Natural hazards final

"Moral Hazard" best describes which of the following situations?

Once people have purchased insurance, they no longer spend money on other ways to decrease their risk.

Which of the following is indicated by this forecast map of Tropical Storm Henri?

Once the storm makes landfall, wind speeds are predicted to diminish.

Which of the following is most likely to lead to flooding in large river basins?

Extended periods of above-average rainfall over large areas.

Which of the following is LEAST likely to increase landslide risk?

Extended periods of sub-freezing temperatures during the winter months.

The small town of Mumfordville has collected 60 years of data on its annual peak floods. When plotted, these data show a log-linear relationship between magnitude and frequency. Mumfordville's emergency management office is revising its Hazard Mitigation Plan, and wants to estimate the level of a 100-year flood. How might it do so?

Extrapolate based on the trend revealed in its 60 years of data. Research historical archives, seeking descriptions of larger floods. Look for geological evidence of larger floods. See whether other nearby stream gauges have data covering longer periods.

The 2021 IPCC report echoes our textbook's summary of the links between climate change and a range of natural hazards. For which of these hazards do the models most confidently predict impact over large areas?

Extreme heat and coastal flooding.

Research indicates that most people are considerably more willing to accept risk, so long as it is voluntarily assumed. How much risker are tolerable voluntary risks than tolerable involuntary risks?

1000 times greater

A stream-gauge on the Watery River has 29 years' worth of data on annual flood peaks. The fifth-highest value in this data series reflects a peak flow of 10,538 cfs. Based on these data, the predicted recurrence interval of a 10,538 cfs flood volume is

6 years

Hydrologists have calculated that the 100-year flood on the Meandering River is 84,092 cfs. During a random 100-year period, what is the estimated probability that no such floods will occur?

66.4%

During the 2013 Boulder Creek Floods, peak streamflow measured at a gauge near the mouth of Boulder Canyon was 4,818 cubic feet/second (cfs). After the flood, a hydrologic study sought to calculate the annual probability of peak streamflow levels, summarized in the following table:

A 50-year flood

The "Gambler's Fallacy" reflects which of the following?

A failure to recognize that random events occur independently of one another.

In the United States, a typical home loan lasts 30 years, with the property itself acting as loan collateral. Briefly explain why a loan officer would be concerned with expected flood recurrence intervals for a home in a floodplain.

A loan officer would be concerned about flood recurrence intervals because these interval although cant completely predict when a flood will happen because we know that floods are essentially random. Flood recurrence intervals can show the loan officer how many floods this area has had in the past along with how much water in cubic feet per second. This would allow the officer to assess the risk to the house based of where it is located. As in how often a flood might be likely to be seen as well as the location of the house maybe a flood of 2,456 CBS might not reach the house but a 4,256 CBS might reach the house.

Which of the following maps would be LEAST useful for understanding global-scale patterns of disaster vulnerability?

A map of global climates.

Which of the following is most likely to cause a social amplification of risk perception—that is, for people to be more concerned about a hazard than an objective analysis would deem necessary?

A new and unfamiliar hazard.

What distinguishes risk from hazard?

A risk involves a defined probability and loss.

for over a century, the U.S. Forest Service prioritized fire suppression in the American West. Which of the following has resulted from this policy?

A successful increase in fuel buildup in Ponderosa Pine forests.

A common problem in the insurance industry takes place when the highest-risk individuals are most likely to purchase insurance. What term is used to describe this problem?

Adverse Selection

In our last lecture, we noted that tsunami hazards prompt a different set of societal responses than earthquake hazards. Why is this?

Affected populations often have more advance warning of incoming tsunamis than earthquakes.

Which aspect of drought poses the greatest threat to plant growth and food harvests?

Agricultural Drought

Alice and Bob have won a strange contest. Each has the option of selecting two potential prizes: one offers a 50% probability of a $100 payout; the other offers a 5% probability of a $1000 payout. Alice prefers the first prize, while Bob prefers the second. Which of the following statements best describes the pair's preferences?

