness. The ______ is an example.

There are scales that have been developed to assess the level of criminal responsibility as it relates to mental illness. The Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R-CRAS) is an example. Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales(R-CRAS): a report form based on the penal code and that is constructed by a psychiatrist following an interview with the defendant, the consideration of all criminal and clinical records of the defendant, as well a police investigative reports (in which 25 items measure psychological and situational factors It contains 5 scales: Patient Reliability Organicity Psychopathology Cognitive Control Behavioral Contro

What variables affect identification mistakes? There are 5 broad categories of variables that could come into play for identification errors here:

There are three broad categories of variables that could come into play for identification errors here: 1. Witness Characteristics 2. Characteristics of Witnessed Event 3. Post-Event Variables 4. Characteristics of the Identification task 5. Post-identification events (ex. feedback in response to the identification)

There is also the distinction of ________variables (account specifically for why a witness would recognize a specific person - ex. Lineup bias in which the distractors don't fit the description) and ____ ___ variables (accounts only for generally poor performance from the subject - ex. The other race effect).

There is also the distinction of between-subject bias variables (account specifically for why a witness would recognize a specific person - ex. Lineup bias in which the distractors don't fit the description) and general impairment variables (accounts only for generally poor performance from the subject - ex. The other race effect).

Planting False Childhood Memories This field of research emerged as findings of misinformation effects arose. It takes it all a step further and looks at creating entirely false memories. The findings of studies (which have been revised in the confabulation reading already) show ...... Rates of ___% false memories and ___% partial false memories are generally found for research along these lines.

This field of research emerged as findings of misinformation effects arose. It takes it all a step further and looks at creating entirely false memories. The findings of studies (which have been revised in the confabulation reading already) show confident false memories in the minds of participants. The reading then goes into details about the childhood memory of being lost in a shopping mall, which has already been summed up in the confabulation reading notes. Rates of 25% false memories and 30% partial false memories are generally found for research along these lines.

What is, then, the Guilty But Mentally Ill (GBMI) verdict? This is allowed in a fourth of the states, and there are 4 types of verdicts available: Guilty of the crime Not guilty of the crime Not guilty by reason of insanity Guilty but mentally ill

This is allowed in a fourth of the states, and there are 4 types of verdicts available: Guilty of the crime Not guilty of the crime Not guilty by reason of insanity Guilty but mentally ill

What is, then, the Guilty But Mentally Ill (GBMI) verdict... This is allowed in a fourth of the states, and there are 4 types of verdicts available - what are they? which is the one that makes this type of ruling unique?

This is allowed in a fourth of the states, and there are 4 types of verdicts available: Guilty of the crime Not guilty of the crime Not guilty by reason of insanity Guilty but mentally ill The last category is what makes this type of ruling unique, and it means that the defendant starts out their sentence in a psychiatric hospital BEFORE going to prison to serve out a regular sentence. The reason that a lot of people are confused by this is that it's hard to differentiate, as a juror, mental illness that leads to insanity and mental illness that does not. It requires the creation of an additional and new distinction that isn't super accessible. We know that people who receive this verdict rarely actually get the kind of help they need, and it doesn't stop them from being tried for even worse sentences (including but not limited to the death sentence).

Who is more susceptible to these false memory recalls?

We know that people who score high on dissassociative scales are generally more susceptible to these false memories. Dissassociation is the general tendency to lapses in memory and perception in everyday life.

who may be more susceptible to false memories?

We still don't know which populations may be susceptible to false memories more than others, or who might be resistant.

We think that about ____% of forensic assessments are done on people who are malingering.

We think that about 15-20% of forensic assessments are done on people who are malingering.

What is previous described is a chronological approach. We could also look at them in terms of the ...... . This is known as the__________ We know that these two ways of thinking about it are related (because system variables largely occur after-the fact).

