Music Classroom Performance

How sound is produced in percussion instruments

Percussion instruments are instruments that produce sound by being hit, scraped, or shaken. Certain percussion instruments such as drums produce sound through the vibration of a membrane around a resonating body. Also known as membranophones, the membrane on these instruments can be struck by hands or mallets, as well as rubbed and scraped. Other percussion instruments produce vibrations without the aid of air, string, or membranes; these musical instruments are known as idiophones and include concussion idiophones, percussion idiophones, rattles, scrapers, and friction idiophones. Concussion idiophones are two objects that are struck together; examples include rhythm sticks, castanets, and claves. Percussion idiophones are those struck by mallets and include marimbas, bells, gongs, and xylophones. Rattles are shaken, such as a maraca. Scrapers are stroked across a notched surface, such as washboards and guiros. Friction idiophones are played by rubbing and include the musical saw and the glass harmonica.

Indicating a fermata

When conducting a fermata, several considerations should be made: the tempo and presence or absence of a ritardando, the length of the fermata, the presence or absence of a rest after the fermata, and resuming tempo if the music continues. If the fermata is on the last note of the piece, the conductor should gesture in a circular motion downward as long as the fermata is to be held. If the music continues after a fermata without a break, the conductor should gesture slightly outward and upward to incorporate the preparation beat for the next note. If the music continues after a fermata with a rest, the conductor should indicate a cutoff and resume with the preparation beat in the intended tempo of the next section. Effort should be made to eliminate any awkward movements so that the musicians can comfortably play a fermata for the length indicated.

Posture while conducting

When conducting an ensemble, careful attention should be made to bodily posture so that no slight imbalance or awkward position will detract from the clear musical cues from the conductor. The conductor's feet should be about shoulder width with one foot slightly more forward to maintain optimal balance. The knees should not bend, and equal weight should be given to each foot. The conductor's spine should be tall and erect. Just before beginning, the arms should be in an attention position using both the baton hand and the free hand held ready to indicate the preparatory beat. The arms should not be too close to the body and should be held up and out at a comfortable width. The elbows should be slightly forward ready to engage the ensemble. The wrists should be flexible and neither limp nor stiff.

General principles for conducting beat patterns

When conducting certain beat pattern, there are several principles to keep in mind. The downbeat of the pattern always indicates the strongest pulse of the pattern, and is indicated by a downward stroke of the hand. Also, the last beat of the pattern is always the weakest pulse of the pattern and is thus indicated by an upward stroke of the hand. If in a compound meter there exists a secondary strong pulse, then the movement of the hand is almost just as strong of a downbeat as the primary strong downbeat. The movement of the hand in a three- or four-beat pattern moves so that collisions between the baton hand and the free hand are avoided. Conductors may choose to indicate subdivided pulses such as eight pulses in a slow 4/4 movement, or to indicate fewer pulses in a fast movement, such as conducting only the downbeats of a fast 3/4 waltz.

Bright tone vs. dark tone

"Bright" and "dark" are descriptions of tonal quality. Tonal quality is independent from pitch, as demonstrated by a violin and a cello, for example. If both were played to produce the same note, their tonal qualities would still differ, with the violin producing a brighter tone. A bright tone emphasizes the partials in the upper midrange. A dark tone, in contrast, will have a tonal balance emphasizing the lower range, with weak high frequencies. In terms of singing, a bright tone is one that resonates farther forward in the face, and is associated with the front vowels [i] and [e]. A dark tone resonates further back, and is associated with the vowels [u], [o], and [a]. In a full chorus, the brightness or darkness of a passage can be adjusted through the manipulation of vowel quality. In general, female vocalists will tend to have brighter tones.

Using colleagues, mentors, conferences, and publishers as repertoire resources

A conscientious director should be willing to look to a diverse variety of sources for repertoire. By drawing from colleagues, mentors, conferences, and publishers, the director can tap the experience of people of different tastes, ages, backgrounds, and musical circles. The suggestions of those with a different approach to choosing repertoire can be particularly valuable, as these suggestions are the most likely to be overlooked by a search undertaken independently. Publishers may be useful due to their access not only to their own catalogs, including back catalog that may have been previously overlooked, but also to the catalogs in the publisher's extended network. As publishing houses have consolidated and collections have become digitized, repertoire that may have only been available from small boutique publishers has become available for wider circulation.

Rehearsal room, concert hall, football field, and cathedral

A football field would have little reverberation time, as the direct signal would already be weakened in the long distances it takes to reach the bleachers as well as the lack of a ceiling to reflect the sound waves. A rehearsal room would have slightly more reverberation time, given the presence of a ceiling; the reverberation time of rehearsal rooms vary considerably depending on the wall materials. A concert hall would have significantly more reverberation time than a rehearsal room, as the design of the space usually increases the blend of sound and thus reverberation. A cathedral would have the most reverberation time of the list, with highly reflective walls typical of cathedrals and the intricate ceilings in which sound waves would have multiples points to reflect and travel.

Improving chorus' intonation and vocal technique

A fundamental element of good choral sound lies in accurate intonation. Without all of the voices sounding in pitch, balance and blend become the least of a choral director's concerns. There are many rehearsal techniques to improve a chorus' intonation. Sometimes, changing the seating arrangement of the chorus can drastically improve intonation. Be sure that all vocal parts can hear each other clearly so that intonation is no longer an issue. If the seating arrangement is not the issue, then the director can take the singers through a problem spot singing every beat vertically, stopping on each harmony for accurate pitches. Directors can also warm up with dominant chords and tonic pedals so that the singers always have a reference pitch to tune to. Singers should practice breathing exercises, vocalizations, and etudes to strengthen their vocal mechanisms and their overall vocal technique.

Using arpeggiation in accompaniment

An arpeggio is defined as a chord that is played note by note, successively instead of simultaneously. Also termed a broken chord, the arpeggio can be played from the highest note to the lowest note, but is more commonly played from the lowest note to the highest note. When using arpeggiation in accompaniment, the musician plays individual chords as arpeggios. If accompanying a single instrument, arpeggiation can be a practical musical technique as the arpeggio fills out the texture of the sound and adds forward motion to the music, as the chords become single notes flowing through one another instead of a simple blocked chord that must be sustained. Arpeggios also tend to soften the delivery of the accompaniment, giving the music a sense of lightness such as that of arpeggiated harp music.

Using ostinato in accompaniment

An ostinato is defined as a short, repeating accompaniment pattern throughout a musical work that can consist of a simple rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic idea. Similar to a drone, the ostinato provides a stable foundation for the main melody line(s). In terms of improvisation, the ostinato is a practical tool for creating new ideas and melodies as the repeated figures stay constant, allowing the melody line to focus on a free delivery. When an ostinato is used in Baroque music, it is termed the basso ostinato, or ground bass, and can feature both harmonic and melodic properties. When an ostinato is used in jazz music, it is termed the riff or vamp, and helps to form the framework for a tune. Ostinatos are also found extensively in world music such as that of Africa and India.

Appropriate etiquette

Any audience member should be aware of the performance venue for a concert, as there are different etiquettes for different performance venues. In a classical concert, the audience usually does not talk during a performance as it is considered disruptive, and applause is only polite at the end of a musical work. In contrast, jazz audiences can clap or give sound approval at any point of the performance to exhibit admiration for an improvised section or solo. At a rock concert, not only can the audience clap or give sound approval at any time, audience members can freely talk throughout the concert. Although the appropriate sound levels of the various audiences differ, some things remain constant at any venue. Audiences should arrive early to settle into the venue and feel comfortable. Audience members should always be aware of photography and videography regulations. Also, audiences should always be responsible for their children at a concert.

Fostering a relaxed instrumental playing approach

Approaching instrumental playing in a healthy manner requires a relaxed body to prevent injuries and to enhance instrumental tone and resonance. Physical tension in a musician can translate into an unpleasant, thinner, and pinched sound. Music educators can foster a relaxed approach to instrumental playing through daily instructional activities that encourage flexibility and freedom at the instrument. Rehearsals and music classes that start with physical stretching help students to release any existing tension, while signaling to the body a time for increased blood flow and loose joints. Music educators can implement warm-ups that involve tensing and releasing the shoulders so students can feel the presence and absence of tension in their bodies. Consistent and frequent reminders for a student to relax any tension will also help to make a relaxed approach a habit for the student.

Role of the music educator

As a leader of a student's music education, the music educator should be an advocate of proper concert etiquette. Although there are many aspects of music for a student to learn, it is equally important for a student to understand the proper way to act both as a concert musician as well as an audience member. As such, concert etiquette should be an integral part of every rehearsal and lesson. The student can begin practicing such performance etiquette as proper sitting or standing posture, as well as appropriate eye contact. The student can also begin to practice such things as bowing after performance as well as entrance etiquette. The students in the classroom can practice good audience technique through peer performance, exhibiting polite listening manners, withholding clapping between movements, and applause after a performance. The music educator can also take the opportunity during parent conferences or before a concert to address members of the audience regarding proper concert etiquette.

Incorporating music theory instruction during a full rehearsal

As a music educator, it is important to incorporate music theory instruction during full rehearsals, ensuring that a student's musical education is a comprehensive, all-encompassing one, and not one solely focused on performance. A thorough musical education will allow the student an informed and deeper understanding of music. When possible, the music educator should introduce new theoretical concepts before rehearsing a piece; the instructor should not take too much time in explanation, but give only concise, direct introduction, as the immersion within the music will aid in a student's understanding. When the music educator interrupts the rehearsal to do spot checks, the instructor should use appropriate language in explaining the technical or musical problem, to further integrate the concept of music theory into musical performance and understanding. When time allows, the music educator can give brief verbal quizzes, to keep the students accountable for their musical theory learning.

Selecting music selections for an advanced high school ensemble

As a music educator, it is important to select appropriately leveled, culturally diverse music selections to reflect the musical diversity within the global community as well as to challenge the students in a variety of styles and genres. Music directors should select a variety of music that is below, at, and above an ensemble's level to provide opportunities for in-depth expressive growth without technical obstacles, as well as music that challenges the students technically to reach the next level. Music directors can consult state contest repertoire lists for a general list of appropriate repertoire, as well as published repertoire books. Culturally diverse composers such as Soon Hee Newbold, William Grant Still, Dorothy Rudd Moore, and Yasuhide Ito offer many works that would be appropriate for an advanced high school ensemble.

Long exposure over time to high dB

As a musician, it is extremely important to be aware of the risks of long exposure over time to high dB listening experiences, as high dB listening experiences occur almost daily for some musicians through band practice and rock concerts. When the inner ear is exposed to high dB sound over time, irreversible damage can occur in the nerve fibers and structures of the inner ear. Since damage that occurs over time is a gradual process, a musician may not be aware of hearing loss until it has already occurred. Symptoms include distorted or muffled hearing, difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds such as doorbells, bird chirps, and alarm clocks, pain or ringing in the ear after exposure to excessively loud sounds, and trouble understanding group conversations or conversations on the phone.

Instrumental rehearsal: Role of the section leader

As a section leader in a larger ensemble, there are several responsibilities that must be met to strengthen the musical excellence and unity of the performing group. The section leader, or principal of a section, should be thoroughly prepared with his or her own musical part, since this will be the framework for the rest of the section. The section leader should also be ready to give advice in terms of style, articulation, phrasing, bowing, fingering, and other musical details. The section leader should also be proficient at keeping accurate tuning and should help to ensure the proper intonation of the entire section. The section leader is also responsible for interpreting any directives the conductor may give concerning musical interpretation such as dynamics, phrasing, articulation, and character.