Alice is more risk-averse, while Bob is more risk-loving.

In your own words, what is the difference between environmental hazards and risks?

An environmental risk is one that involves a probability and an assumed loss. This means that risk involves the probability that an event will occur along with how much damage that event will cost. An environmental hazard is a potential natural event that could cause damage to a society within the area of this hazard. As the book states there would be no environmental hazards without humanity all natures events would simply be events.

The quantitative approach to risk evaluation presented in Module 3 assumes that hazard events are essentially random, and independent of one another. Which of the following hazards aligns most closely with that assumption?

Annual floods

Although most climate scenarios forecast warming of at least 0.5 °C by 2100, this increase is not expected to be uniform across all areas. What areas are forecast to experience the most intense warming?

Arctic and Antarctic areas, increasing concerns of glacial and ice cap melting.

Which soils are most likely to experience liquefaction during an earthquake?

Artificially filled-in areas adjacent to large water bodies.

During the 20th century, recorded numbers of disasters worldwide increased dramatically. Which of the following best explains this trend?

As global population increased, more and more people lived in hazard-prone areas.

n North America, the expansion of agriculture is linked to increases in flood magnitude and flood frequency. Why?

Because eroded soils fill streambeds, reducing the amount of water they can carry.

Many people are surprised to learn that a flood with a calculated 100-year recurrence interval will not necessarily happen during a 100-year period. (In fact, there is a 36.6% chance that no flood will occur.) Why is this?

Because the model assumes that the likelihood of a flood each year is essentially random.

Which of the following hazards does not involve ascending and descending air masses within thunderstorm clouds?

Blizzards

Earth's climate over the past 400,000 years is best described as

Characterized by extended ice ages, punctuated by briefer interglacial periods.

What differentiates floodways from flood fringes?

Construction of levees, floodwalls, and buildings in flood fringes is permitted, so long as it does not raise expected flood heights beyond a set margin.

Which of the following settings is most likely to produce viscous magma, and explosive volcanic eruptions?

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Which of these is NOT an effective strategy for reducing avalanche fatalities?

Deploying professional ski patrollers to the sites of backcountry avalanches.

Since the year 2000, which of the following best describes trends in recorded disasters?

Disaster-related losses have increased, driven largely by high-profile disaster events.

The 2015 Paris Climate Agreement sought to remedy many of the weaknesses of the previous Kyoto Protocol. Which of the following was NOT included in the Paris Agreement?

Enforcement mechanisms to punish countries for failing to meet their pledged emission reductions.

Floodwalls and levees are most closely associated with which of the following paradigms?

Engineering.

Although humans have long engineered structures to redirect natural forces, modern engineering allows structures to withstand the most extreme forces of nature.

False

Because the engineering paradigm has given way to other approaches to hazard management, few communities now use levees as part of their hazard management strategies

False

Humans are generally able to predict the direction of lava flows, and build structures to control the spread of lava.

False

Most dry-land farmers carefully monitor evolving drought conditions, and adjust their planting decisions weekly during the course of the growing season.

False

Which of the following statements about the National Flood Insurance Program is FALSE?

Federal flood insurance is available throughout the country.

What best describes the difference between drought and flood hazards?

Flooding is typically restricted to the river channels and floodplains; droughts occur over much larger and less well-bounded areas.

In lecture, we demonstrated calculating disaster recurrence intervals using floods, rather than other hazards, such as earthquakes. Why?

Floods are understood to be essentially random year-to-year, while earthquakes are thought to involve geological forces that build up over time.

Which of Keith Smith's three approaches to hazard-reduction emphasizes shifting the burden of natural disasters?

Mitigation

Effusive eruptions and free-flowing lava are most likely to be associated with which type of volcanic eruption?

Hawaiian

How do the hazards we studied in this module compare to the earthquake and volcanic hazards we studied previously?

Humans have much more potential influence on the natural processes underlying landslides, avalanches, and wildfires. Large-scale protection strategies are generally more applicable to earthquakes, avalanches, and wildfires. Humans can respond to wildfires as they are occurring, in contrast to earthquakes.

