Module 8 Exam

What is invisible warfare?

Terrorism is the act of using the fear of violence or disruption in order to accomplish certain political, national, or religious goals. It is invisible because the victims of attacks usually have no warning and no immediate knowledge of the attacker. Terrorism can include the use of traditional weapons such as guns and explosives like dynamite or homemade devices, weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear missiles or enriched uranium, or biological weapons like the spread of anthrax or smallpox on civilians. Some terrorism involves hostage taking or kidnapping. Cyberterrorism is the use of computer networks to disrupt critical public services with the goal of intimidating a population or forcing government action. For example, a terrorist group that plants a computer virus to disrupt services at a water treatment facility is engaging in cyberterrorism.

How did the U.S. and USSR compete, and in what ways did this competition escalate overtime?

The United States under President Truman pursued a reactionary policy of containing communism simply called containment. This was the idea that the United States could use a series of foreign policy tools to prevent communism from emerging in places it hadn't been before, especially in the decolonizing world. Truman reasoned that poor, hungry, and desperate people were more likely to accept a totalitarian government that promised to meet their needs. Comfortable, well-fed, happy people would be less likely to comply. This came to be called the Truman Doctrine. Space Race: Sputnik, gagarin, apollo program Arms race: With the possibility that a cold war could turn into a hot war at any time, both sides built up huge stockpiles of conventional and unconventional weapons. Each side hoped to become so mighty militarily that the other side would never dare strike. The effect, however, was that the weapons each side developed became more and more destructive.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Today, the World Trade Organization (WTO) regulates most FTAs, including their trades of goods, services, and intellectual property. It also provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements between nations and for settling disputes involving trade agreements. Currently, 154 countries are members of the WTO. The United States is currently in free trade agreements with 18 other countries. Although FTAs have been important since the end of World War II, the WTO was not founded until January 1, 1995. The WTO has drawn criticism since its foundation. While its stated aim is to promote free trade and encourage economic growth, its critics argue that it does not do enough to promote economic growth for poorer nations, while focusing on trade in wealthier nations. It has also been criticized for ignoring labor relations and environmental concerns in negotiating its trade agreements.

What were the causes and effects of proxy wars within Latin America?

Cuba: Castro's Cuba made the United States very nervous. The first state to turn communist in the hemisphere was right next door and very influential for the rest of the Spanish-speaking Americas. Throughout the 1960s, Washington and Havana stood dangerously close to war. The United States made several failed attempts to end the Castro regime: assassination attempts, espionage, and the Bay of Pigs invasion. These events finally came to a head in 1962 through an episode now known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. This was a multi-day standoff that brought the United States and the Soviet Union to the very edge of nuclear war. In the end, the United States was unable to dislodge the Castro regime. This gained Castro considerable influence in much of Latin America. Because of this, Cuba tried to encourage revolution in other countries. Cuba supplied arms and training to guerrilla groups and insurgents around Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Following the rise of Castro in Cuba, the U.S. sought to undermine the regime by denying Castro legitimacy. Out of this idea emerged the policy of allowing Cubans who reach U.S. shores to be legally admitted into the country. This is an immigration policy that exists only for Cubans. As a result of this policy, many thousands of Cubans fled the island for the United States. Some of the earliest Cuban refugees tended to be of the upper or middle class. These were the groups most threatened by the Castro regime. However, these were not the only Cubans to seek refuge in the United States. In the early 1960s the Catholic Church led Operation Pedro Pan (Operation Peter Pan), which helped over 14,000 children escape Cuba and settle in the United States. In the late sixties and early seventies, religious and volunteer agencies organized "Freedom Flights" from Cuba to Miami that helped more than 250,000 Cubans escape Cuba. But, the most famous mass immigration of Cubans to the United States is called the Mariel boatlift, which resulted in as many as 125,000 immigrating to the United States before 1980. Chile: While Cuba helped arm and train communist guerrillas around the Americas, the United States did the same for governments and counter-insurgencies. A particular feature of U.S. intervention in Latin America was that it was usually accomplished through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and not the military. In 1970, the South American country of Chile democratically elected a socialist government headed by the Marxist Salvador Allende. Three years later, a military coup encouraged by the United States overthrew Allende's government. A capitalist state was installed under the general Augusto Pinochet. The next 20 years were characterized by brutal repression, state-sponsored killings, and forced disappearances. But responses to the dictatorship remain complicated, as these human rights violations came coupled with economic development and modernization. Nicaragua: The Sandinista government ousted and replaced a dictatorship in Nicaragua in 1979, but the United States feared that the Sandinistas were moving toward communism. The CIA trained, armed, and funded counter-revolutionaries called the contras in an attempt to take down the Sandinistas. This resulted in a violent civil war between the Sandinistas and contras. Guatemala: From 1960 to 1996, the Central American country of Guatemala was wracked by a civil war between the government of Guatemala and insurgents. The CIA had helped install the government in an earlier coup d'état and continued to support the government through the civil war. The counter-insurgency tactics of Guatemala are known to have been brutal and violent, with tens of thousands of forced disappearances. Grenada: In 1974, the small Caribbean island of Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom. In 1983, there was a military coup, supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union. The United States quickly invaded Grenada and reinstated the previous government. This intervention was denounced by the United Nations.

What were the causes and effects of proxy wars within East Asia?

Korea: When Japan collapsed at the end of World War II, Korea found itself with a Soviet army in the north and a U.S. army in the south. For administrative purposes, the Soviets and the Americans agreed to temporarily divide Korea at the 38th parallel. Northern Korea would be assisted by the Soviets, while southern Korea would be run by the Americans. This division became political very quickly as the governments of each side declared that they would unite the country on their terms. This finally boiled over into war in 1950, when the leader of North Korea, Kim Il-sung, launched an invasion into the south. Both Stalin and Mao approved of Kim Il-sung's plan. The northern army swiftly rolled through southern defenses and within a few months occupied nearly all of the Korean peninsula. U.S. President Harry Truman chose not to declare official war. In June of 1950, he instead asked the United Nations to sanction member states to provide military assistance to the south. While the Soviet Union held veto power in the UN Security Council, it decided to protest the vote by boycotting the Council instead. This proved a costly strategy as the Council passed a resolution that demanded North Korea end its occupation of the south. Under General Macarthur, American and UN troops were soon sent abroad to support southern Korea. For the next three years, a bloody civil war was fought between North and South Korea, with forces and arms provided by the Soviets, the Chinese, and the Americans. The war might have gone on indefinitely had Stalin not died in March 1953. The leaders of the Soviet Union decided to end the fighting in Korea, and Mao Zedong of China knew that he could not continue the war without Soviet support. In the United States, popular support for the war was waning as well. On June 27, 1953, the belligerents signed an armistice that ended the fighting with no winner-indeed the war has technically never ended. The front line, near the original division at the 38th parallel, became the new border between North and South Korea. On either side of the border was created a demilitarized zone, a thick no-man's land to serve as a buffer between the two countries. Vietnam: In the 19th century, the French empire had conquered a region of Southeast Asia known as Indochina, including modern Vietnam. After France's defeat in World War II, Indochina was first ruled by the German-Italian forces of Vichy France, and then by the occupying Japanese army. During this time, the Viet Minh Communist party, under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, began to gain popularity as a resistance movement. When World War II ended, France attempted to reassert control over its former colony. The Viet Minh, however, challenged the legitimacy of French control and began a guerrilla war that became the First Indochina War. The French held out for years but were finally defeated in 1954 when the country was divided along the 17th parallel. This division was supposed to be temporary until united elections could occur. But the U.S. thought it would be better to contain communism in the north. To do this, it supported the government in the south. In the 1960s, U.S. advice turned to assistance, which turned to open conflict with the armies of the north as well as theViet Cong in the south. The United States continued to send in more and more troops to help protect the troops who were already there. By 1969, there were half a million American troops in Vietnam supporting the south. The Soviets and Chinese funneled funds and weapons to North Vietnam, which passed this support on to the Viet Cong. At home in the United States, a vocal movement of young people began to protest the war and America's involvement. The protest movement influenced popular opinion, and in 1973 the United States began to withdraw. In 1975, North Vietnam invaded and conquered the south.