Basic elements of conducting technique

As the leader of a group of musicians, the conductor plays an essential role in making music through performance or rehearsals. Several key elements of conducting technique play a vital role in coordinating various musical elements into one collective effort. At the most basic level, the conductor indicates the tempo and the meter; the conductor must have a clear beat pattern that indicates not only a steady tempo, but also the meter of the music. The conductor must also indicate preparatory beats for certain sectional or instrumental entrances as well as releases at the end of a section or phrase. Conductors must also indicate fermatas, changes in tempo, and dynamics. The conductor must also actively listen to the balance between sections and present the right cues to maintain dynamics and the proper balance. Other essential elements of conducting technique include style-specific musical interpretation, the role of the free hand, and score study.

Vocalization warm-ups for choirs

Before beginning any choral rehearsal, it is essential for the director to prepare the singers both physically and mentally through vocalization warm-ups. One such warm-up is the siren, in which all the singers sing to the upper reaches of their vocal range and slide back down to their lower reaches. Another warm-up consists of singing pentatonic scales upwards and downwards using consonant- and vowel-heavy sentences such as "Mommy Made Me Mash My M&Ms." Choruses can also warm up by sliding their voices from a Do to a Sol and back down. Yet another warm-up consists of singing Do to the next Do an octave up, back down to Sol-Mi-Do. A warm-up useful for vowels consists of singing a single pitch through the five vowels from open to close, or vice versa: "ee," "eh," "ah," "oh," and "oo."

Breathing warm-up

Before beginning any choral rehearsal, it is essential for the director to prepare the singers both physically and mentally. One important aspect of warming up a choral ensemble is the breathing warm-up. Breathing warm-ups engage the diaphragm for supported singing and help to warm the vocal chords for singing. Not only will the breathing exercises physically prepare the lungs and vocal mechanisms for singing, they will also mentally center the singer to be mindful of breath during the rehearsal. One choral breathing warm-up consists of taking in a deep breath over as many counts as possible, holding the breath, and then slowly letting out the air on an "s" sound, over as many counts as possible. Another choral warm-up consists of having the singers exhale on a pulse with an open mouth "ha."

Physical warm-ups to prepare the chorus for singing

Before beginning any choral rehearsal, it is essential for the director to prepare the singers both physically and mentally. The use of physical warm-ups helps the body to release any tension that may hinder the vocal delivery while also increasing blood flow to the vocal mechanisms. A useful physical warm-up to prepare the lips for singing consists of taking in a deep breath and releasing it through slack lips, as in a lip trill. Another helpful warm-up to prepare the mouth for singing consists of stretching the mouth wide open while imitating the chewing motion. Singers must also stretch appropriately before singing to help loosen the neck and shoulder muscles through shoulder rolls, neck rolls, side bends, and arm extensions. Singers can also take in deep breaths, and release them as heavy sighs while dropping the shoulders to help loosen the body.

Using blocked chords in accompaniment

Blocked chords are defined as pitches that are played simultaneously like a chord. When using blocked chords in accompaniment, the player can combine notes that are written separately into a blocked chord, or play blocked chords from a chord chart. If the player must sight-read music, blocking the chords can help to simplify the sight-reading process so that the player doesn't have to read every single note; a quick scan of the harmony is all that is required to play a blocked chord of that harmony. If the player is reading music with a chord chart, then blocking chords can also provide a quick and simple method of accompaniment. The player must only see the written harmony needed, and play the blocked harmony without the intermediate processing stage of notation.

Transposition and instrumental ranges: brass instruments

Brass instruments include those wind instruments that are typically made with metal and sounded by the vibration of the player's lips through a mouthpiece. The French horn is typically notated on the treble or bass clefs sounded a perfect fifth lower with a general range of F#2-C6. The trumpet is typically notated on the treble clef with the C trumpet sounding as written and the Bb trumpet sounding a major second lower, both with a general range of F#3-D6. The tenor trombone is typically notated on the bass, tenor, or alto clefs sounding as written, with a general range of E2-F5. The bass trombone is typically notated on the bass clef sounding as written, with a general range of Bb1-Bb4. The tuba is typically notated on the bass clef sounding as written, with a general range of G0-C5. The euphonium is typically notated on the bass or treble clefs sounding as written on the bass clef or a major ninth lower on the treble clef, with a general range of Bb1-F5.

Care and maintenance of brass instruments

Brass instruments require care and maintenance on several fronts. Instruments should always be handled with care. Avoid handling the finish and wipe away any oil, dirt, or other debris with a soft cloth after handling. Be careful to avoid any damage from jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Before storage, use a swab to remove as much moisture as possible from the inside of the instrument, and remove the mouthpiece before storage. For valved instruments, apply a small amount of valve oil before each playing session. Clean and lubricate all slides, removing old lubricant before applying a new layer, and use only a small amount, removing any excess with a soft cloth. Whenever possible, keep the instrument in a cool environment that is neither too dry nor too humid. Perform a regular inspection of all moving parts and the mouthpiece

How sound is produced in brass instruments

Brass instruments typically produce sound through the buzzing of the player's lips as the air travels through a tubular, expanding metallic wind instrument. The lips act as a vibrating valve that produces oscillating air and pressure. As the air vibrates through the tubular instrument, some of the energy is lost as viscous and thermal energy, while the rest emerges from the instrument as sound. Almost all brass instruments consist of a tube that gets larger towards the end of the tube called the bell. The tube is often coiled so that the instrument is easier for the player to hold. Brass instruments resonate at certain frequencies more easily than others, so to produce other tones, players can change the length of the instruments through valves or slides. Narrower, more cylindrical brass instruments like the trumpet and the trombone produce sharp and clear sounds, while wider, larger-belled brass instruments like the French horn and euphonium produce warmer, darker sounds.

Repertoire sources

Choral directors should choose intermediate middle school choir repertoire that is of high quality, teachable, and appropriate for the range, ability level, cultural context, and programming considerations of the ensemble. There are many repertoire sources for the middle school choral director that can assist in preliminary repertoire selections. The American Choral Directors Association publishes multiple repertoire lists including "Tried and True Literature" for junior high choirs, as well as annual honor choir repertoire lists. Donald Roach's Complete Secondary Choral Music Guide includes extensive repertoire lists, music theater sources, and other content that is valuable for the middle school choral director. Music directors can also consult state clinic and contest repertoire lists. Several publishing companies also produce suggested repertoire for intermediate choirs as well as complete compilations of choral works for the middle school choir.

Correcting intonation: Brass instruments

Correct intonation on brass instruments is the result of properly forming the entire system flowing from the diaphragm to the end of the instrument. Playing with good posture and breath support allows the player to play at a wide variety of registers and volumes more comfortably, reducing strained intonation that can occur at extremes. Cue the student to think of the airway from the lungs to the throat and the oral cavity as a broad and open passageway. Playing in front of a mirror allows the student to monitor horn placement and embouchure. Mental practice is extremely important. The student should have a clear idea of the tone she wants to produce, and think actively about playing with good tone. Long tones are an excellent tool for developing intonation. Depending on the particular instrument, the student should learn which note fingerings are inherently out of tune and how to adjust the relevant slide to compensate.

Correcting intonation: Woodwind instruments

Correct intonation on woodwind instruments is the result of properly forming the entire system flowing from the diaphragm to the end of the instrument. Playing with good posture and breath support allows the player to play at a wide variety of registers and volumes more comfortably. Cue the student to think of the airway from the lungs to the throat and the oral cavity as a broad and open passageway. Playing in front of a mirror allows the student to monitor embouchure. The student should have a clear idea of the tone she wants to produce, and think actively about playing with good tone. Long tones are an excellent tool for developing intonation. Tuning to the rest of the ensemble, piano, or tuner should be done only after a thorough warm-up, at which point tuning adjustments to the instrument, such as pushing in or pulling out sections, can be made.

Programming a widely diverse repertoire for an ensemble

Diversity of repertoire is an important and current topic for music directors in the present era of concert programming. Good concert programming will reflect the diversity that the audience experiences in the world around them. Concerts must engage the audience with relevant and fresh perspectives through culturally diverse and new works as well as through the musical standards of the past. Showcasing contemporary new works alongside a traditional classical work can inform and rejuvenate the audience's listening ear. Programming new works along with old works also illuminates the performance practices of the past, where Beethoven and Wagner were featuring works of the present along with the past. Students will have a broader musical perspective by experiencing music from different cultures, genres, and time periods. Widely diverse concert programs can unite audience members of the past, of today, and of the future.

Instrumental rehearsal: Using intonation spot checks of different sections during a rehearsal

During a rehearsal, the director should use various techniques to ensure the accurate intonation of the ensemble. Aside from beginning each rehearsal with accurate tuning, the director can use spot checks of each different section as teaching moments as well. Isolating the instrument or vocal groups for intonation spot checks teaches the students to listen attentively to themselves and also to the surrounding students. Students will have opportunities to practice the appropriate procedures of adjusting pitch on their respective instruments. Brass instruments with slides can adjust their pitches through their slides; woodwinds can adjust their pitches through adjustments of the mouthpieces; string instruments can adjust their pitches through tuning pegs; vocalists can adjust their pitches through minor adjustments of their vocal mechanisms. When participating in intonation spot checks, students will learn to produce a consistent pitch with their breath or their open strings.

Ensemble rehearsal strategies

During an ensemble rehearsal, there are many rehearsal strategies to take on technically challenging passages. The music director should first determine if the technically challenging passage is the result of a lack of individual practice. If so, the director should show the students in detail the correct way to practice individually and at home. If the passage still presents technical challenges for the ensemble, the music director should take the ensemble through the passage slowly and rhythmically to identify the probable origin of the difficulty. Then the educator will be able to assist the ensemble in note accuracy, technical facility, and fluency in playing. Once the ensemble has the tools to fix the challenging passage, the ensemble should go through the passage again slowly in isolation and then slowly speed up the challenging passage until performance tempo has been reached. The ensemble should practice scales, arpeggios, and technical etudes to further develop technical skills.

Producing dynamic changes in brass instruments

Dynamics for the brass instruments are a product of the volume of air moving through the instrument, sometimes referred to as velocity. Since sound is produced in brass instruments through the buzzing of the player's lips, careful attention must be placed on lip technique when performing dynamic changes, due to the interaction of embouchure and the breath. The tendency of a pitch when moving in the direction of piano to forte, if the embouchure remains steady, is for the pitch to bend sharp, or even to move to the next pitch "shelf" due to the increase in velocity. The opposite is also true: at lower dynamic ranges, the player must decrease airflow velocity, which requires additional support through the diaphragm as well as a tighter embouchure, or else the pitch will fall flat.

Adolescent vocal change

Females typically undergo puberty between the ages of 10 and 18, while males typically undergo puberty between the ages of 12 and 20. Adolescent vocal change occurs in both males and females, but is most prominent in male singers. During puberty, the vocal tract increases in length and circumference, and the larynx increases in size and density. Symptoms include cracking and abrupt register breaks. While the vocal mechanisms are developing in adolescent students, it is important to practice safe and intelligent techniques of singing rather than pushing the vocal mechanisms to damage. The body should be both energetic and relaxed, providing proper support for the breath but never pushing. Equally important during this developmental stage is proper rest for the singing voice; students should never sing too loud or with too much effort, which could injure the vocal mechanisms.

Appropriate jazz standards

For a beginning jazz band, a director should choose repertoire based on the opportunity it presents to play and experiment in the new idiom, taking advantage of the unique aspects of jazz music in a way that is educational and engaging. These features may include focusing on swing feeling, sectional solos, and other harmonic and structural features. Charts should provide the opportunity for students to take improvised solos, and students on all instruments, including the rhythm section, should be encouraged to experiment with improvisation. Popular publishers with charts for beginning jazz bands include Hal Leonard, Alfred, and Kendor. These arrangements are tailored to beginning musicians and may include sample solos that can be used as teaching tools. The director may wish to consider jazz standards with common chord changes such as "I've Got Rhythm" or a simple 12-bar blues. Over the course of the school year, the director may want to find charts that will allow different soloists to play featured parts.