Which aspect of drought would be of greatest concern to the manager of a municipal water system?

Hydrologic Drought

Early in our class, we contrasted "intensive" hazards—which affect relatively small geographical areas, occur suddenly, and are difficult to predict—with "pervasive" hazards, which affect large areas, and are often predicted somewhat in advance. Identify and describe TWO ways in which societal responses to these types of hazards might differ.

In the case of a pervasive hazard which generally affects large areas. In this case of a hazard insurance would actually be a way that society responds to an event in this case because the event is very widespread and more people are likely to pay into the pool of insurance to be able to protect their own home even though one particular event might not of hit them personally. The second way a society might respond is by all pitching in to engineer soultions suchs and dams or levees in the case of floods. In the case of Intensive hazards which affects people in rather small geographical areas. One way a society might respond to these types of hazards is by building their own private mitigations. For an example a tornado can onset quite quickly as well as hit a small geographical area. This might make someone want to build their own tornado shelter in their yard. A second way that societies could prevent intensive hazards is by land planning use. An example of this is the boulder creek flooding which is random, onset very fast and in consideration with the whole county take up a small geographical area. This means you could use land use planning to make sure no one lived in the area.

Keith Smith groups hazard response strategies into three categories: Protection, Mitigation, and Adaptation. In your own words, what differentiates the three categories?

In the case of protection this category is essentially making sure that buildings as other structures are secured and able to with stand hazards in that area. This section usually involves retro fitting structures. The second category which is mitigation which the use of trying to spread out the damages caused by hazards. The last category is adaption which in essence is the ability to change bevhoir in order to reduce the risks of of a hazard event.

Climate Forcing models estimate that Earth's energy balance has increased by 1.6 Watts per square meter over pre-industrial levels, due to a combination of positive and negative effects. Which of the following is NOT thought to be a contributor to this net forcing?

Increased reflection of solar energy due to glacial expansion.

Which of the following statements regarding the 1994 Northridge Earthquake is true?

It occurred along a previously unmapped blind fault.

What distinguishes lahars from other landslides associated with volcanic activity?

Lahars involve water-saturated soils, while other volcanic landslides involve dry material.

During the "golden hours" following a disaster, which of the following is most likely to be true?

Local societies will be most reliant on their capacities for self-help and resiliency.

How are the magnitude and frequency of hazard events typically linked?

Low magnitude events happen most frequently.

In which of the following regions does avalanche hazard pose the LEAST risk to human activity?

Mining towns in New England.

Which of the following best characterizes the evacuation of Montserrat, following the eruption of the Soufrière Hills Volcano?

Montserrat's evacuees moved to a wide array of locations, including the northern half of the island, other nearby islands, and Great Britain.

In 2008, following Cyclone Nargis, the military government of Myanmar restricted international donors from sending aid workers to affected areas, instead insisting that any donations be made to the central government. Following the analysis of Bueno de Mesquita and Smith, this is most likely because

Myanmar's leaders wanted to control who received aid, and allow their political supporters to sell donated goods for their own profit.

We noted that the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami was especially devastating, both for residents of the island of Sumatra, and for people elsewhere in the Indian Ocean basin. Why was this?

No comprehensive tsunami-warning system had been constructed in the Indian Ocean. Countries in Southeast Asia had limited resources to construct seawalls and offshore breakwaters. Some countries, such as Somalia, had no infrastructure to warn citizens of the incoming tsunami hazard. The earthquake that triggered the Boxing Day tsunami was exceptionally powerful.

When tectonic plates collide, oceanic plates are subducted below continental plates. This is because

Oceanic plates are denser than continental plates.

Our textbook outlined a number of factors shaping people's subjective perception of risk. Which of the following statements regarding common risk perceptions is FALSE?

People typically perceive hazards that they believe to be well-controlled, such as icy roads, as riskier than hazards that they believe to be uncontrolled, such as hurricanes.