What is previous described is a chronological approach. We could also look at them in terms of the level of control that the justice system has over them (ex. The last three would be much stronger on this). This is known as the System-Variable versus Estimator-Variable Distinction. We know that these two ways of thinking about it are related (because system variables largely occur after-the fact).

anchoring and adjustment experiment what did this lead to?

depending on the number you see you'll estimate differently - if u get lower you'll guess lower - its just how our Brian operates - it uses any info avalbkle in times of uncertainty to make estimates lead to experiments on hindsight bias

False Childhood Memories Loftus Study This team decided to implant the memory of being last in a mall/department store at age 5. They asked people aged 18 to 53 to recall childhood event that had been recounted to the team by a person close to them. Booklets were prepared for the participants and contained 3 paragraphs about 3 events that had actually happened to them, as well as the constructed memory of being lost in the mall (it included being lost for an extended period, crying, aid and comfort by an elderly woman and reunion with their family. Participants were asked to write down what they remembered about each event in the booklet after they read it. They had the option of saying "I do not remember this". Next, in a verbal interview, parts of the stories were provided as cues for the participants to recall, once more, as much as possible for these events. FINDINGS?

findings: People did use more words to describe the real events and they rated them as feeling more clear. The participants recalled about 49 of 72 true events (68%) after the initial reading of the booklet and in the interviews. After the booklet 24 participants (29%) remembered either partially or fully the false event, and 25% remembered these in the follow-up interviews.

what did Bartlett do in his studies? conclusion?

got college students to read stories - "the war of the ghosts" got them to reproduce it several times -10th SERIAL REPETITION --> very fundamental transformation - this is more coherent with the knwoegel we have acquired growing up in our culture vs the original story which had lots of refferences western cultured oddest understand RECALL 30 MONTHS AFTER ENCODING - the gist of the story according to the western mind --> was the working of of schemas **concludes that schemas can distort our memories in diff ways

SEMANTIC (PREPOSITIONAL) NETWORK AS KNOWLEDGE SPACE - explain - what is our knwodleg set called

knowledge is represented in conceptional structures 0 nodes and these are all linked - and u will select relevant info based on the knowledge u have - image set - u use this image set to allow u to answer a question - used to produce an answer to a question

assessing rare events if a test has 80% accuracy - what is the chance u actually have the disease .. - if u have 100 diseased, 100 healthy - 100 diseased, 1,000 healthy - 100 diseased, 10,000 healthy - 100 diseased, 100,000 healthy

of the 100 ppl a test will always say 80 have the disease - always end up with 80 true positive what changes is the false positives --> they blow up - when u look at the total positives it gets bigger and bigger as the disease becomes rarer - cuz with 80% accuracy, 20% are false positives so u hAVe to do 20% of the healthy pop as false positives - as this goes up, the accuracy goes down - so how accurate is na 80% test if things are more rare - very quickly it drops down to almost useless - in psyc the best u can ever expect is an 80% accuracy - and as things get more rare it gets way less accurate

MODULE 5.2 CONFABULATION - MEMORY MALEABILITY OVERVIEW

overview 1. Reality as we know it 2. Schemata 3. Eyewitness Testimony 4. Hindsight Bias 5. False Memories 6. Updating Conditioning 7. Forgetting 8. Conclusion

what is the theory that explains this updating of conditioned responses?

reconsolidation hypothesis u have memories that are formed and inactive - once u use the knowledge its transformed into an active memory - need to be stabilized - this is called reconsolidation - if u disrupt this reconsolidation process u will loose this memory the memory becomes active only because u might need to encordperate something new ion the environment

when they did this false memory experiment in this visual task what did they find?

same thing - no matter what kind of material they present u will always get the same effect - we form sketchy memories - and we all believe they are acccurate but they are actuallyy bare bones and only encode the most essential things

what are the 2 tests for malingering that he mentioned?

structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM)

VERBAL LABELS BIAS VISUAL MEMORY - what was this experiment?

subject see these object and asked questions about them later - one group was told pls draw the eyeglasses, or pls draw the dumbbell - use the label and the knowledge to reconstruct what they saw - they believe this is what they saw

ROLE OF PREDICTION ERROR

teach humans to fear a tone - pair the tone with an image of a spider - gets shocked when they see a spider in the lab they get the image of a spider - reminded of a fear - and then get propanol (betaneigric blocker tht reduces anxiety) - in this plastic moment - the intensity fo the fear can be reduced - need to look at WHEN the memory becomes active .... - memories become active when the memory no longer accurately predicts what's going on - needs to be updated - if it accurately predicts - it doesn't need to be updated STUDY: 3 groups - negavive prediction error: learned that spider predicts shock, but theres no shock given - expect something that doesn't happen - need to change knowledge - memory should be plastic - no prediction error: each time they see the spider they get a shock so when they get reactivation theres no predictive error - shoudklnt have an active memory positive prediction erro: learn that sometimes when spiders there I get a shock, but mostly no shock with spider - expectation was to not get a shock cuz most of the time they dont get a shock - also have plastic memory RESULTS: - Negative prediction error: propanol reduces the fear because the memory became plastic and it reduces fear - no prediction error: propanol has no effect on fear - same amount of fear - no change cuz didn't have to update memory - positive prediction error: expect they should have more fear but because they made a prediction error and the propanol was given - they also loose fear *eahc time ur fear becomes plastic they become vulnerable to drugs - each time u use ur knowdlegt o make a prediction and that prediction is WRONG - the knowledge used to make that prediction becomes malleable - u can change it in that moment