Key musical elements of a unified ensemble performance

For a musical ensemble performance to be unified, key musical elements such as tuning, balance, phrasing, articulation, and cut-offs must be unified. In any ensemble, tuning must be well matched, or else the sound of an out-of-tune ensemble member will noticeably intrude. The sound intensity of all the parts must be balanced for a clear melody and support accompaniment to be effective. For example, if the middle ranges of an ensemble are too loud, then the melody of the musical piece will be obscured. Phrasing is another important musical element, and if each musician is not phrasing melodies in the same manner, then there is no cohesion in the musical performance. Articulation must also be handled in the same way. If some ensemble members play a legato while others play staccato, then the texture of the musical piece becomes muddled. In the same way, if the musicians of an ensemble do not have a simultaneous onset or cutoff of the sound, then the disunity of sound becomes jarringly evident.

Role of resonance

For a singer, resonance plays an important role in enabling the voice to "carry," with a more vibrant and rich sound. Acoustically, the sound originates through the passing of air through the vibrating vocal chords; this movement creates the frequency or pitch that the audience hears. As the sound moves from the vocal chords through the vocal tract, the specific sound properties such as vowels and other resonating properties are created. The vocal tract has optimal resonances for certain frequencies, and it is important for the singer to maximize the resonances of the vibrating vocal tract with the specific pitch frequencies. For this reason, many sopranos will maximize vocal tract resonance at high frequencies by creating more space in the oral cavity and relaxing the vocal tract so that the resultant sound is vibrant and sonorous.

Correct use of breath in singing

For any singer, the breath plays an essential role in producing a controlled, robust tone while keeping the vocal chords in good health. To begin any breath, the singer must inhale first; the inhalation should be deep and initiated by the contraction of the diaphragm, the muscle and tendon that runs along the bottom of the ribcage. As the diaphragm contracts and is actively engaged, it creates a vacuum in the lungs, which begins the intake of oxygen. After the intentional inhalation, the singer must control the rate of exhalation, as the flow of air through the vocal chords results in sound. The singer must use great care not to allow the chest to collapse while managing the rate of airflow by engaging the abdominal muscles to achieve a steady stream of air through the trachea and larynx.

Instrumental rehearsal: Proper brass embouchure for good tone quality

For brass instruments, proper brass embouchure and good air support directly affect tone quality. The player must provide consistent breath support through deep inhalations, controlled exhalations, and a relaxed body. Once the player has a good breath foundation, proper embouchure must also be practiced for tone quality, intonation, endurance, range, and articulation. For the brass player, the lips are the source of a sound wave's motion and energy; the mouth cavity should be wide and open while the lips touch together as if saying "M." When the player buzzes, the lips should stay relaxed while the corners of the lips should stay firm, not too tight or too loose. The player should keep the chin even and pointed. As a general guideline, the player should keep the mouthpiece equally held between the two lips.

Instrumental rehearsal: Advantages and disadvantages for tuning each instrument

For conductors rehearsing a beginning ensemble, helping to tune the students' instruments can save time and confusion for the students. Especially with beginner students who are still familiarizing themselves with an instrument, having help with tuning will not only save time, but also offer an opportunity to teach the student how to tune. Although tuning each student's instrument has many advantages, there are also certain disadvantages to be aware of. If possible, the conductor should tune each student's instrument before the beginning of the rehearsal; otherwise, the time taken may be inefficient and would detract from the limited rehearsal time. Also, if tuning instruments for middle school or high school students, care must be taken to encourage every student's own ability to tune; otherwise, tuning students' instruments for the sake of time may become a hindrance in the student's comprehensive music education.

Perception of variations in amplitude

For every sound wave, there are two basic aspects to consider: frequency and amplitude. Frequency refers to the number of sound waves per second, also known as Hertz, and is perceived by the human ear as a musical pitch. Amplitude refers to the height of the sound wave and is measured in decibels. Variations in amplitude are generally perceived by the human ear as changes in loudness; the higher the decibel level, the louder the sound. Variations in amplitude can also be perceived in an attack of a tone. A plucked tone has a sharp attack, and the waveform reaches its peak amplitude quickly, while the amplitude gradually decreases as the sound fades away. Variations in amplitude can also be found in tremolos and vibratos. Although vibratos are generally known as frequency modulation (FM), and tremolos are generally known as amplitude modulation (AM), in execution, both forms of modulation are usually present.

Physical properties behind sound production

For sound to be produced, there must be a vibration, or pressure oscillation through a medium that is transmitted through the air, through the mechanical structure of the ear to be perceived as sound in the brain. The source of the oscillation can be any simple resonator, which as it moves through space creates fluctuations in the pressure of the surrounding air. The string of a violin, the membrane of a percussion instrument, and the reed of a woodwind instrument all act as resonators. Energy imparted to them through the motion of a bow, the strike of a drumstick, or wind blown across the reed act to set the oscillations in motion. The subsequent physical vibration of the surrounding air travels as complex sound waves outwards. As these sound waves travel towards the listener, the membrane of the human eardrum perceives the sound waves and converts the frequencies into aural perception where the listener will hear either a tone or noise.

Relationship between frequency and perceived pitch

Frequency refers to the number of oscillations of a waveform per second, also known as Hertz. Pitch is the human perception of the fundamental frequency of a sound wave, and can be affected by distance from the source, amplitude, physiology, and mental expectation. The average human listener can hear frequencies between 16 Hz and ~20,000 Hz. In music, relevant frequencies range from 20 Hz to 5,000 Hz. The range of a guitar, for instance, is 82 Hz of the lowest E to 330 Hz of the highest E. For the most part, humans hear higher frequencies of oscillations as higher pitches, and lower frequencies of oscillations as lower pitches. Over time, certain frequencies have been standardized for a particular pitch. Concert a', for example, has been measured at 440 Hz since the twentieth century.

Multiple mallet techniques used by marimba players

Good mallet technique for marimba players allows the musicians a free range of color and technical possibilities, and starts with one mallet in each hand. Once the two-mallet grip has been learned with a flexible grip, the student usually learns the four-mallet grip next. The three main multiple mallet grips are the traditional crossed grip, the Burton grip, and the Musser/Stevens grip. The traditional grip places the second mallet between the index and middle fingers while grasping the end of the second mallet with the ring finger and pinky. The traditional grip has a higher rate of tension and less support than the other grips. The Burton grip places the second mallet between the index and middle fingers and the end of the mallet underneath all four fingers. The Musser/Stevens grip places the first mallet between the thumb and index fingers, and the second mallet between the middle and ring fingers so that the mallets are not crossed. The Musser/Stevens provides the most independence of mallet movement.

Hand-horn technique for French horn

Hand-horn technique, also known as right-hand technique, is the placing of the right hand inside the bell of the horn. The technique was derived from early versions of the instrument, which had no valves. In these instruments, notes between the open partials of the harmonic series were played by opening and closing the throat of the bell with the hand. When valves were added, horn players still played with the right hand inside the bell in order to produce a slightly darker tone, more easily control pitch, and perform extended techniques such as stopped horn and echo horn. There are two methods for hand placement inside the bell. In the American method, the hand is held flat with the metal touching the back of the hand, with some of the horn's weight supported by the thumb. In the French method, the right hand is held out flat with palm down and the thumb forming a 90-degree angle with the hand, and some of the horn's weight is supported by the first knuckles and the back of the hand.

Conducting patterns

In a 2/4 pattern, the hand moves downward on the first beat and upward on the second beat. In a 3/4 pattern, the hand moves downward on the first beat, outward on the second beat, and upward on the third beat. In a 4/4 pattern, the hand moves downward on the first beat, inward on the second beat, outward on the third beat, and upward on the fourth beat. In a compound 6/8 pattern, the hand moves downward on the first primary strong beat, bounces inward on the second and third beats, moves outward on the secondary strong fourth beat, bounces outward on the fifth beat, and upwards on the sixth beat. In a compound 9/8 pattern, the hand moves downward on the first primary strong beat, bounces inward on the second and third beats, moves outward on the secondary strong fourth beat, bounces outward on the fifth and sixth beats, then moves upward on the tertiary strong seventh beat, and bounces upward and inward on the weak eighth and ninth beats.

Acoustical implications of blocked section, mixed, and column choral formations

In a choral blocked section, the vocal parts are solidly separated from front to back so all sopranos are grouped at one end from front row to back row, altos are grouped next to them from front to back, tenors are grouped next to the altos from front to back, and basses bring up the other end from front to back. The choral sound from a blocked formation tends to be better suited for homophonic pieces, but can create issues of the singers being able to listen to other parts. In a choral columnar section, the vocal parts are separated in columns, with tenors behind the sopranos, and basses behind the altos. A column formation suits polyphonic music, as it is easier for singers to hear for balance. In a mixed formation, the sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses are individually alternating in SATB pattern. A mixed formation is good for intonation and the mixing of sound at the audience, but may require more training in singing independently.

Choral balance vs. choral blend

In a choral setting, both choral balance and choral blend are essential elements of a successful and aurally satisfactory choral performance. Both choral balance and choral blend refer to the collective sound provided from the group of singers. For a chorus to be balanced, there should be an equal level of sound coming from all ranges of voices. If a chorus is not balanced, the term "top-heavy" is used to indicate a sound that has an overabundance of soprano or alto sound, whereas the term "bottom-heavy" is used to indicate a sound that has an overabundance of tenor or bass sound. Choral blend refers to the uniformity of vowel formation and tone among the singers. Like choral balance, good choral blend is produced by the collective group; however, uniform choral blend is achieved not by the intensity of each vocal range, but by each individual singer's diligence to the same standard of tone production and blend within the entire chorus.

Publicizing music programs and events

In a music program, there is usually a limited budget for yearly expenses; music educators can stretch the program budget by implementing cost-effective methods of publicizing music programs and events. One area in which the music educator can minimize cost is through concert publications. Instead of using costly printed posters, the music educator can take advantage of social media, publicizing upcoming events through the Internet instead of through paper. If the program still needs paper publications, the music educator can use smaller flyers that will cost less than larger posters. The music educator can also publicize music programs through the help of a parent committee; working as a team, supporters of the music program can publicize upcoming concerts and events through fundraising efforts while also spreading information about the program. The music educator can also eliminate the cost of program notes by having an announcer give brief introductory information between musical works.

Pure tone vs. one produced by an instrument

In acoustics, a pure tone is defined as a simple sine wave whose frequency stays constant over time. Frequency, measured in Hertz as the number of cycles over time, is perceived by the human ear as pitch. A tone produced by an instrument, however, is not a simple sine wave but is in fact a complex wave; no musical instrument produces a pure tone. When an instrument plays a sound, there is a primary resonating frequency called the fundamental frequency, joined by harmonics and overtones as well. The harmonic frequencies resonate at integer multiples of the fundamental, and change the overall waveform into a composite waveform. Pure tones contain no harmonics or overtones. The various timbres of the different instruments are greatly dependent on the waveform profile of the complex wave.

Influence of the conductor on an ensemble

In addition to coordinating the rhythmic timing of players and other musical logistics, part of the conductor's role is to establish the emotional content and musical expression of the performance. A skilled conductor is able to extract the appropriate musical expression from the ensemble with the slightest of gestures. The conductor should utilize his or her entire body in conveying the musical expression of the piece. An energetic musical section might require the conductor to exaggerate movements in a quicker manner, with an animated expression on the face, to draw out a similar energetic mood from the players. Likewise, a somber musical section might require the conductor to conduct with heavier, slower movements, with a grave expression on the face, to draw out a similar dark and solemn sound from the players.