What changes occurred after World War II that opened the door to the idea of a "global village"?

With the passing of the Marshall Plan, countries banded together to help both Allied and some former Axis nations. In the post-World War II era, world economies changed. Worldwide commitments, such as the Marshall Plan, to rebuild European and Asian cities after the destruction of the war led to new prosperity in war-torn nations. The years between 1948 and 1952 saw the greatest period of growth in European history. Technological innovations and medical advances swept Europe due to military efforts during the war. These innovations helped to create a 35 percent increase in industrial and agricultural production in many European countries. This caused a rapid rise in standards of living even when compared to before the war. Axis nations also had dramatic reforms. In Japan, for example, new education laws were passed in 1947-48. These laws created an open and democratic Western-style educational system. The Japanese finally began to understand the importance of childhood and its impact on a person's future. The Fundamental Law of Education was put into action in Japan in 1947. This law ensured the right for all Japanese children to receive a quality public education without discrimination. Educational reforms led to better-educated citizens. They also improved the local and national economies. Ultimately, these reforms led to increased global trade.

free trade agreements

agreements where two or more countries make a contract to reduce tariffs in order to exchange goods

PATRIOT Act

an act passed by Congress in 2002 that reduced restrictions in law enforcement agencies' gathering of information on citizens of the United States and broadened the discretion of law enforcement and immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts

What were the causes and effects of proxy wars within the Middle East?

Suez Crisis: Egypt, under Gamal Abder Nasser, refused to join the Baghdad Pact. Nasser and a military conspiracy had toppled the Egyptian monarchy in 1952. In 1955, Nasser announced an arms deal with the Soviet Union. This represented the start of a strong Soviet presence in the region. In 1956, the United States and Britain did not give Egypt funds that they'd promised for an important dam. In response, Nasser began to nationalize the Suez Canal to raise the money himself. The canal, built by a French company with forced Egyptian labor in the 1860s, was a vital waterway for the West. It provided the only direct route between Europe and Asia without sailing around Africa. This water route was important for trade, and also strategically vital in Cold War battles around the world. Britain and France were particularly angry about the attempt to nationalize the canal. So they began an elaborate conspiracy with Israel to try to regain control. Egged on by the European states, Israel invaded the Sinai peninsula, where the canal is located. Then Britain and France pretended to step in as peacekeepers and retook control of the canal. This event, called the Suez Crisis, was ended by the United States and the Soviets, who returned control of the canal to Nasser. The Suez Crisis hurt the West's image as a unified front, due to the United States' intervention against its allies, Britain and France. Iran:The Middle Eastern country of Iran is in the heart of what was once the ancient Persian empire. In modern times, Iran has veered dramatically between secular and religious government. In 1951, the left-wing Mohammad Mosaddeq became prime minister and nationalized the country's oil industry. The United States and Britain, dependent on Iranian oil, began to consider supporting a coup. Internally, Mosaddeq's social democrat policies caused conflict with the religious ruling class. In 1953, Mohammad Reza Shah, the religious monarch, or shah, fled the country. The CIA then funded a coup that took down Mosaddeq's government. Shortly thereafter the shah returned to head Iran. The shah stopped the nationalization of the oil industry and firmly shut down dissent. Aided by American and Israeli intelligence agencies, he established a secret police force to monitor Iranians in their own country. In 1963, the shah began the White Revolution. This large program of reforms redistributed a huge amount of land and increased Iran's social services while improving the economy and aiding women's rights. The reforms had critics, particularly an Islamic professor who became known as the Ayatollah Khomeini and was exiled for some years. The land reform efforts, meanwhile, were threatened by a high failure rate for new farms and the migration of farmers to the cities. The shah was also criticized for his close ties to the United States and Israel. In 1977, Iran erupted in protests against the shah. This movement was influenced by and reverent toward the Ayatollah Khomeini, who was writing from abroad. By 1979 the Islamic revolution had toppled the shah, who did not receive assistance from his allies in Washington. With widespread popular support, Iran became the deeply repressive religious state that it remains today. Afghanistan: In 1978, Afghanistan's centrist government was overthrown in a military coup and replaced by a coalition of two Marxist-Leninist groups. This new government had a close relationship with the Soviet Union. The Soviet-allied government began a program of land and social reforms that angered the mostly Muslim and anti-communist population. Islamic insurgents, known as mujahedeen, rose up against the government. The Soviets invaded in an attempt to quell the uprisings. The war soon became a stalemate, with the Soviets controlling the major cities and towns and the mujahedeen controlling the countryside. The conflict became a major distraction for the faltering Soviet Union. In 1988, an agreement was signed and the Soviets withdrew their troops. The resulting fall of the communist government led, through several transitional governments, to the rise of the Taliban in the early 1990s.

Chinese Civil War

conflict between Communists and Nationalists in China from 1946 to 1949; the Communists won

What trading blocs exist and how do they impact international cooperation?

A trading bloc is a regional group (or bloc) of countries that band together to reduce or get rid of tariffs within their group. They differ from FTAs in many respects. A trading bloc is usually composed of countries that share a geographic closeness. Countries with common borders or on the same continent might form a trading bloc. Successful trading blocs usually have a few common traits. These traits include similar per capita gross national products (GNPs) and systems of government. Trading blocs often form trade agreements with other nations. Their status as members of a bloc provides them with a comparative advantage, or greater strength to produce goods at a lower cost. Examples: European Union, North american free trade agreement

What were the causes and effects of Indian independence?

According to Great Britain, India was the "Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire since the 18th century. However, many Indians were frustrated and angered by colonial domination. By the 20th century, they demanded independence from Great Britain. The time was ripe for independence. In the post-World War II world, independence movements were stirring in many European colonies. For example, after years of revolt, the British granted independence to Egypt in 1922. In Algeria, a group called the National Liberation Front began to fight for independence in 1954. The French army used harsh tactics to suppress the rebels. Even so, the rebel movement compelled France to grant independence to Algeria in 1962. A great movement for independence swept across India, fueled by growing resentments of extreme inequality, racism, and harsh treatment. The Indian independence movement was started by a group of committed intellectuals and activists, among them Jawaharlal Nehru . However, in the 1920s, it galvanized into a nationwide popular movement under the leadership of an Indian lawyer namedMohandas K. Gandhi. Influenced by the movement led by Gandhi, Great Britain granted India independence in 1947. But its freedom came at great cost. Gandhi had always wanted all of India united as one nation. In contrast, many Muslim and Hindu nationalists wanted separate nations, one for Hindus and one for Muslims. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, insisted that India be partitioned. Muslims who wanted to live in an independent Muslim state could migrate to Pakistan. Hindus who preferred to live in a Hindu state could stay in India. Hindus who happened to live in the soon-to-be Pakistan could migrate to Hindu India. The Partition of India, begun in 1947, was rife with violence on both sides. Long-simmering ethnic and religious hatred erupted. At least one million people died during the mass migration between the two nations. Atrocities were committed on both sides. In 1948, a Hindu extremist shot and killed Gandhi. The assassin cited Gandhi's tolerance of Muslims as his motive for the killing.

What changes and conflicts have occurred since the establishment of Israel?