In studying the behavior of wildfires in Colorado, we compared two tree species: Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine. Which of the following statements about their behavior is CORRECT?

Ponderosa pines shed their lower branches, preventing ground fires from ascending higher into the trees.

Plinian eruptions, such as those occurring at Vesuvius and Mt. St. Helens, are most likely to be associated with which of the following volcanic hazards?

Pyroclastic Flows

The "Levee Effect" describes which of the following?

The construction of levees makes people think flood prone areas are safe, and encourages construction in them.

In Module 3, we outlined a quantitative approach to estimating risk, based on the probability of hazard events occurring. Which of the following is NOT a limitation on the use of these methods for risk assessment?

Quantitative methods are only useful for estimating high-loss events; low-loss events require qualitative methods.

We concluded our discussion of key concepts in geography by referring to the Zen Buddhist metaphor of a finger pointing at the moon. In context of our class, what does this mean?

Rather than struggling to exhaustively define key concepts, it is more productive to see how they are applied.

Few tropical cyclones form in the South Atlantic and Southeast Pacific Oceans. Why is this?

These oceans are affected by cool ocean currents, and thus are not warm enough to form cyclones.

Environmental engineers have sought to reduce flood hazard through which of the following?

Replacing impermeable urban surfaces with permeable ones. Removing excess sediment from stream channels. Incorporating retention basins into storm drainage systems. Coordinating property buyouts in particularly flood-prone areas.

Which of the following actions has the City of Boulder undertaken in its flood-hazard zones?

Required flood-resistant construction in new buildings. Reserved lands adjacent to Boulder Creek for recreational use. Purchased private lands within the flood-hazard zone. Warned occupants of older, non flood-resistant buildings, of the hazards they face.

Which of the following factors is least likely to be associated with vulnerable populations?

Residents of a country governed by a stable representative democracy.

Streams that meander across floodplains are most likely to result from

Sediment erosion where water moves quickly, and sediment deposition where water slows down.

We have identified semi-arid climates as being particularly susceptible to drought hazards. Which of the following statements about these climates is true?

Semi-arid climates are prone to agricultural expansion during wet periods, and are thus vulnerable to subsequent droughts.

A skydiving accident is not generally regarded as a natural hazard, disaster, or risk. Why?

Skydivers voluntarily assume their risk; most natural hazards involve involuntary risk based on geographic exposure.

Which of the following tropical cyclone hazards is least likely to affect inland areas?

Storm surge.

Due to Coriolis forces...

Storm systems and ocean currents in the Northern Hemisphere rotate clockwise.

Bangladesh is one of the most flood-prone countries in the world. Which of the following dimensions of flood hazard affects Bangladesh LEAST?

Technological flooding due to dam failures.

Which of the following extended droughts did not produce a notable famine?

The American Dust Bowl of 1934-1940.

Which of the following best describes the role of the U.S. Army's Corps of Engineers in disaster preparedness?

The Corps of Engineers builds flood control dams and levees.

Which of the following measures the magnitude of tropical cyclones?

The Saffir-Simpson Scale

Under modeled scenarios for climate change, by 2100 precipitation levels in the African Sahel and Savannah are likely to see particularly high percentage increases. This is because

The Sahara and Sahel are arid regions, meaning that even small absolute increases will appear large in percentage terms.

Comparing the Hazard Mitigation Plan guidelines established by the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency with the Swiss system presented in our textbook, which of the following is true?

The U.S. system offers a less-prescriptive approach to choosing and implementing hazard mitigation strategies.

During the 1993 Mississippi River Floods, floodwaters nearly overran the floodwalls protecting the city of St. Louis, Missouri, but receded. Which of the following was not responsible for lowering the flood stage at St. Louis?

The construction of floodwalls along both sides of the river, creating a bottleneck at St. Louis.

A friend of yours, upon learning that you are studying natural disasters, comments "the problem is bad geography! Too many people are living in places they shouldn't, and so it's no surprise that disasters kill a lot of people." Briefly summarize TWO arguments that might convince your friend that hazards research isn't quite so simple.