Interaction of reflected sound with direct sound

In an environment other than the theoretical free field where there are no physical objects for sound waves to react to, sound waves undergo reflection, diffraction, and refraction in a performance space. As sound waves leave the source, the energy of the air radiates spherically from the source. This direct sound continues to move outwards until it hits a physical surface. Depending on the absorbency of the physical surface, the sound is either absorbed into heat by an absorbent surface, thereby lessening the intensity of the sound, or it is reflected by a hard surface, thereby redirecting the direction of the radiating sound waves. As sound waves reflect back towards the source, they create the acoustical phenomenon of reverberation, as the listener continues to hear the direct sound followed closely by the reflected sound.

Classical singing timbre vs. popular music timbre

In classical singing, the mouth cavity is trained to have a high palate as in a yawn to create an open, formal sound. In popular singing, there is much more flexibility to the shape of the mouth, and many singers use both high and low palates to manipulate the different vocal sounds. Classical singers are encouraged to use a rich, wide vibrato to add to the color of the singing tone, while popular singers use less vibrato in their songs. Also, classical singers focus on producing pure vowel tones and clear consonants, while popular singers use a wide variety of sounds, timbres, and techniques such as the rasp, growl, and edge, to achieve emotional range.

Creating a clean release

In conducting, the release of a note is as important as the initial attack; clear indication must be made on the conductor's part so that the musician does not have any doubt when to release a note. When indicating a release, the conductor should also use a preparatory beat to indicate the cutoff. A release usually comes after holding a long note; as such, the conductor's baton should indicate the final note to be played, then be held in position for as long as the note is to be held with a possible slight movement outwards. The preparatory beat to indicate the release should be a slight movement upwards so as not to detract from the musical expression of the final note. As the conductor's baton comes down or out from the preparatory beat, the stress of the cutoff marks the point of the release.

Preparatory, active, and passive beats

In conducting, there are several types of gestural indications: preparatory beats, active beats, and passive beats. Conductors use preparatory beats to ready an ensemble before an attack and before a release to allow the ensemble to anticipate the cutoff of a held note. Preparatory beats should indicate the tempo, style, and expression of the music to be played. Conductors use active beats to signal an immediate change or action from the ensemble. Typical changes that may be indicated by an active beat include marcato, legato, staccato, and accents. Passive beats are beats that do not require an immediate change from the ensemble but help to indicate things like rests, offbeats, and other simple pulses. The conscientious conductor should use all three types of beats in variation to elicit musical changes such as sectional transitions, syncopations, hemiolas, and other important musical events.

Elements of music needed to perform a piece of music

In order to successfully perform a piece of music, a student must know more than correct notes and rhythm. The student should also analyze all aspects of the melody, rhythm, harmony, and form of the piece. A thorough analysis of the melody, for example, can inform the performer of where the climax is, allowing the performer to appropriately time the musical tension and release of the overall piece. Knowing the rhythmic form also allows the performer to note any subtle transitions the composer may be suggesting. The harmony of the musical work also holds clues as to the structure of the work, allowing the performer to bring the appropriate mood in transitions and development of the work. The performer should also examine the historical context of the piece; knowing the intention and purpose of the composition can inform the musician as to how to execute dynamics, articulations, and releases, depending on the given mood.

Musical elements important in score marking

In preparation for rehearsing a musical work, the conductor should mark the score for his or her own benefit; this saves time as well as processing energy when in rehearsals. During score study, the conductor should mark any or all of the following elements to prepare for the rehearsal process: entrances of sections, entrances of melodies and important themes, tutti sections, dynamic changes, fermatas, repeats, cadenzas, meter changes, tempo changes, sectional changes, harmonic structure, melodic structure, rhythmic structure, form, textual emphases, instrumentation changes, key changes, balance changes, style indications, free-hand cues, fermatas, and special preparatory beats. It may not be necessary to mark every change in the music; however, the score should be marked to the needs of each conductor to ensure a thorough analysis of the musical score.

Classically trained voice registers: how many? describe each.

In singing, there are three general registers: for men, they are typically the chest, head, and falsetto; for women, they are called the chest, middle, and head voices. The chest register refers to the lower ranges of the voice and are said to have a heavier tonal quality similar to that of the natural talking voice. The head voice, or the middle voice for women, refers to the upper ranges of the voice and is said to have a lighter tonal quality that is not falsetto. Falsetto, or the head voice for women, refers to the highest ranges of the voice above the normal speaking voice and is said to have a breathy, fairy tonal quality that lacks a lot of overtones.

Fair use provision in the 1976 Copyright Act

In the "fair use" provisions as set by the 1976 Copyright Act, educators are exempt from certain copyright laws, given the appropriate use and distribution of the copyrighted materials. When reproducing materials for use within the classroom, teachers are allowed to make copies of up to 10 percent of the entire work for each student, but cannot reproduce an entire copyrighted work for the classroom. When recording copyrighted materials, educators are exempt from the compulsory license only if the educator makes a single recording. If the educator wants to make more than one copy but fewer than 500, the educator should contact the publisher. To make more than 500 copies of the recording, the educator must obtain a license from the Harry Fox Agency. The educator is allowed to rearrange a musical work in a reasonable way for educational purposes. The educator is allowed to perform a copyrighted song only if for demonstration in the classroom; all other performances require a license.

Fixed-do system vs. movable-do system

In the fixed-do system of notational reading, the solmization of pitches refers to a specific pitch, usually where do refers to the C pitch, re refers to the D pitch, mi refers to the E pitch, and so on. In the movable-do system of notational reading, the solmization of pitches refers to any pitch within a diatonic scale so that do refers to the tonic, re refers to the supertonic, mi refers to the mediant, and so on. In the movable-do system, any pitch can be do, while the rest of the diatonic scale is built upon the relative tonic pitch. The fixed-do system of notational reading focuses on the functional association of the specific pitches to the staff, where do is always recognized as C. The movable-do system of notational reading focuses on the intervallic relationship between the pitches as they occur within the scale.

Instructional activities that aid intervallic reading and understanding

Intervallic reading is founded on the principle that students who can recognize the relative relationships between pitches will be able to read more quickly and with less mental processing demands than reading note by note. Students who read music note by note must first mentally identify the pitch name, translate that into the fingering or key pattern on the instrument, and then play. Students who read intervallically can forgo the pitch identification step of mental processing and proceed immediately to spatial processing, thus simplifying the reading process. Music educators can use instructional activities that reinforce the concept of spatial distance and direction, such as dictating a tune by note distance and direction only, i.e., 2nd up, 3rd down, making a game out of flash cards, being able to play intervals and directions with eyes closed, and practicing placing notes on a classroom staff.

Giving a clear attack

It is of utmost importance to provide a clear attack while conducting an ensemble. Without a precise indication of the ictus, the ensemble will not begin to play the music together and may continue to approximate the tempi and rhythms, resulting in a disorderly performance. To give a clear attack in conducting, the conductor must give a preparatory beat. During this imaginary preceding beat, the arm must move fluidly in exactly the same tempo as the intended beginning tempo; this way, the musician can easily judge the preparation movement and downbeat. The conductor should breathe in on the preparatory beat along with the ensemble and indicate the attack with equally suggestive bodily language such as direct eye contact and a head nod. The conductor must be careful to place gestural emphasis on the attack and only a slight movement on the preparatory beat.

Transposition and instrumental ranges: keyboard instruments

Keyboard instruments include those instruments whose sound-producing mechanisms are set into motion through a system of levers and keys. The keyboard is generally made up of seven natural and five chromatic keys. The distance between the natural keys are whole steps except for the half steps between E-F and B-C. The modern piano is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of A0-C8. The celesta is typically notated on the grand staff sounding an octave higher, with a general range of C3-C7. The harpsichord is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of F1-F6. The harmonium is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of F1-F6. The organ is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of C2-C7.

Long tones for brass players

Long tones are a critical practice for brass and woodwind players. The benefit of the exercise lies in removing other aspects of performance such as reading, fingering, and so on. This allows the player to singly direct his or her focus towards the production of those aspects that create a pleasing tone. The definition of "pleasing tone" may vary according to the personal preference and the idiom of performance; however, long tones allow the performer to scrutinize and adjust pitch, timbre, vibrato, etc. Although the exercise has the additional benefit of increasing stamina and strength of the muscles involved, maximum duration of the held note should not be the sole or primary focus of long-note practice. Instead, the performer's attention should focus on the quality of the note through the coordination of the entire system that produces the note: diaphragm, throat, oral and sinus cavities, embouchure, and the instrument.

Instructional activities: Improving rhythmic accuracy in beginner students

Many times, rhythmic inaccuracy in beginner students results from a lack of basic reinforcement of the concept of a steady beat. Beginner music students will benefit from heavy reinforcement of a steady beat through movement activities such as dancing to the beat of a song, clapping or tapping along to a rhyme, swaying back and forth while counting out loud, or other forms of multi-sensory learning that involve the kinesthetic mode as well as the aural mode. Beginner music students will also benefit from visual and aural modeling from the music educator as well as from peers. Peer learning can be a great source of motivation and encouragement to learn, as students will generally want to match the level of their peers. Music educators should also introduce the concept of the heartbeat in practicing a steady beat, relating the abstract concept of tempo and meter to a familiar one of the body.

Neural bases for mental practice efficacy

Mental practice has been shown to be a highly effective method of instrumental practicing when access to an instrument is not possible. When musicians practice traditionally on an instrument, the maxim "practice makes perfect" describes the correct pattern-forming process of the brain. Many music educators ascribe instead to the phrase "practice makes permanent," as scientists now know that repeated practicing reinforces the cognitive neural pathway of a particular action, similarly to the way habits are formed. It is therefore important for a musician to make sure to practice passages correctly, or else incorrect technique can easily be habituated by repeated practicing. The concept for mental practicing mirrors the neural processes of physical practice, and helps to reinforce a particular neural pathway even without movement. Mental practice combined with physical practice provides optimal cognitive and motor learning for a musician.

Maintaining student confidentiality and appropriate professional conduct

Music educators are entrusted to oversee the growth, development, and well-being of the students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, to the students, to the community, and to the family. Since music educators can be seen as role models to developing a student's musical growth, all boundaries between student and teacher should be honored so that both parties can be held above reproach. The music educator should act in a way to ensure an emotionally and physically safe and healthy environment for the students. When travelling to field trips and concerts, the students must ride in a district-approved vehicle and never in a personal vehicle. When greeting students, the teacher should exercise minimal physical contact, again, to be above reproach. Music educators are entrusted to oversee the development and well-being of students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations to both the students as well as the community and family. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, while understanding his or her influence on the community and family. Music educators should obey all local, state, and federal laws, and should never put students in physical or emotional harm. When the music educator is in a non-school setting, he or she should continue to act with the highest level of judgment, since personal misconduct can lead to public disapproval and thus an interruption in the student's musical development and trust. Also, the music educator should never disclose a student's personal information to any person other than school personnel, for risk of a confidentiality breach. The music educator should always maintain appropriate communication with the family, and never for personal gain or advantage.

Teaching musical aesthetics and expression

Music educators can use various techniques to teach musical aesthetics and expression in their students. Instructors should use the technique of modeling often, to demonstrate various physical and aural attributes of an expression to the student. The student should have various visual and aural models of expressive representation to be able to integrate the technique and sound into his or her own expressive voice. The music educator can also use guided listening to teach musical aesthetics to students. As another method of modeling, the student will be able to listen to the individual expression of other performers in developing one's own musical aesthetic. The music educator can also analyze, reflect, and evaluate musical performances together with the students, so that the students will be able to think critically and creatively in analyzing, reflecting, and evaluating their own unique musical aesthetic and expression.