After Israel declared its independence on May 14, 1948, the combined forces of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan attacked it. The new Israeli nation was unprepared for war, but under the leadership of Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, it prevailed. The Arab nations were defeated partly because they did not field well-trained forces. In May 1967, clashes along the Israeli border with Syria became extremely violent and escalated into a crisis. In response, Egyptian president Nasser mobilized his forces for an attack against Israel. He sent troops across the Sinai Desert toward southern Israel. Jordan joined the war effort. Israel was essentially surrounded by hostile troops. Under the direction of Yitzak Rabin, Israeli defense minister Moshe Dayan mobilized Israeli defenses. In days, the Israeli air force had attacked and destroyed the entire Egyptian air force and all its warplanes. Turning the tables and taking the offensive, Israel's troops quickly routed the combined forces of its enemies. By week's end, the Israelis had expanded their nation's territory. They captured parts of the Golan Heights, took control of the Suez Canal, the Gaza Strip, and Sinai. They also—crucially—took possession of Jerusalem, along with large sections of the West Bank. Eventually, Israel began a program of settlement in these areas, especially the West Bank. Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, is the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, a day of fasting and prayer. Egypt and Syria chose this day to launch a surprise attack on Israel. The rebuilt Egyptian air force bombed and destroyed many Israeli warplanes and destroyed vast quantities of munitions. Prime Minister Golda Meir turned to the United States for aid. At first, the United States was reluctant to get involved, but when the Soviet Union sent assistance to Syria, President Nixon agreed to send needed supplies to Israel. These additional armaments turned the tide of battle for the Israelis, who soon got the upper hand. Israeli forces marched on Egypt and threatened to destroy its army. Intense fighting against Syria kept the Golan Heights in Israeli hands. Alarmed by the extent of Soviet involvement and the threat of escalation, the United States helped broker a ceasefire. In September 1978, President Carter hosted Israeli Prime Minister Menachim Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat at a summit conference at Camp David outside Washington, D.C. The Camp David Accords offered Palestinians five years of limited autonomy and paved the way for further talks. Seven months later, Begin and Sadat signed an agreement for Israel's gradual withdrawal from Sinai. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) assumed the role of a Palestinian government, with Yasser Arafat at its head. Arafat militated for a Palestinian state, which earned him a reputation as a terrorist. More Jewish settlements pushed Palestinians to the limit, and beyond. During the Intifada of 1987-88, armed Palestinians attacked Israeli settlers. Palestinians were, in turn, violently suppressed by Israeli forces. In 1988, Arafat told the assembled United Nations that he was willing to recognize the state of Israel and negotiate for peace. The Israelis refused to negotiate with the PLO.

What actions and events led to the establishment of Israel?

After World War I, the suffering of the German people led to a surge of German nationalism and to the rise of the Nazis. A primary goal of the Nazis was to "purify" the German (Aryan) race by annihilating "inferior" races. During World War II, the Nazis engaged in a systematic extermination of those deemed "inferior." Jews were the primary target. By the time the Nazis were defeated in 1945, about six million European Jews had been slaughtered. The horror of this mass murder convinced the United Nations to strive to create a Jewish homeland where the surviving Jews could create their own nation and live in peace. The diaspora would be reversed. All the world's Jews would be welcome to live in the newly created state of Israel, which was officially formed in Palestine in 1948.

What demographic changes occurred following World War II?

After World War II, many African American citizens fled to cities in the North in search of jobs. Many white citizens could afford to move to the suburbs. As a result, cities had higher minority populations and the suburbs were primarily filled with white citizens. Improved technology and medical advancements in the years after the war increased the standard of living. Because of better access to healthcare and medicines globally, the life expectancy around the world began to increase. Immigration occurred even before World War II. However, after World War II, immigration increased among the world's countries. People moved for many reasons. Some moved to escape religious persecution. Others moved to flee war-torn countries. While still others moved in search of new job opportunities. In addition to population changes, changes were occurring in the types of jobs people did and the access people had to certain jobs. Several metropoles (e.g., London, Paris, Tokyo, and New York City) shifted away from manufacturing. These cities became global business centers. This made more manufacturing and farming jobs available to people from lower socio-economic groups. The high numbers of jobs pushed many former colonial people to move to the countries of their former colonizers.

What were the causes and effects of proxy wars within Africa?

Angola:Angola was the last European colony in Africa. For many years before Angola gained independence, several liberation movements had battled one another. This internal fighting allowed the Portuguese to retain control. In 1974, a coup in Lisbon finally ended Portugal's control over its colony. In 1975, the Portuguese withdrew, without transferring power to any of the liberation movements. Angola gained its independence, but with no clear leader. The major groups began to fight. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) took control of the capital. The MPLA was Marxist-Leninist, and had support from the Soviets and Cuba. Their major opponent was the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). For the first decade of MPLA's rule, they maintained the upper hand through support from the Cubans. But as MPLA nationalized much of Angola's economy, the United States became more involved. In the 1980s, South Africa began supporting UNITA, and in 1985, the United States began sending the movement military aid. The civil war between MPLA and UNITA continued even as the communist bloc crumbled in Eastern Europe. In 1990, MPLA stopped being a Marxist-Leninist party and allowed elections and a new constitution. But after elections in 1992, UNITA claimed that there had been election fraud and restarted the civil war. Fighting continued through the 1990s. Although the Soviet Union was long dissolved and MPLA and UNITA were no longer fighting as Cold War proxies, civil wars can last a long time. A peace agreement was not signed in Angola until 2002. Today, Angola is still working to rebuild its economy and infrastructure after 27 years of fighting South Africa: In the mid-20th century, many countries in Africa were still ruled by white minorities. These included independent South Africa and Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe) and the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique. White minority governments were under pressure to allow majority rule. In the African context, majority rule means government by people who reflect the black demographic majority in a country, through either democracy or another system. The pressure for majority rule came from both internal groups and foreign critics. South Africa and the other white regimes were very anti-communist. The regimes labeled all opposition as anti-capitalist and anti-government. As a result, these capitalist white regimes were supported by the United States and other Western powers. The Western supporters often turned a blind eye toward the racial injustice of these regimes. South Africa was by far the most economically powerful state in southern Africa, and it also lent support to other white and anti-communist regimes. South Africa supported the colonial regimes in Angola and Mozambique, and the white-ruled government of Rhodesia. It was not until the 1980s that the American public's anger toward South Africa's continuing apartheid policies of racial segregation became stronger than the fear that a communist state would replace the white government. In 1986, over a veto from President Reagan, the United States Congress passed an act designed to economically isolate South Africa. Other countries did the same soon after. The Soviet Union was not as directly involved as the United States. The Soviets and other communist states, particularly Cuba, lent support and aid to the majority governments of Angola and Mozambique. But socialist groups in Africa varied widely. In a region where resources and land had been long exploited for the benefit of a minority, the idea of socialism was appealing. But many socialist movements were more interested in majority rule and the end of colonialist structures than in doctrine and alignment with the Soviets.

Cyberterrorism

Cyberterrorism is the use of computer networks to disrupt critical public services with the goal of intimidating a population or forcing government action.

Pieds-noirs

Europeans (mostly from France, Italy, and Spain) who settled in Algeria and the other Maghreb regions; the term means "black feet" and was later used to distinguish those of European descent from the indigenous Muslim people

How did Taiwan become part of China?

Even though the Nationalists and Communists were enemies when World War II broke out, they joined forces to defeat the Japanese. After Japan was subdued, the island of Taiwan came under Chinese control, and the Communists and Nationalists faced off again. Their conflicts erupted into the Chinese Civil War. Using superior military strategy, the Communists eventually gained the advantage. They convinced many people in rural China to revolt against the Nationalists. This growing following enabled the Communists to push the Nationalists into southern China. By 1949, Mao set up a Communist government in Beijing. Jiang Jieshi then fled to Taiwan with two million Nationalist followers and established his capital in Taipei. The island of Taiwan became a part of China not under Communist control—a situation that is true to the present day.

What were some of the struggles of early communism as it started to develop in China?