The first argument that I would put forward is that there are certain groups of people more vulnerable to certain hazards in their area. The reason this would be one of my arguments is that people with less economic means might not be able to live in other areas because thats all they can afford. Also their are populations that are static such as prisons, hospitals and nursing homes that cant move out of areas that are more hazard prone. Another argument would be that people don't move out of these areas because the economic value of living in these areas is greater than the economic cost of rebuilding them. An example of this is Chinas east cost in which a majority of the population lives. They continue to live here even though they have to face hurricane season every year. The reason that they stay here is because the economic value that comes from the ocean such as food, import/export services, and transportation all outway the economic cost of hurricane season.

Your friend has been taking an introductory course in economics. When he learns that you are studying how societies plan for and respond to natural disasters, he says "I don't see why we make such a big deal of things. People can buy insurance to cover their losses, and the price of that insurance will motivate them to reduce their risk. That would solve everything!" Identify and describe two reasons why your friend's argument might not be as complete a solution as he thinks.

The first reason that he might be wrong is the theory of adverse selection this is the idea that only people in the area where the hazard is most likely to occur will buy into insurance and therefore they are the only ones paying for the damages even though insurance is supposed to be a collective pool that will mitigate the damages in an area by spreading costs over the population. The second reason that he might be wrong is the idea of a moral hazard. This idea is essentially that if you think you are protected such as by insurance that you are less likely to address other risk concerns because you have the illusion of safety . In this situation they might have insurance but for flooding but since they have that insurance they don't take the necessary steps to protect their house such as water proofing their house, rebuilding levees, or building a sandbag wall around your house.

Which of the following is measured by the Modified Mercali scale?

The intensity of shaking at a particular location.

Which of the following is most likely to contribute to increased avalanche hazard? You Answered

The rapid accumulation of windblown snow on slopes.

In our class, we have identified the "golden hours" following a natural disaster as a paradox for disaster relief and recovery. Why are these hours particularly problematic for both local first-responders and outside relief agencies?

The reason that these hours are problematic is because this is the time in which many of the survivors need those necessary supplies. This means that a majority of injuries are reported in the hours making first responders thin. Another reason this would effect outside relief agencies is because they might not be able to get the supplies into the country to help those people during the golden hours. An example of this is Sri Lanka where the were trying to bring in trucks to help the people but they wouldn't let them until they paid an import tax this meant that by the time the trucks got there they were as useful as they could've been. It is also hard for first responders during these hours because they usually don't have the supplies that they need such as food, water and hospital beds.

Which of the following topics would be of greatest interest for the development paradigm of natural hazards research?

Tracing patterns of economic inequality within a community, and how they affect vulnerability.

Which of the following aspects of plate tectonics produces earthquakes, but not volcanic activity?

Transform Plate Boundaries

The city of Venice, Italy, regularly experiences acqua alta floods. Which of the following factors has not contributed to these floods?

Tropical-storm rainfalls in the rivers draining into the Venetian Lagoon

Although both total declared disasters and disaster-related deaths increased during the 20th century, both have declined since the year 2000.

True

The United Nations urges countries to donate to disaster relief efforts without regard for the internal politics of recipient countries.

True

We discussed the saying that "there's no such thing as a natural disaster." This means that....

Variation in natural processes will produce extreme events; but those extremes do not become hazards or disasters until they threaten human societies.

In much of the developing world, agricultural systems have been transformed by the shift from self-sufficiency to the production of cash crops. Why is this a concern for societies' ability to cope with drought hazards?

When cash crop harvests fail, farmers have limited access to food.

Which of the following best characterizes an intensive hazard?

addressed at individual scale, following a disaster event.