Role of improvisation

Musical creativity holds improvisation at the core of its internal process through the formation of new ideas, sounds, and direction. Improvisation is the core vehicle of creativity within the musical realm. A musician might explore musical creativity by exploring only the black keys on a keyboard; this keeps the tonal context within a simple pentatonic scale and allows the musician to explore various phrases, ideas, and ranges of the keyboard. Improvisation can also foster freer musical creativity through singing or playing along to an existing track. This structured approach allows the musician to explore different timbres, harmonies, and tones with freedom. The musician must use mental imagery and mystery when improvising, to conceptualize new and different feelings, moods, and sounds. All of these processes contribute to an overall expansion of a musician's musical creativity and improvisational possibility, leading to more independent melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic improvisation.

Licensing resources

NMPA stands for the National Music Publishers' Association, which represents many of the music publishers in the United States and helps with copyright holder identification. The MPA, the Music Publishers' Association of the United States, similarly represents many print music publishers in the nation and also assists in copyright ownership issues. The ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), the BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.), and the SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers) all function to exercise appropriate performance licensing and distribution to their publishers and members. The HFA, the Harry Fox Agency, primarily serves as a recording license resource for many of the U.S. music publishers. The U.S. Copyright Office is a part of the Library of Congress and provides general information on copyright laws and issues in the United States.

Producing dynamic changes in stringed instruments

On a stringed instrument, many techniques can be applied to produce dynamic changes. When playing with a bow, the variables that affect dynamics are the speed and pressure of the bow. When playing louder dynamics such as forte, fortissimo, and mezzo forte, the bow must move faster across the strings with greater pressure to produce greater amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves. When playing softer dynamics such as piano, mezzo piano, and pianissimo, the bow moves a little slower across the strings with less pressure to produce smaller amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves. When stringed instruments are plucked, this is often notated in the score as pizzicato. When plucking a stringed instrument, the sound produced has a sharper attack; dynamic changes are produced similarly: a heavier pluck at greater speed increases dynamics, while a softer, slower pluck diminishes the dynamics.

Identifying suitable tunes for beginning jazz improviser

Once the basics of improvisation have been established, the next step is to apply that learning in the context of a full song. This song will likely follow the standard head/solos/head structure. Full tunes for the beginning improviser should have characteristics that allow a student to focus her attention on a limited number of variables at one time. Songs should have a moderate tempo, a strong tonal center, and preferably no more than three or four different chords. These characteristics will allow the student time to play within each chord, focus on only the notes that are "strong" within the different chords of the song, and appreciate the sound of the same notes in different chordal contexts. The goal in introducing improvisation within this context is to reduce the number of choices of what note to play, a common hurdle for the beginning improviser, and direct the student's focus to playing with confidence, remaining oriented within the song while improvising, and other aspects of performance - rhythm, dynamics, space that eventually lead to more varied and interesting improvisations.

Tuning an ensemble upwards from the bass

One method of tuning an ensemble starts with careful tuning upwards from the bass. In a choir, this would be the lowest bass voices; in an orchestra, this would be the basses, cellos, bass clarinets, bassoons, trombones, and tubas. In a concert band or wind ensemble, this would be the bassoons, bass clarinets, trombones, tubas, bass saxophones, and euphoniums. Once the bass instruments have been carefully and precisely tuned, the next instruments higher in range would be tuned, and so on and so forth, until the entire ensemble has been tuned through the bass, middle, and soprano ranges. The theory behind this tuning method holds that with precise tuning, the other instruments can more easily hear their tuning pitches because of the overtones and harmonics from the bass sounds. Also, the other instruments can more easily place their pitches within the context of a chord structure, as the bass becomes the foundational pitch of the ensemble.

Care and maintenance of percussion instruments

Percussion instruments require regular maintenance and inspection depending on the specific percussion instrument involved. Timpanis should be regularly inspected for an even and smooth head with a balanced action. On some timpani drums, the rim should be greased annually with lubricant such as cork grease, but others (like those that use Teflon tape) should never be lubricated - consult the manufacturer about specific care instructions regarding lubrication. Make sure to keep the timpani covered when not in use. Metal mallet instruments should be wiped regularly with a glass cleaner while wooden bar instruments should be wiped regularly with only a dampened cotton cloth or rag. Frequent inspections should be made to ensure that there are no splintered or cracked bars that need to be replaced. Drums should also be maintained regularly through the cleaning and lubricating of the hardware. Periodically inspect the rim, counterhoop, and head for any serious issues that would warrant repair or replacement.

Instructional activities: Improving pitch reading in beginner students

Pitch reading can be a challenging concept for beginner students, as many mental processes occur from the written visual cue to the symbolic processing, to knowledge retrieval, to the answering output. For beginner students, it is important to have a reference when pitch reading, whether it is middle C or another referential pitch. Students should also understand the spatial relationships required in note reading, that higher on the staff also means higher in pitch and that lower on the staff also means lower in pitch. The music educator should ensure that the beginner student understands how to play high and low on his or her respective instrument before continuing the lessons into more complex playing. Similarly to language learning, the music educator should also provide ample reinforcement and practice in pitch reading as the student begins to integrate the musical symbols with aural and pitch meaning.

Transposition and instrumental ranges: percussion instruments

Pitched percussion instruments can include membranophones as well as idiophones that have definite pitches. The timpani is typically notated in bass clef sounding as written with the 30-inch timpani in a range of D2-A2, the 28-inch timpani in a range of F2-C3, the 25-inch timpani in a range of Bb2-F3, and the 23-inch timpani in a range of D3-A3. The xylophone is typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave higher, with a general range of G4-C7. The marimba is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of C2 or A2 to C7. The glockenspiel is typically notated in treble clef sounding two to eight octaves higher, with a general range of G3-C6. The vibraphone is typically notated in treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of F3-F6. Chimes are typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave higher, with a general range of C4-G5.

Preparing program notes for a performance setting

Preparation for program notes involves extensive and thorough research on the musical work as well as its historical context and contextual background. When first starting to research, it is important to consult a variety of sources for the most accurate information. A good starting point for any music research is the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. As a standard, authoritative text, this source offers the most up-to-date and complete resource available. After consulting the New Grove Dictionary, it is useful to use composer biographies, orchestral music resources, CD liner notes, primary notes on the score, and other published collections of program notes. The writer should also check the text and translations for the most accurate rendering. Once researched, the program notes should be written, including historical, biographical, and contextual information as well as information about the work itself.

Essential elements included in program notes

Program notes should serve as a helpful guide for the audience while listening to a musical performance. It should provide key elements to understanding the work, such as contextual background, historical context, first performance, scoring, musical style, and possible details to listen for. The writer should avoid personal anecdotes, footnotes, irrelevant facts and details, musical examples or excerpts, exclusively technical terminology, or effusive emotional descriptions. Program notes should be insightful and engaging, and should further the enjoyment of the listening audience. The program notes should be thoroughly researched, geared toward the level of understanding of the audience, whether for a young audience or for expert theorists. If possible, the writer should include unique and engaging facts such as the initial reception through a first review or the dedication of the work.

Involving students in caring for and maintaining Orff instruments

Regular care and maintenance of Orff instruments helps to prolong the life of the instruments. Music educators can involve students in the care and maintenance of the instruments for a learned sense of responsibility as well as an efficient method of cleaning the instruments. Music educators can provide an end-of-the-year event that includes the cleaning of all Orff instruments. Students should remove the instrument bars and start with the vacuuming of all dust from the instrument. Next, the students should take a damp rag with an oil soap to wash and clean the boxes and wooden bars. After the instrument has been cleaned, the students can then take an oil polish such as common furniture polish to keep the instrument in proper, working condition. Music teachers can also have the students place a sticky note on any broken pins for the teacher to replace.

Reverberation time

Reverberation time is considered to be the time it takes for sound to decay, usually by 60 decibels from its direct signal. When the direct signal interacts with the materials of a space, some of the energy is absorbed by objects in the space or by absorbent wall materials, while the rest is reflected. As the sound waves bounce off of the various surfaces multiple times, the resultant sound waves are collectively known as reverberation; the energy of the sound waves decays over time until there is little energy left to travel. Many factors affect reverberation time, including size of the space, materials within the space, ceiling height, shape of the space, and the amount of people within the space. The longest reverberation times tend to be those of cathedrals and large concert halls, while the shortest reverberation times would be those of open fields or soundproof rehearsal rooms.

Negative results of not hearing yourself play in an ensemble

Self-monitoring within any ensemble is of key importance in a healthy musical collaboration. If an instrumentalist cannot hear himself or herself, productive collaboration could be hindered and inaccurate tuning, rhythm, and phrasing could become detrimental not only to the individual instrumentalist, but also to the ensemble as a whole. If an instrumentalist cannot hear himself or herself in an ensemble, then the likelihood of actively listening and constant adjusting to the surrounding musicians becomes minimal; self-monitoring is key in productive collaboration. Also, when self-monitoring becomes hindered, then inaccurate tuning, rhythm, and phrasing can easily become a problem for the instrumentalist. If one instrumentalist in an ensemble becomes out of tune with inaccurate rhythm and phrasing, then that part could easily influence the surrounding musicians' tuning, rhythm, and phrasing, resulting in an entire ensemble that becomes out of tune with misaligned rhythm and phrasing.

Using solfège in kinesthetic pitch learning

Solfège, also known as solfeggio in Italian, originated in the seventeenth century as a vocal exercise using solmization syllables for singing the pitches of a scale. Solmization systems were found all around the world, but the most commonly used one in Western culture stems from the Guidonian system of the eleventh century. In teaching pitch names and associations, the use of solfège can greatly aid the student's understanding of high and low pitch, as educators such as John Curwen and Zoltan Kodàly have integrated a kinesthetic system using both hand signs and spatial reasoning. The solmization for the diatonic scale, from tonic to tonic, is as follows: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si (ti), do. As each pitch rises, the corresponding hand sign also rises from the low on the body to high above the head. The spatial, kinesthetic association allows the learner to relate the rising pitch to rising motion.

Negative results of not hearing yourself sing in a choral setting

Spacing within any chorus is of key importance in a healthy choral collaboration. If a singer cannot hear himself or herself, productive collaboration could be hindered and inaccurate intonation could become detrimental not only to the individual singer, but also to the group as a whole. If a singer cannot hear himself or herself in a choral setting, then the likelihood of actively listening and constant adjusting to the surrounding musicians becomes minimal; self-monitoring is key in productive collaboration. Also, when self-monitoring becomes hindered, then intonation can easily become a problem for the singer. If one singer becomes out of tune in a choral setting, then that voice could easily influence the surrounding singers' intonation, resulting in an entire chorus that becomes out of tune.

Transposition and instrumental ranges: string instruments

String instruments include those instruments whose main vibrating system is a string set into motion by plucking, striking, or bowing. The violin is typically notated in the treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of G3-A7. The viola is typically notated in the alto clef sounding as written, with a general range of C3-E6. The cello is typically notated in the bass, tenor, and treble clefs sounding as written, with a general range of C2-C6. The double bass is typically notated in bass clef sounding an octave lower, with a general range of C2-C5. The banjo is typically notated in treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of C3-A4. The guitar is typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave lower, with a general range of E3-E6. The harp is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of Cb1-G#7.

How sound is produced in string instruments

Stringed instruments produce sound through the vibrations of the strings on a resonating body usually made of wood. The strings, made of nylon, steel, or silk, can be set in motion by plucking, bowing, or striking. As the string sets the surrounding air in motion, it also vibrates the soundboard through the bridge as the resonant vibrator and the audible tone effuses out of the instrument through a sound hole. Pitches on a stringed instrument are modified by string tension, thickness, and length: the higher the tension, the higher the pitch; the thicker the string, the lower the pitch; and the longer the string, the lower the pitch. Strings can be parallel to the soundboard as in the lute, guitar, violin, piano, and dulcimer, or at a right angle to the soundboard as in the harp.