Five Year Plan: Mao was convinced that socialism in its communist form was the key to industrializing China. Soon he began a Five-Year Plan, which involved bringing industries under government control and supporting their development. The government also combined the landholdings of the peasants into farming cooperatives (collective farming). The result of this plan was mixed. From 1953 to 1957, industry grew steadily, but agriculture saw little gain. Hundred Flowers Campaign: Also, in 1956, the Communists began the Hundred Flowers Campaign, which granted more freedom of speech to intellectuals. It was launched with the philosophy to: "Let a hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of thought contend." The easing of communist controls in the Soviet Union inspired this movement. However, criticism of the Chinese government by the intellectuals soon skyrocketed. As a result, not only were freedom-of-speech privileges revoked, the Communist government punished the dissenters. Many were thrown into jails, fired from jobs, and forced into labor positions. Great Leap Forward: The Great Leap Forward proved to be one of the most ironically named movements in history because of its disastrous results. The government grouped farms into giant communes, containing about 5,000 households each. The communes were then tasked to build "backyard furnaces" to produce steel throughout China. The steel production was in addition to their crop production and agricultural quotas. However, the steel created by these furnaces was inferior. Many farmers resisted the unrealistic workload and tried to sabotage it by slaughtering farm animals. In addition, officials implemented the commune plan too rapidly, which contributed to the inefficiency. Then a series of natural disasters hit China. All of these factors combined to greatly disrupt Chinese agriculture. Famine killed about 30 million people from 1959 to 1962. When the government stopped the Great Leap Forward in 1960, tensions between China and the Soviet Union increased. Even though both nations had communist regimes, the Chinese disagreed with the Soviet policy of existing peacefully with the West. Indeed, Mao and the Chinese Communist Party believed that the Soviets had betrayed the goals of communism. Because of this rift, the Soviets refused to provide technical support to China. Mao isolated China from Russia as well as from most other nations. Cultural Revolution: a political and cultural reform movement in the People's Republic of China from 1965 to 1968; it intended to achieve the ideals of communism by renewing a revolutionary spirit and eliminating opposition to Mao The Red Guards stopped anyone they viewed as counter-revolutionary. They seized control of many villages and city governments, including Inner Mongolia. In addition, the Red Guards persecuted any disloyal party leaders, schoolteachers, and intellectuals. Any person viewed as a threat came under vicious attack. As a result, hundreds of thousands of people were killed. The Cultural Revolution failed, just as the Great Leap Forward failed. The Cultural Revolution ruined China's government and economy. Order was not restored until 1967, and the government did not resume normal activities until 1969.

Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is a general term meaning the movement to restore society to traditional values and ways of life and protect it from undesirable aspects of progress or change.

HUAC

House Un-American Activities Committee This Congressional Committee went to Hollywood in 1947 to hold hearings. They searched for evidence that people within the film industry were inserting pro-communist propaganda into American media. The forty witnesses who were subpoenaed provided no such evidence. However, ten of the witnesses refused to answer questions. They challenged the committee's right to ask them whether they were communist or not. After all, it was not illegal to join the Communist Party, and the First Amendment guarantees every American's right to join whatever group he or she wants. The ten who attacked the committee were charged with contempt of Congress. They were tried, convicted, fined, and sentenced to a year in jail. When they got out, they found that they had been blacklisted. HUAC held additional hearings from 1953 to 1955, and again from 1957 to 1958. All told, hundreds of people were blacklisted, from Academy Award-winning writers and directors to carpenters and sound technicians.

What events contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union?

Hungarian Revolution : In 1956, Hungary attempts to get out from Soviet control. The uprising fails when Soviet troops are sent to control protestors. Thousands of Hungarians are killed or imprisoned. The Hungarian Uprising of 1956 was a sudden uprising of the Hungarian people against the government and policies of the People's Republic of Hungary and the support it was receiving from the Soviet Union. Soviet forces crushed the uprising after several weeks, and 2,500 Hungarians were killed, 12,000 imprisoned, and 700 Soviets killed. Despite this failure, the Hungarian Uprising showed the Soviet Union that its satellites and republics were not content to be ruled by the Soviet government in Moscow. Prague Spring: Czech leader Alexander Dubček attempts to implement reforms to his country in 1968. Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev sends troops to the country. No one is killed, but Dubček is imprisoned and no reforms take place. In 1968, Czech leader Alexander Dubček attempted to implement reforms in Czechoslovakia to bring back aspects of democracy and personal freedom to his country. He assured the Soviet Union that Czechoslovakia would remain part of the Warsaw Pact, but Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev still sent Soviet troops to invade the country. Dubček's reforms were abandoned, and he was arrested and sent to Moscow. The incident became known as the Prague Spring for the brief period when change still seemed possible. Solidarity :The successful Solidarity movement in Poland in 1985 shows the strength of the people against the power of the Soviet government. In 1980, the Solidarity movement in Poland had set the stage for a weakening of Soviet Communist power. Solidarity was a trade union started in the shipyards of Gdansk, Poland. Workers went on strike to improve working conditions. They eventually created the first independent trade union in a Soviet Communist country. Despite several attempts by the Polish government to suppress and dissolve the union, it continued to flourish. Later it became a political party and participated in Poland's first free elections brought about by demands for reform. Indeed, Solidarity became the first chink in the armor of the Soviet Union. Velvet Revolution : In the Velvet Revolution of 1989, Czechoslovakia wins its independence from the Soviet Union. By 1993, it has become two separate countries. In November and December of 1989, Czechoslovakia went through the Velvet Revolution. Both student demonstrations and popular protest led to the defeat of the Communist Party's control of the country and the return to capitalism and democracy. In the first elections, voters elected Alexander Dubček to the position of Speaker of the Parliament. They also elected the popular essayist, poet, and playwright Vaclav Havel to the position of president. In 1993, Czechoslovakia officially disbanded and became the separate Czech and Slovak Republics. Fall of the Berlin Wall : After a series of protests known as the Peaceful Revolution, the Berlin Wall comes down. Two weeks later, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl announces his 10-point program for building inter-German cooperation and eventual reunification. Romanian Revolution : The satellite nation of Romania also demanded its independence from Soviet control in 1989. In December of this year, protestors clashed with the brutal Communist Party government, headed by Nicolae Ceausescu. More than a thousand Romanians died, but in the end they overthrew Ceausescu's government, and both he and his wife were executed. This conflict became known as the Romanian Revolution. Romania was no longer a Communist-controlled country. 1991 coup d'etat in Moscow : Soon nationalist movements sprang up in Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova, Byelorussia, and the Central Asian Republics. Clearly these rebellions could cause lasting damage to the Soviet Union. The hard-liner politicians in Moscow decided to make an effort to save the Soviet Union in August of 1991. They kidnapped Gorbachev, announced deceptively on national television that he was ill and could no longer govern, and staged a coup d'état. In protest, massive demonstrations were staged in Moscow and Leningrad (today's St Petersburg). But when Soviet troops were ordered to attack the protestors and stop the demonstrations, they refused to fire on their countrymen. The coup failed after just three days. It was clear that the Soviet people would not turn back the clock to the days of Communist Party control. They wanted democracy. Gorbachev, returning to power, realized that there was no stopping the process. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned, and by January of 1992, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. The Iron Curtain had been torn open. Many of the former republics of the Soviet Union, including Russia, formed a loose association of nations called the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in 1991.

Cuban Missile Crisis

In 1959, a revolution on the Caribbean island of Cuba brought a communist government into power. The new dictator, Fidel Castro, quickly allied his country with the USSR. In 1961, a group of Cuban exiles, with the backing of the CIA, tried to recapture the country. The invasion, which occurred at a place in Cuba called the Bay of Pigs, was an embarrassing failure. In May of 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev sought to bridge the "missile gap" by placing Soviet missiles in Cuba, 90 miles from Florida. When President Kennedy was made aware of this, he demanded they be removed. On October 22, 1962, Kennedy stepped up the pressure. He went on television to announce to the American people that he had photographic proof of missiles being installed in Cuba. He said that U.S. Navy ships would blockade Cuba until the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles. And he declared that if the U.S. were attacked from Cuba, it would respond by attacking the Soviet Union. By the end of the month, the Soviet government announced it would remove the missiles in exchange for an American pledge to not invade Cuba. Following this close call with nuclear war, the U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed to establish a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington, D.C.