Where in a tropical cyclone are winds most intense?

eyewall

Because FEMA coordinates the process of hazard mitigation planning in the United States, each U.S. county has prepared an up-to-date hazard mitigation plan.

false

Because effusive eruptions are linked to seafloor spreading, they only take place in island settings.

false

Because historical accounts of extreme events were not calculated using scientific instruments or methods, they are not included in objective risk analysis.

false

Earthquakes occur only along boundaries between tectonic plates.

false

Earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, and other tectonic hazards will not be affected by climate change.

false

Human activity is thought to have increased the magnitude and frequency of volcanic activity during the 20th Century.

false

Humans are able to control the trajectory of tropical cyclones, but not their intensity.

false

Landslides occur when cohesion forces on a slope exceed the friction forces between material and the slope base.

false

Most ancient societies feared floodwaters, and avoided settling floodplains.

false

Most counties in the United States that have experienced severe hurricanes have suffered long-term population losses.

false

Most residents of Los Angeles have chosen to reduce their earthquake vulnerability by purchasing publicly-subsidized earthquake insurance.

false

Poor land use planning has increased the likelihood of high-magnitude earthquakes in Southern California.

false

Prescribed burns have been a successful strategy for reducing wildfire hazard along the Wildland-Urban Interface.

false

Prior to the beginning of natural hazards research in the mid-20th Century, most societies understood disasters as "acts of God," and accepted their losses as natural, random, and inevitable.

false

The IPCC has concluded that as long as humans do not allow CO2 emissions to increase beyond current levels, climate change will be limited to 1.5°C by 2100.

false

The Irish Potato Famine of 1845-52 began due to an unseasonal drought in the North Atlantic.

false

The US Army Corps of Engineers works to ensure that the Mississippi River follows the shortest and steepest route to the Gulf of Mexico.

false

Why are most disaster preparedness programs considered public goods? Correct!

here is no way to restrict their benefits to those who have paid for them.

Nearly 2/3 of earthquake activity on Planet Earth takes place around the margins of which ocean?

pacific

Although databases such as EM-DAT and NATCAT record nearly all disasters declared by national governments, coverage of the economic losses associated with those disasters is far less comprehensive.

true

Although the locations of most volcanoes are well-known, it is generally not possible to precisely predict the locations that will be affected by volcanic hazards.

true

Because it is generally easy to identify landslide-prone areas, most landslides are predicted well in advance.

true

Because many semi-arid climates experience seasonal and annual precipitation variability, it is frequently difficult to identify the onset of longer-lasting wet and dry cycles.

true

Because the Mississippi River frequently overtopped its banks, early French settlers first occupied "back swamp" areas, located well away from the river.

true

El Niño cycles are marked by an extensive warming of water in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, while La Niña cycles see the Eastern Pacific cooler than usual. Correct!

true

In order to provide federally-subsidized flood insurance under the National Flood Insurance Program, FEMA requires that local governments establish land-use restrictions in floodplain areas.

true

In the U.S. National Weather Service, a hurricane warning is more severe than a hurricane watch, and prompts immediate community action.

true

The 1997 Kyoto protocol set targets for CO2 emission reduction among developed countries, but no such targets among less-developed countries.

true

The warming of the Eastern Pacific Ocean associated with El Niño years is substantially greater than that produced by climate change in the 20th Century.

true

Warm air can hold more moisture than cool air; therefore, cooling air masses typically form clouds due to condensation.

true

Identify and describe two strategies that the City of Boulder has used to reduce its vulnerability to the hazard of flooding along Boulder Creek.

two ways that boulder has reduced its valenability to the hazard of flooding alongside the Boulder creek. One being purchasing private lands within the flood-hazard zone. this strategy I think would fall under adaptation this is because Boulder county understands the risks involved with living next to the creek. Part of adaptation is land use planning this means that Boulder Knows that the land around the creek floods and have bought private residents next to the creek to use for other land use such as recreation instead of a living space to mitigate the effects of the creek flooding. Another way they are using a strategy is requiring flood-resistant construction in new buildings. Boulder county knows that the creek floods so to try to protect new buildings next to the creek they are requiring new buildings to be able to survive a flood if they are in that area.