Care and maintenance of stringed instruments

Stringed instruments require care and maintenance on several fronts. The instrument should be handled with care, and players should avoid directly handling the fragile varnish, which can be damaged by oils on the hands. When playing, care should be taken to avoid damage by jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Immediately after each use, remove oil, rosin dust, and other debris with a soft cloth. Special treated cloths can be used, but must not be used on strings or the hair of the bow. String instruments should, whenever possible, be kept in a well-regulated environment away from excessive exposure to direct light, too hot or too cold temperatures, and too dry or too humid environments. Failure to observe these precautions can result in bending, cracking, glue joint separations, arching distortion, and many other problems.

Performance competencies for students in Pre-K

Students in Pre-K should experience music as much as possible through listening, feeling, moving, and experimenting with their own vocal pitch and timbre. Children in this age range should be encouraged to freely use their voices in singing, chanting, and speaking along with music accompaniment and on their own. Students in Pre-K should experience a wide range of instrumental sounds and improvise their own melodies and patterns on different instruments. Students should practice relating musical sounds to other objects, symbols, and animals that are familiar to them, to engage their imagination and encourage creative responses. Students in Pre-K should become increasingly accurate in their pitch matching and rhythm matching through their voices or on instruments. Students should experience a wide variety of genres and styles as well as be able to identify basic differences and changes in music.

Differences in concert length: middle vs. high school

The beginning middle school band will have had little experience with performances and may still be working through rudimentary techniques and skills on their instruments. Repertoire for the beginning middle school band will focus mostly on easily accessible beginner works. The advanced high school concert band, however, will have at least a few years of experience performing and playing their instruments. Repertoire selection for the advanced concert band will have a wider range of intermediate to advanced works. Endurance is also an issue for the beginning band; concert length will be shorter, with shorter musical works and more frequent changes. The advanced high school band will be able to perform longer works of music with less frequent breaks.

Use of the Socratic method

The Socratic method refers to the philosophy of education as set by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, which advocates the use of questions in developing a student's critical thinking and intellect. Rather than lecturing or telling the student educational content, the questions compel the student to use critical thinking for a solution or answer. The music educator can utilize this philosophy of education in all areas of music education, and especially in guided listening to teach students self-assessment, critical thinking, and how to develop one's own musical expression. Music educators can ask guided questions such as "How does the expressive elements of this performance inform your own playing?" to foster a sense of self-assessment in the student's music listening. Asking open-ended questions rather than yes/no questions will further develop the student's critical thinking abilities and intellectual curiosity, translating the analysis of guided listening to his or her own musical practice and growth.

Bow position and bow handling

The bow position on a violin and viola should have a rounded thumb holding the side of the bow with a pinky on top of the bow, with the other fingers comfortably holding the other side of the bow. The fingers should be fairly arched during a down stroke and more elongated during an up stroke. The bow should not be held with any tension but firmly and lightly. The player should be careful not to extend any finger, as this will create tension in the wrist. On the cello and bass, the bow should be held in a similar manner to both the violin and viola bow, but the pinky finger does not rest on top of the bow; instead, the pinky should rest next to the middle and ring fingers. Since both the cello and bass are played upright, the arm does not generally stay above the bow; in fact, bow handling on a cello and bass requires the elbow and arm to lower significantly whether playing near the tip of the bow or near the frog.

Harmonics

The concept of harmonics refers to a specific acoustic property of sound. For every one frequency called the fundamental frequency, there exists a series of other frequencies called the harmonic set that are integral multiples of the fundamental: f1, f2, f3, etc. For every fundamental frequency, f, the frequency of the nth harmonic is equal to f times n. The harmonic frequencies have acoustically pure tones and most approximate the pitches in standard Western music tuning: the first harmonic occurs an octave above the fundamental; the second harmonic occurs an additional fifth above; the third harmonic occurs an additional fourth above; the fourth occurs an additional third above; etc. The harmonic series helps to define the human perception of pitch; it is so integral, in fact, that humans still perceive the fundamental pitch of the harmonic series even when the fundamental frequency is missing.

Overtones

The concept of overtones refers to a specific acoustic property of sound. For every one frequency, there are multiple other frequencies that vibrate through the resonant space through its normal modes. Every instrument has a distinct set of normal modes that vibrate through certain frequencies, giving its timbre and tone. The lowest sounding frequency is termed the fundamental frequency; all other frequencies above the fundamental are termed overtones. Overtones are partial frequencies and can be harmonic or non-harmonic. Harmonic overtones are those that are integral multiples of the fundamental. Non-harmonic overtones are those that are not integral multiples of the fundamental. Most musical instruments have overtone frequencies that are near to their harmonic frequencies. Instruments such as brass instruments, gongs, cymbals, and timpanis have overtone frequencies that are more distinct from their harmonic frequencies.

Partials

The concept of partials refers to the specific acoustic property of audible tones. The most basic tone, a pure sine wave, has a frequency f that determines the pitch of the wave. In musical sound, however, sound waves are usually much more complex than that of a pure tone, and consist of several different frequencies that become superimposed into one complex sine wave that the human listener perceives as a single tone. The different frequencies of the complex wave are termed partials and change the displacement of the combined frequencies. The partial frequencies give the different instruments their unique timbres, as the different components of the sound produced by an oboe, guitar, marimba, glockenspiel, or cymbal superimpose to a unique complex wave configuration of pressure over time.

Techniques conveying dynamics and expression

The conductor's role in directing an ensemble encompasses all musical interpretation, from tempo and balance to dynamics and expression. As such, a conductor's technique greatly influences an ensemble's performance of a musical piece. When indicating a forte or fortissimo, the conductor's gestures should be similarly bigger and "louder." The conductor can use the free hand to aid in ensemble response by signaling for more. When indicating a piano or pianissimo, the conductor's gestures should be similarly smaller and "softer." The conductor can use the free hand to aid in ensemble response by signaling for less. Body language plays an important part in eliciting dynamic and expressive contrast from the ensemble. A forte gesture can be made passionately sorrowful with heavy movements in the arms and a somber expression in the face; likewise, a forte can be made joyful and exuberant with light movements in the arms and lifted eyebrows in the face.

Importance of the diaphragm in breathing for vocal music

The diaphragm plays a central role in the respiratory system, as one of the main acting forces behind inhalation and exhalation. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the abdomen from the chest cavity. The diaphragm muscle is attached to the lower parts of the rib cage, the spine, and the lower edge of the sternum. As the muscle contracts, it increases the length and diameter of the chest cavity, causing a vacuum in the lungs, inducing air to enter the lungs through inhalation. During exhalation, the diaphragm muscle naturally relaxes, deflating the lungs and expelling the air out from the lungs. When singing, it is important to actively engage the diaphragm during inhalation for a deep supported breath, as well as during exhalation to prolong the supported singing breath as long as possible.

Dynamic markings commonly used in music

The dynamic markings commonly used in music come from the written Italian musical tradition of the seventeenth century. The following markings are in order of increasing loudness. Pianissimo, abbreviated pp, indicates that the player should play very soft. Piano, abbreviated p, indicates that the player should play soft. Mezzo piano, abbreviated mp, indicates that the player should play moderately soft. Mezzo forte, abbreviated mf, indicates that the player should play moderately loud. Forte, abbreviated f, indicates that the player should play loud. Fortissimo, abbreviated ff, indicates that the play should play very loud. Dynamic markings that indicate a gradual change include crescendo and decrescendo or diminuendo. A crescendo indicates that the player should play increasingly louder. A decrescendo or diminuendo indicates that the player should play increasingly softer.

Measures to protect their hearing

The ear and its hearing mechanisms provide a unique and essential role for the musician; deliberate measures should be taken to protect hearing and avoid permanent damage that can occur over time when exposed to high dB listening experiences. Musicians should limit band practices to two hours, as the average sound intensity of a band practice is 90 decibels, a potentially hazardous level of sound if experienced frequently over long periods of time. If musicians must practice at high sound levels frequently or for a long period of time, proper hearing protection should be used, such as earplugs and earmuffs. Musicians should also avoid listening to music on portable music devices at high volume levels, or levels above 85 decibels, for a long period of time. Damage that occurs to the inner ear cannot be medically or surgically corrected and constitutes permanent hearing loss.

Ideal posture for singing

The ideal posture for singing should engage the entire body while avoiding any tension or restrictions on the vocal mechanisms. The feet should be shoulder-width apart, with one foot slightly in front of the other for optimal balance. The weight of the body should lean slightly forward instead of backwards on the heels. The knees should be loose and never locked. The hands should be relaxed and kept by the side of the body or engaged in expressing a vocal line. The abdomen should be active and involved in supporting the breath. The arms and shoulders should be relaxed and allowed to hang freely. The chest should not be collapsed, but should be held high to support the breath. The singer's chin should be held level to the floor so as not to obstruct the flow of air through the trachea.

Kinesthetic theories of rhythm reading

The kinesthetic theories of rhythm reading hold that rhythm cannot be experienced without having first experienced its movement physically. Since rhythm refers to the flow of movement through space, students should experience rhythm through their bodies first. Once the rhythm has been experienced physically through movement, students will more readily be able to audiate the rhythm mentally during rhythm reading. Phyllis Weikart, a prominent figure in movement pedagogy, advocated the introduction of movement-based learning in early childhood education, so that early gross motor development could better prepare students for more complex rhythmic integration in musical development. Other motor theorists also found that rudimentary motor movements are formed before the age of five, and all other motor movements after the age of five are reinforcements and stabilizations of those fundamental motor movements learned in early childhood.

Relation of tonal characteristics to their use in orchestration

The orchestrator uses the tonal characteristics of the different instrument families to meticulously layer each sound into a collective whole. The strings tend to have a rich tonal quality and form the basis of many orchestral textures. Strings have a variety of sounds and techniques and can easily function as melody, supporting harmony, or rhythmic texture. High brasses have a clear, focused tonal quality and many times are used melodically or as a crisp rhythmic flourish. Low brasses tend to provide bass lines as well as rhythmic motives. Woodwinds have held various roles within the orchestra and can easily function as melody, supporting harmony, or rhythmic texture, similar to strings. Percussive instruments have historically held a rhythmic role in orchestral writing, but have also been used as melodic interest through the marimba, timpani, and other melodic percussion instruments.

Pyramid model of balance and blend

The pyramid model of balance and blend refers to the theory that higher-pitched singers and instruments should play softer than the lowest-pitched singers and instruments, so that an ideal balance exists between the treble and the bass. In this model, the-higher pitched section will also be able to hear the bass for better intonation and blend. In the pyramid model, the bass voices and instruments constitute the bottom rung of the pyramid; the width of the pyramid determines the overall volume of the ensemble. As the pyramid rises, higher-pitched voices and instruments are stacked above the bass section to the tip of the pyramid where the highest treble section is placed. The higher the voice or instrument is on the pyramid, the softer the sound should be. To apply it to an ensemble, the director should have the bass section play or sing a fortissimo, the tenor section a forte, the alto section a mezzo-forte, and the soprano section, a mezzo-piano, so that the full ensemble can experience the balance and blend of the pyramid model.

Tessitura

The range within a singer's vocal abilities that resonate the most in an aesthetically pleasing manner. The particular tessitura of a singer's voice type is also usually the most comfortable for his or her vocal timbre. Tessitura differs from vocal range in that the range of a singer's voice refers to the limits of pitches the singer is able to sing; the tessitura of a singer's voice, although he or she may have a wide singing range, may be best described as a high tessitura, or a low tessitura, wherever the voice is able to sustain the most dramatic, comfortable, and pleasing sound. When assigning a voice to a vocal part, it is important to consider the tessitura of a particular voice as well as his or her range, timbre, transition points, and voice weight.