Red Guards

semi-military groups in the People's Republic of China that attempted to enforce the Cultural Revolution of Mao Zedong in 1966 and 1967

Sovietization

the adoption of a way of life and mentality modeled after the Soviet Union.

Eastern Bloc

the countries of Eastern and Central Europe that were under Soviet domination from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

the formerly militant group that fought for Palestinian liberation and rights, including an independent state; it is now a more mainstream political organization representing the more moderate wing among Palestinians

Long March

the military retreat of about 90,000 Communist soldiers from southern to northern China; they marched about 6,000 miles; only a few thousand people survived

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

Before the WTO was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was founded on January 1, 1948, and focused on the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade. It was founded as a result of the United Nations' Conference on Trade and Employment in 1947. GATT began with 23 nations interested in trade and successfully opened markets for all of its members. By the time the WTO took its place in 1995, GATT had 127 member nations exchanging goods with the benefit of lowered tariffs. Seventy-five of these countries became the founding members of the WTO. Within the next two years, the other 52 joined as well. Twenty-seven other countries, who were not members of GATT, have also joined the WTO since then. A number of other countries are currently negotiating membership to the WTO.

What has been the global response to terrorism?

Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, President George W. Bush declared that he would "make no distinction between those who committed these acts and those who harbor them." The United States immediately launched an attack on Afghanistan, which the American government believed was harboring the terrorists responsible for the attack. The government of Afghanistan was run by the Taliban, which followed the laws of Islamic fundamentalism. In a short amount of time, the United States and allied forces invaded the capital city of Kabul, causing the Taliban to flee. Over the next year, allied forces destroyed many of al-Qaeda's camps in Afghanistan. A more democratic government was established that promoted social revolution in the face of Islamic fundamentalism, including increased rights for the women of Afghanistan. Following this limited success in Afghanistan, the United States launched another war in Iraq in 2003. The United States claimed Iraq was producing weapons of mass destruction and could possibly provide them to al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups. This concern has its origin in the first Persian Gulf War, where the United States invaded Iraq in 1991 to stop Iraq's takeover of its oil-rich neighbor, Kuwait. While that effort succeeded, some believe U.S. intervention fueled Islamic extremists' hatred and commitment to fight U.S. influence in the region. In the long run, many argue neither of these recent wars has been very beneficial to the United States and its war on terrorism. The Iraq War that began in 2003 was initially supported in the United States, but declined as time passed even leading to protest. The problems there only served to strengthen many Americans' dislike for the war. Weapons of mass destruction were never found in the country. The removal of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, while supported by many Iraqis, emboldened the regime in Iran. Iran openly supports terrorist organizations like Hamas and Hezbollah. In Afghanistan, the Taliban continues to operate as insurgents and the U.S. and Afghan forces continue to fight a war against them. On the other hand, many consider the elimination of al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in 2011 by U.S. special forces a significant victory in the war on terrorism. At home, the United States responded to terrorism by tightening security. The U.S. Congress passed the PATRIOT Act and created the Department of Homeland Security. The PATRIOT Act continues to be controversial. Many Americans believe it subverts civil rights enshrined in the United States Constitution. For example, it permits wiretapping, surveillance, and email monitoring, as well as accessing financial documents if there are direct ties to suspected terrorists or terrorist groups and a federal warrant is obtained. Cell phone and internet activity has also been monitored. Federal officials follow stricter guidelines for airport security scans by preventing passengers from bringing anything on a plane that could be used as a weapon, including bottles of water. Additionally, it's believed that racial profiling is used to single out Middle Eastern men and women. At the World Summit in 2005, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1624, which called on all countries to cooperate in the global fight against terrorism. This included securing borders, adopting measures necessary to avoid inciting domestic terrorism, and not harboring suspected terrorists from other countries. It also recalled the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and affirmed its importance in the face of combating terrorism. The Aum Shinrikyo sarin gas attack on the subway system in Tokyo was met with the same fear and paranoia as the September 11 attacks. The Japanese had previously enjoyed a society that was nearly free of violent crime. The government responded by taking away the cult's status as a religious organization and by seizing many of its assets. It was not outlawed, however, as the government believed that it had the freedom to exist. Extra government funding was devoted to monitoring the group. Its leader, Shoko Asahara, was sentenced to death and executed for planning the attack, as were 12 other members of the group. After the attack, Aum Shinrikyo denounced its violent past and never committed another act of terrorism. Today, the group still exists and has over 2,000 members. The London Underground bombings of 2005 led to a mass investigation, in which many people, mostly Muslim, were questioned for their involvement in the attacks. While none were found guilty, the investigation brought many other crimes to light, leading to the deportations of many immigrants in England. This led to a realization of the need to protect London's Underground, just as Americans realized the need to improve airport security after September 11. The incident demonstrated how difficult it was for medical personnel to access the Underground, so new first aid measures were enacted. Security was also heightened in the Underground. This incident was not the first time the London Underground had been attacked—it had been bombed five times by the Irish Republican Army. Sometimes governments find themselves helpless against terrorism. The government of Uganda has been ineffective at stopping Joseph Kony's Lord's Resistance Army. Instead, they have undermined its importance and tried to pretend it is less of a problem than it is. The government of Sudan, where the LRA also operates, has given the group food and supplies in exchange for not attacking their citizens, rather than trying to stop them altogether. The global reaction has been different. In 2005, the International Criminal Courtissued arrest warrants against Kony and four other LRA leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity. In 2011, U.S. President Barack Obama deployed about 100 military advisors to Uganda to help stop the LRA terrorists.

Who are some of the key figures in nationalist movements around the world?

Gandhi's willingness to suffer physical punishment at the hands of the British, and his absolute refusal to retaliate in kind, inspired the Indian people. Led by Gandhi, they realized that moral force could defeat physical force, and they acted accordingly. Gandhi became known as Mahatma (great soul). He organized boycotts, general strikes, and other nonviolent actions to defy British rule. Perhaps his greatest triumph was the Salt March to the sea, where he and thousands of his followers made salt from seawater to oppose the British salt tax. Jawaharlal Nehru was a leader of the Indian independence movement and a close associate of Gandhi. He became the first president of independent India. In this 1946 A former army officer, Gamal Abdel Nasser was part of the group that overthrew King Farouk and established the republic of Egypt. He was the country's first president. Nasser was a pan-Arabist who believed that all Muslim nations should unite in cooperation to achieve their aims. Fidel Castro was a guerilla fighter and revolutionary who overthrew the U.S.-supported Batista dictatorship in 1959. Castro was a communist. Though he improved the lives of many Cubans, he also severely restricted civil liberties in Cuba. Haiti had gained independence from France in 1804. Since then, the island nation has often been the site of political unrest. In 1957, a physician and government official named Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier became Haiti's first president. In 1964, he declared himself "president for life." His dictatorial regime was long and infamous for its brutality. Papa Doc ruled until 1971, when his son "Baby Doc" followed in his father's footsteps. Significance: In the early 1970s, many Haitians began to leave the country to escape the abuses and poor economic conditions caused by Duvalier and his regime.

How do nations show cooperation?

In order for us to have access to items made from around the world, nations have to engage in trade agreements. A trade agreement is any arrangement between countries concerning their trade relationships. They can be bilateral (between two nations) or multilateral (between several nations). Most trade agreements are free trade agreements(FTAs), where two or more countries make a contract to reduce tariffs in order to exchange goods. Free trade agreements involve reciprocity (exchanging items for mutual benefit), so both sides benefit equally from the agreement. If there is a lack of reciprocity, then a trade agreement can become imbalanced. This can result in one trading partner taking unfair advantage of the other, and can damage international relations between the two trading partners.

What does it mean to be a global citizen?

In short, there are issues that reach farther than the borders of any one nation. Think of environmental issues, for example. When a company in the city pollutes the air, water, or soil, they may think the county will clean it up. The county may think the state will clean it up. The state may think that the country will clean it up. And the country may think that another country will clean it up or simply deny that there is a problem. The truth is, it is everyone's problem. As global citizens, we are all responsible for the protection of the earth and its natural resources. Over-mining, over-fishing, and deforestation are all examples of poor global citizenship. We all need to realize that the actions (or inactions) taken today will affect the generations that will follow us. The need for a global outlook on all issues is more pressing than ever.

