Myers' AP Psychology Unit 4
amplitude
Height of a wave
social-cultural influences of pain
Presence of others, empathy for others' pain, cultural expectations
rubber-hand illusion
-top down influence
relative motion
objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction
taste
one of the senses an organism uses to gather information about an object, usually with special nerves on the tongue
moon illusion
optical illusion which causes the moon to appear larger near the horizon than it does higher up in the sky, also occurs with the sun and star constellations, has been known since ancient times and recorded by various cultures
horizontal-vertical illusion
our perceiving vertical dimensions as longer than identical horizontal dimensions
psychological influences of pain
pain is the most psychological driven
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
precognition
perceiving future events
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
clairvoyance
perceiving remote events
outer ear
pinna The portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal. The outer ear is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (the eardrum).
auditory cortex
primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, sound info A an area in the temporal lobe of the brain that is reponsible for hearing.
vestibular sacs
two sacks in the inner ear by the semicircular canals that since gravitation forward, backward, and vertical movement
lightness/brightness constancy
we perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (low pitched sounds)
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field0
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces; face blindness A form of visual agnosia characterized by difficulty in the recognition of people's faces; caused by damage to the visual association cortex
Top-Down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
sensation.....
involves bottom-up processing (also known as feature detector)
context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place Retrieval cue a common retrieval cue in which memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place; ex) psychologists have shown that students score better when they take an exam in the same room in which they learned the information
feature detector cells
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of stimulus, such as shape, angle, and movement
endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
iris
A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
ernst weber
1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND
cochlea
A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Colorblind
A recessive x-linked disorder in which an individual cannot distinguish between certain colors.
relative height
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away.
basilar membrane
A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.
signal detection theory
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("Signal") amid background stimulation ("Noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.
pitch
A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
decibels
A unit of measurement of loudness Units of sound volume=
size constancy
Ability of the visual perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina.
Torsten Wiesel
Along with David Hubel discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images
ponzo illusion
An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion.
connectedness
Because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as one unit
controlling pain
Can be.................by distraction or other stimulation (rubbing place where needle is about to pierce) sleep and mood also affects........ in addition to thought and feeling that.........experience............, our bodies have natural pain killer call endorphins (stimulating the release of neurotransmitters that interfere with...........messages in the spinal cord and brain.
telepathy
Communication from one mind to another without speech, writing, or other sensory means mind-to-mind communication
schemas
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.
transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
linear perspective
Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more the lines converge, the greater the perceived distance
volley principle
Modification of frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a.........of impulses.
light and shadow
Nearby objects reflect more light to eyes. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away
perceiving loudness
Number of hair cells activated (loud sounds activate a lot of hair cells)
proximity
Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.
similarity
Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.
continuity
Objects that form a continuous form (such as a trail or geometric figure) are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.
cones
Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The.......detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
closure
Similar to top-down processing. Objects that make up a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group even if the image contains gaps that the mind needs to fill in.
serial processing
Solving a problem one step at a time, a relatively slow process in comparison to parallel processing. occurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in a methodical and linear matter
sensory deprivation
The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation - if one sense is........., another will become stronge
priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
pupil
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
intensity
The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.
amplitude (sound)
The bigger the......the louder the sound
fovea
The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
Extrasensory perception
The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
hue
The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
wavelength
The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave
selective attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
retina
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
timbre
The overall quality of a sound the distinguishing quality of a sound
Weber's law
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage
Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
accommodation
The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which combined can produce the perception of any color.
ossicles
The three small bones found in the middle ear (the malleus, the incus, and the stapes/the anvil, hammer, and stirrup) that help to amplify the vibrations from sound waves. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea.
critical period
The time in the development of an organism when it is especially sensitive to certain environmental influences; outside of that period the same influences will have far less effect
lens
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Herman von Helmholtz
Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.
Thomas Young
Thought light was a wave
phantom limb sensations
When the brain misinterprets the spontaneous central nervous system activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
umami
a fifth taste, sense receptors on the tongue react to certain amino acids
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
cocktail party effect
ability to attend to only one voice among many
gustatory
affecting/relating to the sense of taste
interposition
an MC; if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
relative size
an MC; if we assume that two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away
blindsight
an abnormal condition in which parts of the visual field are not consciously perceived but can be subconsciously perceived; a patients ability to point to the source of a light in scotoma
McGurk Effect
an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
gestalt
an organized whole. ........psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
Bottom-Up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
auditory nerve
axons of neurons in the cochlea converge transmitting sound messages through the medulla, pons, and thalamus to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobes
subliminal persuasion
behavior change induced by...........processing Persuasion that occurs with stimuli that are beneath the lower threshold a method to present info in a certain that changes peoples minds without them aware of what it is going on,............messaging happens below the absolute threshold
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
can be above or below the absolute threshold; get us ready to perceive one thing or another
afterimages
images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed. Most visual...............are negative................., which appear in reversed colors.
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated (high pitched sounds)
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
synesthesia
describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound") when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers' song title,"Taste the Pain," is an example.
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
David Hubel
discovered feature detectors in the visual system (along with Torsten Wiesel)
choice blindness
failing to detect a mismatch in your original choice Choosing a face, proctor switches the faces and asks you why you chose that face. But it is actually the one that you rejected.
change deafness
failing to notice change in auditory stimulus
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment 28. While a man provides directions to a construction worker, two experimenters rudely interrupt by passing between them carrying a board. The man's failure to notice that the construction worker was replaced by a different person during this interruption illustrates
Inattentional Blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
top-down processing
general to specific
the difference threshold
has to be disproportionate to the jnd of your original stimulus; look for if the jnd is 10% greater on the original stimulus
constancy
has to do with perception (color, shape, size); idea that, in our minds, when we turn off the lights, the color still remains constant, even though it may look different on our retinas (duller or a different shade [of blue] we know that the color hasn't actually changed; we perceive it to be the same, even if we turn off the lights. things may appear different to us, but still think(perceive) them as being the same.
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
subliminal stimulation
if we listen to or see things below the absolute threshold, we will unconsciously detect that stimulus.
bipolar cells
second layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells
nociceptors
sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals
supercell clusters
teams of cells that respond to more complex patterns
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
relative luminance
the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
stroboscopic movement
the brain's perception of continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images; this is how we perceive motion in film and animation
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or JND.)
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the.......) that stand out from their surroundings (the......).
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
sound localization
the process by which you determine the location of a sound
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance (p. 254
Olfaction
the sense of smell sense of smell, travels directly to the cerebral cortex, without stopping at the thalamus
audition
the sense or act of hearing
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them Fechner started this area of psychology that addresses the relationship between psychological experiences and physical energy. A psychophysicist might look at the speed at which electrical impulses travel from the brain to the limbs, or how we perceive different light waves.
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
visual capture
the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 242)
the signal-detection theory
the theory that goes against absolute threshold
Opponent-Process Theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
signal detection says.....
there are other reasons why we may or may not detect a stimulus
ganglion cells
third layer of neurons in the retina, whose axons converge to from to the optic
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement
eardrum
tightly stretched membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves
sensing touch
touch is sensitivity to pressure on the skin