Characteristics of the reed that influence intonation

The reed interacts with the player's airflow and vibrations against the body of the instrument in four ways that influence the tone and sound. A reed's response refers to the ability of the reed to maintain a high quality of sound through all registers without splattering or spreading. The reed's resistance refers to the amount of embouchure tension required to keep the reed behaving and sounding with a good tone. A reed that has a low resistance may cause the player to overblow in searching for a fuller tone, while a reed that has a high resistance can cause the player fatigue and difficulty in creating a good tone. A reed's tone quality refers to the resonance and timbre of the reed itself. A reed with only lower partials will sound dull; a reed with only higher partials will sound shrill and thin. A reed's stability refers to the ability of the reed to hold pitch at any dynamic and can influence the sound in sounding flat, stable, wild, sharp, or dull.

Musical elements involved musical interpretation

The role of conductor as musical interpreter requires adept conducting technique and a solid conviction of his or her own understanding of the music. In forming an interpretation of the music, the conductor must consider the stylistic elements of the music. Note durations, stresses, tempo, articulation, phrasing, dynamics, and other nuances all make up the necessary musical elements for a conductor to direct an ensemble well. Additionally, the conductor's own vision of the musical work should be made clear through the ensemble's performance. The conductor's own understanding of the progression of the music, its beginnings, climaxes, and endings, should all inform the execution of all musical elements. The conductor should understand the historical background of the music as well as the essence of the music itself. Interpretation takes creativity, imagination, musical flexibility, and an intimate understanding of the emotions of the music.

Rote learning vs. intervallic note reading

The rote method of note reading refers to teaching a student to read notes from memory. Techniques to teach students to read by rote include mnemonic devices such as the lines of the treble clef ("Every Good Boy Does Fine"), the spaces of the treble clef ("FACE"), the lines of the bass clef ("Good Boys Do Fine Always"), and the spaces of the bass clef ("All Cows Eat Grass"). Intervallic note reading refers to the method of reading by intervallic relationships, i.e., a third up, a second down, a fourth up, etc. Intervallic note reading relies on spatial visualization, while rote reading relies on memorization. While both methods of note reading result in proficient musical skills, pros and cons exist for each. In rote reading, students are more quickly able to identify note names; however, sight-reading may be slightly slower because of the added mental processing of labels. In intervallic reading, students are more quickly able to identify direction and intervals during sight- reading; however, note naming may be slightly more difficult as students must first process intervals.

Lifting the palate in vocal technique

The soft palate, also called the velum, is the soft tissue at the top of the mouth cavity that rises and lowers as the mouth swallows and in speech. The soft palate is responsible for closing off the nasal cavity while the mouth swallows so that any material in the oral cavity proceeds to the esophagus. In vocal technique, singers practice singing with an open throat where the velum is raised and the larynx is lowered. This allows the sound quality to be more relaxed and free while also easing register transitions and maintaining the health of the vocal mechanisms. When singers lift the soft palate, the resulting space within the oral cavity enlarges, helping to achieve a more resonant, warm tone without restrictions. Since this action also relaxes the surrounding vocal muscles, the singer can transition between registers more easily, resulting in a consistently smooth tone.

Physiological mechanisms of singing: what are the main parts involved?

The three main vocal parts involved in creating sound are the air supply, vibrator, and resonator. Air supply is taken into the lungs by the inspiratory muscles, especially the diaphragm, and emptied from the lungs by the expiratory muscles. The vibrators for singing are the vocal folds, held within the voice box or larynx at the top of the trachea. When air passes through the vocal folds through the opening called the glottis, the vocal folds vibrate and produce sound. The sound passes through the resonators, principally the pharynx and the mouth cavities. These resonators influence the tonal quality of the sound through the cavity shapes and surfaces, as well as the various singing techniques used to alter sound and timbre.

Role of the tongue in forming clear diction and vowel formation

The tongue plays a key role in vowel formation and clear diction, as it directly influences the vocal tract and the larynx. With all other vocal mechanisms fixed, a change in the tongue directly changes the vocal sound, from dull and distorted to tinny and harsh. Clarity in singing requires clear vowel formation for the words to be intelligible to the listening audience. For clear vowels, the tongue should rest forward in the mouth, with the tip of the tongue resting against the bottom teeth for the most space in the mouth for resonance. The back of the tongue should not press against the throat, but should be kept away from the throat for clear and unobstructed delivery of airflow and sound. The tongue should always be kept relaxed and free from tension when singing, to avoid a choked sound and possible injury to the vocal mechanisms.

Mutes and resulting sounds for trumpets and trombones

The trumpet and trombone share all the most popular mutes, with a trumpet and trombone version of each of the straight mute, cup mute, bucket mute, wah-wah mute, plunger, and hat. The difference between a trumpet mute and one for trombone is principally one of scale. The straight mute results in a tinny, metallic sound. The cup mute produces a muffled, darker tone and was common in trumpet sections during the classic big band era of the 1930s and 1940s. The bucket mute produces a softer tone and reduces the piercing quality of loud or high notes that can be amplified by other mutes. The wah-wah mute, often known by the brand-name Harmon mute, produces a buzzed tone, and for trumpet is often associated with Miles Davis during his cool jazz period. The plunger and the hat mute are used similarly, with the musician playing with one hand while manipulating the mute over the front of the bell with the other.

Determining the number of beats to conduct based on tempo

Though there are standard beat patterns in the art of conducting technique, the pattern that conductors choose to conduct should be determined by tempo, style, and meter. In a 2/4 meter, the conductor could indicate every beat; if the 2/4 meter is taken at vivace, however, it would be impractical to conduct every beat, and an indication of the downbeat would suffice. Excessive movements could convey heaviness, which could slow down the ensemble. If, however, the 2/4 meter is taken at adagio, the conductor could facilitate rhythmic fluidity and continuity by doubling the number of beats, indicating the quarter-note subdivision for a 4/4 beat pattern, so that forward movement is not lost. In general, the faster the tempo, the fewer number of beats the conductor should indicate; the slower the tempo, the higher number of beats the conductor should indicate.

Studying recordings of a score to conduct

The use of other recordings as part of score study has certain advantages and disadvantages. An unfamiliar piece of music may be made more acquainted through listening to an existing performance. If the conductor is developing his or her own interpretation of the music, this may be informative in terms of tempo and style; however, this may also contribute to a "parrot" interpretation where the conductor has not made his or her own in-depth interpretation. Also, this may lead to other imitated musical characteristics that may not be historically or stylistically accurate, as every performance is framed by the conductor's interpretation. However, using recordings in score study can be an informative source of past interpretations and should not become an exact template from which to copy. When using recordings in score study, careful discretion must be made so that the conductor does not merely copy the interpretation of the recording. Several techniques can be applied when using recordings to prevent a "parrot" version of an existing performance. The conductor should listen to more than one interpretation of a piece to have a wide variety of interpretations. Also, the conductor should not practice conducting to the recording, as muscle memory can impede the personal development of the conductor's own interpretation. The conductor should not adhere only to famous recordings or famous conductors; effort should be made to listen to a variety of recordings. Another helpful technique is to listen early in the score study and then stop once rehearsals have begun to be able to develop one's own interpretation.

Instrumental rehearsal: Tuning strategies in an instrumental rehearsal

There are a variety of tuning strategies for tuning an instrumental ensemble for rehearsal. For a beginning ensemble, the conductor may tune each student's instrument, preferably before the rehearsal starts, or quickly and efficiently at the beginning of the rehearsal. If the ensemble is at a level of playing that requires proper tuning abilities, the ensemble may tune based on the pitch of the lead oboe or lead clarinet playing the concert pitch. The conductor can also choose to have each section tune as a group at the beginning of rehearsal, so that musicians can match the pitch and timbre of the instrumental section. Also, musicians can tune based on a tuning machine that plays a pure tone concert pitch where the musicians must listen carefully to adjust their instruments to the proper pitch.

Properties of sound that contribute to an instrument's tone quality

There are multiple different sound properties that make up an instrument's tone quality. First, an instrument's tone is a complex wave that is composed of many different partial frequencies; unlike a simple sine wave that has only the fundamental frequency and no partial frequencies, the sound of a complex wave will vary widely given the profile of the complex wave form, contributing greatly to the various instrumental timbres. Another sound property that affects an instrument's tone quality is the nature of the resonating body. Once the vibrations of the instrument are set into motion, the surrounding air will resonate through the instrument's body, whether it be a hollow wooden shell such as a stringed instrument or through a metal tube such a brass instrument. The resonating bodies each have their own unique set of complex resonances known as formants, further giving each instrument its own unique tone quality.

Woodwind embouchure

There are two types of woodwind embouchure based on the type of woodwind in question; transverse flute embouchures require the player to blow air across the instrument body, while the reed woodwind embouchure requires the player to enclose the mouthpiece so that the airflow can effectively vibrate the reed in sound production. The transverse flute should be placed against the chin so that the bottom lip is in line and close to the hole. The corners of the mouth should be relaxed, while the upper lip is held firmly against the upper teeth. On a reed woodwind, the mouthpiece should be taken into the mouth only as far as the reed meets the mouthpiece. The bottom lip should be placed slightly over the bottom teeth and against the reed. The upper teeth should rest on top of the mouthpiece while the corners of the mouth are drawn in to create a seal around the mouthpiece.

Learning musical aspects of a score to conduct

Through score study, the conductor must analyze, reanalyze, interpret, learn, and know every detail and nuance in the music. There are several techniques that can aid the conductor in score study. During the learning process, the conductor can play all the vocal parts together on the piano to be able to listen to voice leading and harmonic changes. The conductor can also play the accompaniment part separately on the piano so that special attention can be given to the accompaniment when the entire ensemble plays. If there is text, the conductor can read the text aloud poetically so as to examine the ideal dramatic inflection and stress of the line. The conductor can analyze the score structurally, harmonically, dynamically, and melodically to know the music thoroughly. The conductor can also mark the score extensively to help mentally note all aspects of the music.

Techniques used to learn a score

Through score study, the conductor must analyze, reanalyze, interpret, learn, and know every detail and nuance in the music. There are several techniques that can aid the conductor in score study. During the learning process, the conductor can play all the vocal parts together on the piano to be able to listen to voice leading and harmonic changes. The conductor can also play the accompaniment part separately on the piano so that special attention can be given to the accompaniment when the entire ensemble plays. If there is text, the conductor can read the text aloud poetically so as to examine the ideal dramatic inflection and stress of the line. The conductor can analyze the score structurally, harmonically, dynamically, and melodically to know the music thoroughly. The conductor can also mark the score extensively to help mentally note all aspects of the music.

Body, arm, and finger position on the drumstick for proper snare drum technique

To execute proper snare drum technique, full attention must be made to develop the body, arm, and finger position of the player. The body should be in a fully relaxed and comfortable position without allowing the back to slouch or lean in. A seated body position in playing the snare drum should allow the feet to be flat on the floor with the legs spread evenly. The drum set should always be positioned to the player so that the player does not have to adjust unnaturally to the set. The player should be seated facing directly in front of the snare drum and not to the side or from below. The arms should always be relaxed and should hang at the body's side without unnecessary tension. The snare player should grip the drumstick firmly and in a relaxed manner so that each stroke has a flowing yet controlled movement with a full, legato sound.

Physiology of vocal range development

Until puberty, a child's vocal mechanisms are not fully developed and do not contain the full range of the adult voice. Infants are born with a very high larynx; the larynx drops slightly when a child reaches the age of three. From age three until about age 10-13, the larynx is not yet fully functional. The vocal folds of a child are much shorter than an adult's vocal folds, and the larynx of a child sits higher than an adult's. The vocal range of a child is relatively limited as compared to an adult; high and low pitches are reached by the lengthening or thickening of the vocal folds. During puberty, a child's larynx grows to its full size, drops, and the vocal chords lengthen and thicken substantially. The fully matured vocal mechanisms acquire a vocal range much larger than a child's, functioning through the complex muscular and cartilage actions within the larynx to produce wide-ranging pitches in different registers.