How did the changing geography of Europe (especially the division of Germany) affect relations between the Soviet Union and the Allies?

Most of the new borders were determined by the leaders of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union in two conferences. Even though the three countries were allies, U.S. President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill could see that Soviet General Secretary Stalin had his own vision for post-war Europe. As you may recall, at the close of the war, it was decided that Germany would be divided into four zones. Each zone was then occupied by one of the Allies: the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Despite these divisions, however, the Allies had decided at the Potsdam Conference that "so far as is practicable, there shall be uniformity of treatment of the German population throughout Germany." In practice, however, the Soviet Union took its occupation zone in a very different direction as the relationship between the occupying countries quickly changed from one of tenuous cooperation to belligerence and defiance. In 1949, the three Allied zones of Germany were combined to form the Federal Republic of Germany, which became known as "West Germany." Soon after, the Soviet zone formed the German Democratic Republic, which became popularly known as "East Germany." The city of Berlin, which had also been divided into four occupation zones, followed the same path. The Soviet sector became East Berlin and part of East Germany. The French, British, and American sectors became West Berlin and part of West Germany. East Germany adopted a communist government and became a satellite nation of the USSR.

What international groups exist that encourage growth and stop abuses?

Since the end of World War II, the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank have played important roles in shaping the global economy. The IMF was created in 1945 to stabilize exchange rates and to help rebuild the world's payment system. The World Bank, created in 1944, gives loans to assist nations in need with programs to end poverty and hunger. To track and assist the nations of the world, they group nations as either low-, middle-, or high-income. The low- and middle-income nations are grouped as developing. The high-income nations are grouped as developed. Developing countries, ranging from Argentina to South Africa to Turkey, are economically at risk and have weaker infrastructures and trade markets. This description has been criticized by some because it denotes development from a Western-type model. Most European countries are considered "developed." Most Asian and African nations, even those that have industrialized economies, are considered "developing." The exceptions, such as Japan and South Korea, have adopted Western-style economies. The Group of Eight (G8) consists of the heads of government from the world's eight largest economies. These include France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada. These nations represent more than half of the world's combined gross domestic product (GDP). The first Group of Seven (which excluded Russia, who officially became the eighth member in 1997) has met yearly since 1975. Russia is not only the newest member but the only G8 member not yet categorized as a developed nation. It is interesting to note that, while the G8 represents the world's largest economies, the world's second largest economy, China, is not a member. Brazil's economy has also surpassed many of the member nations. There have been talks to extend the membership of the G8 to Brazil and China. Talks have also suggested including South Africa, India, and Mexico. These are all developing nations with large economies. The G8 discusses the pressing issues of the day. These issues include human rights, free trade, arms control, and terrorism. Their meetings are often a focal point for anti-globalization protestors. Many of these protestors argue that the G8 puts the interests of international business ahead of issues that are pressing in the poorest parts of the developing world, such as the environment, AIDS, and debt.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Some nations band together to cooperate, not to form trade agreements but to regulate a specific natural resource. Controlling an important natural resource can help a country build its economy. For example, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded to allow major oil producing countries to control crude oil production and prices. The governments of OPEC member countries work together to balance both the production and price of oil so that both customers and investors benefit.

Tiananmen Square incident

The Chinese youth, and General Secretary Hu Yaobang, embraced the new ideas. Hu promoted democratic reforms. However, the government forced Hu to resign his position in 1987, and two years later, he died. Hu's death in 1989 triggered tens of thousands of students to gather in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They held peaceful demonstrations for reforms. Eventually, about a million people joined the demonstration, which was broadcast worldwide. On June 3, 1989, the government ordered tanks and armed troops to move toward the crowds. Soldiers opened fire on the unarmed, civilian protestors. After a two-day massacre, the military gained control. The Chinese government officially claims that only 240 people were killed. However, most believe the death count to be in the thousands. The Tiananmen Square incident greatly damaged China's global reputation. As a result of the military violence on innocent civilians, many nations, including the United States and Japan, temporarily imposed sanctions on China. By the mid-1990s, however, the Chinese government reestablished strong trade relations. By 2000, the U.S. Congress gave China a permanent most-favored-nation trade status. China was then admitted to the World Trade Organization. This important membership boosted China in the global economy.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol (KP) was a binding agreement between 37 industrialized nations to reduce and stabilize greenhouse gas emissions. The KP is an extension of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which proposed the agreement in response to global warming. The delegates adopted the KP in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997. It took effect on February 16, 2005. By September of 2011, 191 nations had adopted the KP. The target goals of the KP were to reduce greenhouse gas emissions an average of 5.2 percent between 2008 and 2012. The burden was placed on developed nations rather than developing nations. To reach these target goals, each nation was required to measure and record its actual emissions. No country that signed the Kyoto Protocol met its target goals. Many of the countries that signed the protocol actually increased their productions of greenhouse gasses, sometimes by a large margin. Greece, for instance, increased its emissions by 25 percent during this time period; Spain increased its emissions by 15 percent. In addition, missing from the ratified agreement was the United States. Under President Clinton and with the active participation of Vice President Al Gore, the United States initially agreed to the KP on December 11, 1998. However, President Bush declined to ratify it. He cited high costs, lack of scientific evidence for global warming, and the unfairness that "big polluters," like China and India (categorized as developing nations), were not required to cut emissions. Since the United States accounted for 36 percent of the world's emissions in 1990, their exclusion from the agreement created a huge blow to its goals.

What are the differences between Capitalism and Communism?

The Soviet Union claimed it was invested in the concept of communism. It held the ideological position that the accumulation of wealth and capital only leads to misery. For this reason, it advocated the state control of the means of production. The United States, on the other hand, advocated a free-market capitalist approach. It felt that heavy private investment would stimulate markets and lead to larger prosperity around the world. As each side becomes more and more invested in the support of its own side, the other side becomes more and more intolerable. The United States saw the Soviet Union as an exporter of totalitarianism, while the Soviet Union interpreted the United States' strategy as colonialism enforced through market capitalism. The Soviet Union used a single-party political system that enforced a strict allegiance to the state and the party. The United States, on the other hand, advocated the use of liberal democracy.

What conditions existed that led to the independence movements of Soviet satellite countries and republics?

The Soviet Union used each country's communist party to exert control over the levers of government. These party officials exerted control over most civil institutions including the police, the universities, and the societal organizations. It was through these institutions that Russia could remotely control the political situation in each country. When this remote control didn't work to Russia's liking, the military could be called in, as happened in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Union encouraged the sovietization of the Eastern Bloc countries. This meant that they were compelled to adopt the Soviet-style command economy. In practice, this meant that the economic interests were merged with the political and state interests of the country. The side effects of this were large-scale industrialization that lacked efficiency as well as stagnant economic growth. In 1948, the Czechoslovakian Communist Party, backed by the Soviet government, took control of Czechoslovakia. As a result, there would be forty years of Communist rule there. It was one of the major milestones in the Soviet Union's process of taking control of Eastern Europe. The Tito-Stalin split was a period of conflict between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, and its leaders Josip Borz Tito and Joseph Stalin. Stalin felt that Tito and his country were disloyal to the Soviet Union. Stalin expelled Yugoslavia from the Communist Information Bureau. Only after Stalin's death was Yugoslavia readmitted to the brotherhood of Soviet Communist states, although it would always retain more independence. Samizdats were the chief method for circulating the contents of a petition called Charter 77. From 1977 to 1992, many members of Czechoslovakian society signed this petition. It criticized the government for failing to implement human rights issues in many of its documents. The original Charter 77 was confiscated when leaders tried to bring it to the government, but copies were published in the samizdats. Even though the government punished many of the signers, Charter 77 became a political movement and brought attention to many issues facing Czechoslovakia under communism. Soviet economic policies in Russia and Eastern Europe had resulted in economies that lagged far behind the western countries. By the mid-1980s, the per capita GDP of the Eastern Bloc countries ranged between $2,000 and $3,000 (in 2011 dollars). By comparison, in the U.S. it was over $17,000.