THE NATURE OF MIND THE HUMAN EYE: SENSOR FOR ENERGY OF A CERTAIN TYPE - explain what his main point was talking about the way info passes thru ur eye

vision starts when some form of energy enters the eye - an energy of a certain kind for which ur eye is sensitive - goes through the eye and hits the retina - light actually goes through a bunch of blood vessels before it hits the rods and cones - the energy in the env gets captured and translated into an action potential - changes it into a signal the brain can understand - the single then integrates into the next synapse which integrates ifnfo from multiple synapses -- condensing of the single - no longer the original signal***** summarized - u lose info in the first step **each step away from the eye to the brain summarizes info - integrates it and so we loose info - reinterpreted, compressed, expanded, worked on - then it hits the visual cortex and thats the moment we have the experience of seeing - already processed lots - then its further processed in the cortex - where and what stream - these are all interpretations of highly condensed signals - idea is that the brain generates reality as u know it out of info we have available based on a. highly condensed signal - using an algorithm embedded in this small section of the visual circuitry (1/3) - this is actually a generation, a creation, a fantasy that has nothing to do with what's really out there

does this same principle of vision hold for memories?

yes same principle - MEMORIES DO NOT EXIST, THEY ARE EVOKED (GENERATED) - no way u can go to the brain and find a memory - eg. these 55 neutrons represent an image of a banana - no. - theres probably some relation to the activity patterns in the brain and the experience fo the memory at that moment but that is an experience not a thing - so its GENERATED for

CONTINUOUS UNCONSCIOUS UPDATING OF THE WITNESSED EVENT - what did the show in regards to the lineups?

- if u were in the lineup u have a 30% chance of being recognized as the perpetrator - as soon as eve seen the line-up u update ur info and integrate it into the memory - u become part of an event

Chronological Approach

Chronological Approach: an approach that looks at a given set of variables in the order that they might occur.

Hyman and al Research This team essentially did the same thing with the implantation of either a memory of a long stay at the hospital due to illness or a birthday party with pizza at the age of 5. FINDINGS? In another study, Hyman was able to ....

Findings: None of the participants remembered the false event in the first interview (where they were asked about it), but 20% of people said they remembered something about it in the second interview. In another study, Hyman was able to replicate these results with stories of spilling a bowl of punch on the parents of a wedding's bride or having to evacuate a grocery store because of the sprinklers. No one remembered it after the first interview, but 18% did in the second interview, and 25% did in the third interview.

types of forensic assesment - Forensic assessment is conducted by _____ and focuses on______: Evaluation of _____ Assessment of mental state for the _____ Assessing ______ ◦ And others (e.g., child abuse assessments in custody cases, risk assessment for violent recidivism, determining competency to stand trial, etc.)

Forensic assessment is conducted by psychologists and focuses on legal issues: Evaluation of Malingering Assessment of mental state for the insanity plea Assessing Psychopathic Traits ◦ And others (e.g., child abuse assessments in custody cases, risk assessment for violent recidivism, determining competency to stand trial, etc.)

In this lecture the term "memory" refers to _______— memories for facts (i.e., semantic memory: "Banana is a fruit") or events (i.e., episodic memory: what-where-when).

In this lecture the term "memory" refers to declarative memories — memories for facts (i.e., semantic memory: "Banana is a fruit") or events (i.e., episodic memory: what-where-when).

MIND GENERATES "REALITY" FOR _____ ‣Mind processes generate a _____ of "reality". - We have no direct access to... - We cannot speak about what actually exists. We can only speak about the models that our minds generated. - The generated model of the world is optimized for......

MIND GENERATES "REALITY" FOR ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL NICHE ‣ Mind processes generate a model of "reality". We have no direct access to "what is out there". We cannot speak about what actually exists. We can only speak about the models that our minds generated. - The generated model of the world is optimized for solving our fundamental challenges as modern humans, i.e., the challenges of a mammal of the family great ape, genus homo (man), and species sapiens (wise).