Issues in vocal health

Vocal health should be a central priority for singers and non-singers alike. As a unique organ and instrument, the voice plays an essential role in daily communication as well as in music making. An unhealthy voice can become raspy, hoarse, strained, or raw, presenting difficulty in singing and in speech. Proper hydration should be maintained to clear the mucus and moisturize the throat. Find alternatives to yelling, such as clapping, ringing a bell, or moving close to the person. Reduce background noise so that the voice does not need to be raised. Make sure to get proper rest for both the vocal mechanisms and the body through ample sleep time. Avoid drinking excessive alcohol, smoking, and inhaling chemical fumes that dehydrate and can damage the lungs. Be sure not to sing loudly on any high pitch that feels strained or uncontrolled.

Vocal techniques to achieve vowel uniformity

Vowel uniformity is an important aspect of singing, but within a chorus setting, it becomes all the more important, as there are a multitude of various timbres, ranges, and singers contributing, ideally, to a unified, homogenous sound. Each singer should practice certain vocal techniques to assist in keeping each vowel sound as uniform as possible. The mouth should be open long instead of wide, with the jaw falling low to open the oral cavity. The resulting vowels will be more open and resonant for better choral blend. The singers should also sing with an open throat while lifting the soft palate for a more relaxed and smoother sound. Also, the singer should not "swallow" his or her sound, but should direct the sound forward in the head so that the chorus can achieve a uniform, vibrant sound.

Instrumental and choral warm up

Warming up serves several important physical and mental functions for the group ensemble. Mentally, it has the effect of centering and adjusting the ensemble to an appropriate mental state for performance and establishing proper physiological cues for posture, breathing, etc. Warm-ups serve as a unifying tool for all members of the ensemble to begin listening to each other as a musical entity and adjusting sound according to the group. Physically, the warm-up promotes blood flow to the entire body, making every member ready to respond to the physical demands of making music. Though easy to overlook, the warm-up serves an important function for the instrument as well as the body. Whether a brass, woodwind, string, percussion, or vocal instrument, every instrument should be properly warmed and its mechanisms stretched and lubricated. Without a proper warm- up, singers could damage their vocal mechanisms, and the tonal quality of instrumentalists could suffer.

Warming up on wind instruments

Warming up serves several important physical and mental functions for the wind instrumentalist. Mentally, it has the effect of centering and adjusting the player to an appropriate mental state for performance and establishing proper physiological cues for posture, breathing, etc., before performance. In addition to establishing the mindset for performance, the warm-up provides necessary functions at a physical level. The warm-up promotes blood flow to the fingers and the structures associated with embouchure, making them feel "loose" and ready to respond to the demands of playing. Though easy to overlook, the warm-up serves an important function for the instrument as well as the body. An instrument that has been sitting in an air-conditioned room is significantly colder than it will be during a performance. The warm air of the player's breath passing through the instrument will create warmth and thus expansion. An instrument should either be warm before tuning or re-tuned after a thorough warm-up.

Position of the baton and the various roles of the free hand

When conducting, the position of the baton should be a natural extension of the hand and arm. It should not be rigidly in line, but should serve as a musical tool of expression; in a gentle passage, the baton may be lightly held with only the first few fingers, but in an animated passage, the baton may be tightly grasped to evoke a feeling of passion and urgency. The elbow should be slightly raised away from the body so that the baton can be clearly seen from all angles. The free hand without the baton plays the role of musical reinforcement and can also help turn pages. As an independent stimulus, the free hand can reinforce dynamics such as crescendos and decrescendos, as well as aid in cueing parts. The free hand should also indicate releases, phrasing, musical style, and necessary modifications in the balance of the ensemble.

Acoustical considerations for instrumental ensemble arrangement

When creating an arrangement for instrumental ensemble formations, there are several key acoustical considerations for the given ensemble to execute the optimal performance. A general guideline holds that softer instruments with important melody lines should sit near the front so that the audience can easily hear their sound. The seating arrangement of the ensemble should be so that when accompanying parts play softer to balance with the projecting melody, those instruments will not pull back so softly as a deficiency, but will still be able to support the melody line expressively and imaginatively. Thus, instrument groups with similar lines should be seated together as well as instrument groups with counter-melodies. This allows the musicians to be more aurally aware of the ensemble and to play with more confidence and freedom.

Devising a core repertoire list for an ensemble

When devising a core repertoire list for an ensemble, it is important to take many musical aspects into consideration. A core repertoire list should provide a strong framework of music education for the students, factoring in the students' musical growth and development. A core repertoire list should include a variety of rhythmic features that challenge the ensemble's technical abilities. The harmonic language of the repertoire list should be varied and in a wide range of genres. The melodic lines within the repertoire should exhibit creative writing and expressive interest for the students. The repertoire should also be well orchestrated, providing musical interest in all sections of the ensemble, as well as providing a balance between tutti and thinner textures. The repertoire should provide some works that are deeply expressive, to allow students to expand their musical expressive language. The core repertoire list should be well sequenced in introducing new musical concepts as well reinforcing old ones.

Fingering techniques for keyboard instruments

When executing finger technique on keyboard instruments, one must always be aware of relaxed wrists, arms, elbows, and shoulders to prevent overuse injuries. The wrist should be held in line with the hand and the arm, not sagging or raised too high. The elbows should hang comfortably to the side of the body and never tensed. The shoulders should be relaxed and dropped and never raised, as this is a sign of tension. Fingering at the keyboard should use the thumb-tuck technique, to allow a flowing and continuous line of notes when playing. When tucking the thumb under the middle or ring fingers, the keyboardist should ensure that the wrist does not drop during the movement, but that the thumb helps to maintain a healthy wrist position. Players should always drill a fingering section slowly at first, and only increase the playing speed if the passage can be executed without tension.

Achieving choral blend using vowel modification, dynamics, and vocal vibrato

When executing good choral blend, singers must pay attention to their use of vowel modification, dynamics, and vocal vibrato. In a choral setting, pure vowel sounds are preferred in producing the sounds a, e, i, o, and u. The mouth cavity must be open with a raised palette to produce the pure vowel sounds. Additionally, dynamics among the singers must be adjusted to compensate for the stronger singers as well as the weaker singers. When singing in a choral setting, self-monitoring is key in knowing when to adjust sound levels in accordance with the surrounding musicians. Generally, vocal vibrato should be kept to a minimum when striving for good choral blend; an active vocal vibrato can easily stick out in a choral texture, and works conversely in achieving good choral blend, which should prioritize uniform sound, texture, and tone.

Resources for score research

When studying the score, there are several useful resources the conductor can use. For a thorough understanding of the historical background and performance practices, conductors can refer to scholarly books, journals, and articles to research the background of the musical work. Many musical works also have ties to extra-musical art forms such as literature, dance, visual art, and theater. Researching all sources of musical inspiration will only aid the conductor's interpretation and understanding of the score. The conductor can also use recordings of the musical work in researching performance practices and stylistic differences of past performances. If the musical work was written by a living composer, the conductor can also interview the composers themselves to delve deeper into a thorough understanding of the score. Also, conductors can consult conducting texts for a relevant perspective of the musical score.

Incorporate solfege into regular rehearsals

When teaching an ensemble how to sight-read, it is useful to incorporate solfege into rehearsals to teach the relative relationship between pitches as they occur within any diatonic scale. The reinforcement of solfege on a movable-do system trains the student's understanding of relative pitch. As the students learn to sight-read through solfege, they will be able to identify the relative position of the pitch within a scale, without the additional processing of identifying the absolute pitch. Music educators should begin by teaching students all the solfege syllables, with the added hand motions that reinforce the spatial relationships between pitches. The solfege syllables should be reinforced by singing through a number of different keys to train the student's ears to hear the relationships between the diatonic pitches. As the lessons progress, students should be required to sing or play back certain pitch intervals in various keys, such as a do-mi-sol progression.

Kinesthetics of octave playing on keyboard instruments

When the keyboardist plays an octave passage in either or both hands, the hand is required to stretch to the length of eight keys. The motion should be played and released quickly since the reach of the octave can present unnecessary tension and exhaustion to the arm if not released quickly. One school of thought has the hand play an octave quickly, but releasing the tension as quickly as possible back to a neutral hand position. In a long passage of octave playing, this method requires the quick stretch and release at each octave. Another school of thought has the hand fixed in an octave position and uses the quick movement of a flexible wrist snapping for each motion to play the octave passage as quickly as possible. Yet another school of thought has the hand and wrist fixed in the octave position and uses the quick movement of the elbow to play each octave.

Techniques to improve poor singing posture

When the singer is standing, the weight of the body should be distributed evenly to all sides of the feet - front, back, side, and middle. The spine should be erect with the shoulders back and the neck held high. The head should not angle forward or backward, but should be kept in a neutral position so that airflow through the body has no restrictions, and so the singer's body does not sustain unnecessary fatigue. When the singer is sitting, the feet should be flat on the ground with the spine erect and aligned with the neck, shoulders, head, and ears. The body should be balanced and relaxed through the entire vocal session.

Care and maintenance of woodwind instruments

Woodwind instrument should be handled with care, taking precaution to avoid damage by jewelry, buttons, or zippers. Instruments should be kept dry while in storage. After each playing session the instrument should be wiped clean, making sure to use an appropriately sized swab; this is especially important for the small-bored piccolo and oboe. On a monthly basis, apply key oil to key pivot points. Similarly, apply a small amount of cork grease to tenons and neck corks, taking care to remove any excess grease. Wipe down the finish of the instrument to remove fingerprints and oils from fingers, moisture, and other debris. Never use alcohol on any plastic parts, and never use excessive force when constructing the instrument. Thoroughly clean out the mouth between eating and playing; clean mouthpieces weekly. For reed instruments, discard reeds that are chipped or cracked; do not leave reeds on the mouthpiece, and check metal ligatures for signs of damage, as an out-of-round ligature can damage a mouthpiece. The instrument should be kept out of direct light and excessively warm, cold, or humid environments.

Transposition and instrumental ranges: woodwind instruments

Woodwind instruments include single reeds, double reeds, and flutes. All woodwind instruments have side holes that are left open or covered to change the sounding length of the tube. The piccolo is typically notated on the treble clef an octave lower and has a general range of D4-C7. The flute is typically notated on the treble clef with no transposition, and has a general range of Bb3-D7. The oboe is typically notated on the treble clef with no transposition and has a general range of Bb3-A6. The clarinet is typically notated on the treble clef with the Bb clarinet sounding a major second lower, the A clarinet sounding a minor third lower, the D clarinet sounding a major second higher, the Eb clarinet sounding a minor third higher, and all with a general range of E3-C7. The bassoon is typically notated on the bass or tenor clefs with no transposition and has a general range of Bb1- Eb5.

How sound is produced in woodwind instruments

Woodwind instruments produce sound through vibrations in an enclosed tube. The vibrations can be set into motion by blowing through single or double reeds, across an opening, or through an opening. Single-reed woodwind instruments produce sound when air is blown through a reed that vibrates against the mouthpiece. Single-reed instruments include the clarinet and the saxophone. Double-reed woodwind instruments produce sound when air is blown through two reeds that are tied together and vibrate. Double-reed instruments include the oboe, bassoon, and sarrusophone. Woodwinds that produce sound when the player blows across an opening are the transverse flutes, which are held sideways. Woodwinds that produce sound when the player blows directly into an opening are the whistle and the recorder. Players change the pitch of an instrument by shortening or lengthening the air column through covered holes or keys.