What are some of the major terror attacks that have occurred around the world in recent history?

The deadliest example of terrorism in recent history was the September 11 attacks in 2001. On that day, 19 terrorists who were involved with the Islamic fundamentalist group al-Qaeda, founded by Osama bin Laden, boarded four airplanes. They hijacked them while they were in flight and flew two of the planes directly into the two towers of the World Trade Center in downtown Manhattan in New York City, causing them to collapse. The two office buildings were chosen as targets because over 50,000 people worked in the offices in the buildings, and the terrorists were trying to kill as many people as possible. About 2,600 of the buildings' occupants were killed. The terrorists directed another plane to Arlington, Virginia, and flew it into the Pentagon Building, where the U.S. Department of Defense has its headquarters. One hundred and twenty-five people were killed, but the damage to the Pentagon was far less than that to the World Trade Center. The fourth plane was believed to be headed toward Washington, DC, but the potential disaster was averted by four passengers who managed to overtake the hijackers before the plane reached its destination. It crashed in a field in Pennsylvania instead. All 246 people aboard the four planes were killed. Timothy McVeigh was a sympathizer with the American militia movement, a political movement of different paramilitary groups in the United States. These groups are distrusting of the government, often believing that the government is trying to take away their liberties, such as the right to bear arms. McVeigh felt compelled to strike against the United States Federal Government after witnessing the botched FBI invasion of a religious, quasi-militant group's compound in Waco, Texas, which killed 80 people in 1993. To protest the action, McVeigh decided to attack a federal government building. On April 19, 1995, he detonated a large homemade bomb in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. A total of 168 people were killed in the attack, including 19 children under the age of six. McVeigh was arrested and convicted of the crime. He was executed Northern Ireland, or the province of Ulster, is the only province on the island of Ireland that is part of the United Kingdom. It is also a predominantly Protestant region, while most of Ireland is Catholic. It has been the site of much violence over the last century, by both Protestant fundamentalists and by nationalists, such as the Irish Republican Army, or IRA. The IRA wants Northern Ireland to rejoin Ireland or to become independent rather than be ruled by the United Kingdom. In 1998, a group called the Orange Volunteer Force, a Protestant fundamentalist group, emerged. Between 1998 and 2009, the Orange Volunteer Force claimed responsibility for over 30 bombings of Catholic churches and other buildings throughout Northern Ireland. This picture shows the aftermath of a car bombing by the Orange Volunteers on a street in downtown Omagh, a town west of Belfast, that killed 25 people and injured over 200 others. On July 7, 2005, four Islamic fundamentalists participated in a suicide bombing in the subway (underground) and on the street in London, England. Unlike many Islamic fundamentalists, these men were not affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, al-Qaeda, or another organization, but acted alone. Three of them entered the subway, wearing backpacks with explosives, during London's rush hour. They detonated their bombs after boarding the train. The fourth detonated his bomb while riding a bus on a busy street. Fifty-six people were killed, including the four suicide bombers. About 700 were injured. The bombings also disrupted London's public transportation system, which created many problems in the large city, and prompted security alerts throughout Europe and in the United States. The group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) is a Spanish nationalist group from the Basque Country, a region on the Spanish and French border. Their name means "Basque Homeland and Freedom" in English. They were founded in 1959 with the goal of achieving independence for the Basque people from Spain. At the time, Spain was under a dictatorship that rejected the multi-national makeup of Spain and sought to suppress regional nationalist movements. In 1961, ETA began a series of attacks that killed hundreds of people over the next four decades. On December 11, 1995, the ETA exploded a car bomb as a military van passed it in Madrid, killing six army civilians and injuring 17 people, as well as causing widespread damage to the area. In 2011, the ETA announced a ceasefire, when armed activity would be ended, but the group continues to operate in Spain. A group called the Riyad-us Saliheen Brigade of Martyrs, an Islamic fundamentalist group inChechnya whose goal is to gain Chechen independence from Russia, invaded a school in the town of North Ossentia-Alania in 2004. They took 1,100 people as hostages, including over 700 schoolchildren, and held the school under siege for three days. The Beslan school hostage crisis involved several suicide bombings inside the school, and the school's gymnasium was set on fire, which ultimately resulted in the deaths of nearly 350 people. After three days, the school was stormed by Russian military, police, and firefighters, and the survivors were rescued. Most of the perpetrators were killed during the siege. The U.S. Navy ship USS Cole is a guided missile destroyer, a type of large warship. It was anchored in the port of Aden in Yemen, south of Saudi Arabia, when it was attacked in 2000 by Islamic fundamentalists involved with the group al-Qaeda. A group of suicide bombers maneuvered a small boat next to the ship and detonated a bomb. The blast created a large hole in the side of the ship. Seventeen sailors died, and 39 were injured. The USS Cole was repaired and returned to its homeport in Norfolk, Virginia. It was later deployed in 2006 during the Iraq War. n the city of Delhi, India, the eighth largest city in the world, there were three explosions on October 29, 2005. These attacks came two days before the festival of Diwali, a holy day to three Indian religions: Hinduism, Sikhism, and Jainism. The three explosions happened in very busy parts of the city, including a railway station, a crowded market, and inside a bus on a busy street. The bombings resulted in 62 deaths and 210 injuries. A small Islamic fundamentalist group in India called the Islamic Revolutionary Front claimed responsibility for the attacks. However, the police who investigated the attacks suspected a larger group, Lashkar-e-Taiba (whose name means "Army of the Good"), a Pakistani militant group that is one of the largest Islamist fundamentalist groups in the world. The true perpetrators of the attacks have not been discovered. The National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) is a nationalist group in the Tripura region of India, on the border of Bangladesh. Tripura is an economically disadvantaged community where 90% of the population is Hindu. However, about the same percentage of NLFT members are Christian. The NFLT claims that their goals are to secede from India and establish a Christian kingdom in Tripura. The Tripura Baptist Christian Union (TBCU), the region's largest Christian church, has financed many of the NLFT's terrorist activities. On October 20, 2006, members of the NLFT staged an ambush on a group of soldiers who were on patrol in Tripura, killing two of them. August 7, 1998, was the eighth anniversary of the arrival of American troops in Saudi Arabia during the first Gulf War. On that day, two American embassies were attacked using truck bombs. One was in Nairobi, Kenya, and the other was in Das es Salaam, Tanzania. The two attacks killed 223 people and injured more than 4,000. The bombings were linked to local members of a group called the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, an Islamic fundamentalist group whose goal is to overthrow the Egyptian government. The mastermind behind the attacks was found to be Osama bin Laden, who was placed on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted list for the crime. Three years later, bin Laden ordered a far deadlier attack on the World Trade Center in New York City. In 1984, a Japanese cult and terrorist organization called Aum Shinrikyo was founded. Its name means "Supreme Truth" in English. Its belief system is a synthesis of Hindu, Buddhist, other Asian religions, and certain aspects of Christianity. Its founder prophesied the end of the world, in which a war would be fought between the United States and Japan and result in a nuclear attack that only the members of Aum Shinrikyo would survive. The followers of Aum Shinrikyo saw the outside world as a threat. In 1995, they released a poisonous gas in a subway in Tokyo. The attack killed 13 people, injured 50, and temporarily blinded nearly 1,000 others. The instigators were arrested and convicted, but the group itself continues to operate today.

Berlin Airlift

The first big international crisis of the Cold War took place between June of 1948 and May of 1949. After World War II, Britain, France, and the United States each controlled a section in western Berlin, even though this city lay within the Soviet occupation zone. The Soviets controlled eastern Berlin. The Soviet Union blocked Britain, France, and the United States access to their sectors in western Berlin. The Soviets hoped to show that they would provide western Berlin the supplies it needed and thereby take control of the entire city of Berlin. However, planes from the U.S. and Great Britain set up airlifts to drop food and other supplies into western Berlin. Once the Soviet Union lifted the blockade, the city of Berlin was officially split into two separate halves, Soviet-controlled East Berlin and democratic West Berlin.

How did the one-child policy affect China?

Then in 1980, the government changed this guideline to an official law that all Chinese households were limited to one child. This one-child policy continued to be a serious human rights issue until October of 2015, when the policy was lifted due to concerns over a rapidly aging population and potential labor shortages that were needed to support them. The Chinese government harshly enforced the one-child law. Leaders required abortions and sterilizations. While the policy reduced the population's rate of increase, it skewed the gender ratio toward males. More baby boys survived than baby girls. It also created a large undocumented population. If families (illegally) had more than one child, they hid them from authorities. As a result, these children were not counted by the government. They are not entitled to societal benefits, such as public education. This caused millions of Chinese young people to grow up in poverty.

What changes did Gorbachev introduce in the Soviet Union?

These two policies of Gorbachev's encourage openness in the Soviet government and a spirit of reform. Both encourage the Soviet people to speak out, which leads to rebellion. glasnost : To encourage a culture of openness, Gorbachev instituted a policy known as glasnost. He claimed that Soviet history should be told as it really happened, and not as the government wanted its people to think it had happened. He also wanted the government itself to be more transparent. Much of the early use of glasnost dealt with freedom of speech. For example, the government allowed some Soviet newspapers to print more truthful articles without fear of punishment. However, there were still controls over some discussions. Sometimes the government removed offending newspapers and books from public libraries and newsstands. But glasnoststarted the process of allowing the Soviet people to learn the truth and demand answers. perestroika : Gorbachev also instituted a reform known as perestroika, which meant restructuring. He saw perestroika as a way to start deep reforms to the Communist party and to the economic approach of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev even hoped to introduce some aspects of democracy to the country's government and capitalism to its economy. Gorbachev had hoped that the policies of glasnost and perestroika would help preserve the Soviet system by instituting a small amount of liberalization into the politics and economies of the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. Rather than preserving the system, however, it contributed to undermining it.

What other conflicts have arisen out of nationalism?

This photograph, taken in 1998, shows police officers and workers in Northern Ireland clearing debris caused by an exploding bomb. In Northern Ireland, there were two opposing factions. One part of the population wanted to keep Northern Ireland as a part of the United Kingdom. The other segment of the population wanted Northern Ireland to be independent of the United Kingdom so it could become part of the independent Republic of Ireland. Decades of bloody conflict, even terrorist acts, were used by both sides. Today, Northern Ireland is autonomous and has its own government, though it is not part of the Irish Republic. In 1974, United Nations troops arrived at the Green Line—the buffer zone that separates Greek-dominated eastern Cyprus and Turkish-dominated western Cyprus. Cyprus is home to large populations of Greeks and Turks. Greek military leaders overthrew the president of Cyprus in 1974. Turkey feared that this action indicated a Greek takeover of the island and, as a result, sent Turkish forces to Cyprus. Soon fighting broke out between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Eventually, a cease-fire was declared, and the Green Line was set up. For decades, the island has remained divided into two parts, with Greeks living in one part and Turks in the other. Some Turkish and Greek Cypriots want to make peace, but both Greek and Turkey have hindered these efforts. In this photograph, Prime Minister Lobsang Sangay prays with fellow Tibetans for Tibetans who have been killed in protests of Chinese control of their region. China insists that Tibet is part of the Chinese nation, even though history does not support this claim. For decades, the Chinese government has subjugated the Tibetan people. Indeed, this government has often tried to suppress the culture and religion of Tibet. The Dalai Lama, Tibet's spiritual leader in exile, has attempted to negotiate with the Chinese. A nationalist movement has arisen in Tibet. Although this movement has wide support around the world, its success is questionable. The Tibetans might not be able to overcome the might of the Chinese government and armed forces. Distrust, even paranoia, has defined the relationship between Pakistan and India ever since Partition. Wars have been fought and much blood has been shed. The region of Kashmir, high in the Himalayas, has been a flashpoint for this mutual enmity. At Partition, a Hindu prince ruled Kashmir. Since then the region was claimed by India. However, the majority of its population is Muslim, so Pakistan wants to control it. Armies from Pakistan and India maintain bases in Kashmir and have been fighting for more than half a century over who has sovereignty over the region. Both Pakistan and India have nuclear weapons, which makes their continued belligerence a grave threat to the entire world. Also, movements have arisen to make Kashmir independent of both Pakistan and India. However, these movements have not met with success. Police confront protestors rallying for the independence of the Basque Country from Spain. The Basque Country is a region in the western footholds of the Pyrenees Mountains. In 1975, many Basques-who speak an ancient language and are culturally different from the Spaniards-began to stage protests calling for local autonomy from the Spanish government. In response, Spain granted some aspects of self-rule. Even so, some Basques continued to push for total independence from Spain. As a result, this region remains an area of political unrest. In the image, about two thousand refugees who fled from fighting in East Timor welcome United Nations peacekeepers. Fighting between Indonesian soldiers and East Timorese independence activists left at least 100,000 East Timor residents dead. The small island of East Timor had little economic value to Indonesia. Yet Indonesia fought fiercely to deny it the right to independence. East Timor declared its independence in 1975. But it had to fight Indonesian forces until 2002 before that independence was granted.

"from brinkmanship to détente"

This phrase symbolizes a period of time when the U.S. and the Soviet Union start trying to reduce the threat of nuclear war. Also, many people in the Soviet republics start to feel that they no longer need to be part of the Soviet Union for protection against a military threat.

What are some of the issues that affect China today?

Tibet is a region in southwest China (shown in red) that consists of a high plateau and the world's highest mountains. Most of the people of Tibet practice Buddhism and are very devout. The Dalai Lama is both the political and spiritual leader of Tibet. When Communist China initially took over Tibet, they allowed the Tibetans to have a regional self-government and freedom of religion. However, in 1956, the Chinese government repressed the people and government of Tibet, causing the Dalai Lama to flee to India. The Chinese destroyed most of Tibet's monasteries. They took control of the banks, newspapers, and radio stations. In addition, China forced Tibetan farmers to give a fixed amount of grain to the Chinese government. Before long, the people of Tibet began to fight against this repression. Eventually, in the 1980s, the Chinese government eased control and reopened some monasteries. Even so, reform has been slow. Living in exile, the Dalai Lama has worked for the independence of Tibet. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. Tibet is still not politically free from China. China's rapid economic growth caused severe environmental problems. A large source of the trouble is that China relies on coal for about 70 percent of its energy. As a result, China emits more greenhouse gases than any other nation. Scholars estimate that air pollution in China causes more than 300,000 premature deaths. Water pollution is also a big problem. In 2006, about 300 million Chinese did not have access to clean drinking water. In 1992, China passed the Enterprise Law, which gave business enterprises in the nation 14 rights. These rights included decision-making in production, price-setting for products, personnel management, and import and export. As a result, China took a huge step in its transformation to a market economy. This 2009 photo marks the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square incident. People held candlelight vigils around the world to remember and mourn the many lives lost in that massacre of innocents. Human rights issues, such as repression of democratic movements, religious intolerance, and forced abortion, continue to cast a long shadow over China and its place in the modern world

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

a loose association of nations that were former republics of the Soviet Union; it includes Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan

Zionist Movement

a movement that began in the 19th century, and continued into the 20th century, that advocated for a Jewish homeland, or nation, in the region of Palestine (as defined in the Bible), or today's Israel

Iran-Contra Affair

political scandal in which President Reagan attempted to circumvent a ban and continue to fund the contras

special economic zones (SEZs)

fourteen areas that China's government formed where foreign enterprises could invest and trade