Neuro Test 4 Review
What are AMPA + NMDA receptors? Why do we need em?
AMPA = ligand-gated, conducts Na NMDA = ligand and voltage-gated, conducts Na and Ca Need AMPA & NMDA b/c AMPA does not pass Calcium, but need depolarization through AMPA to get Mg2+ block moved
Which transplantation pair is not correct? Alzheimer's: Substantia Nigra into Striatum Parkinson's: DA into Striatum Parkinson's: Substantia Nigra into Striatum Alzheimer's: ACh into Hippocampus
Alzheimer's: Substantia Nigra into Striatum
Which of the following is NOT true? we lose thousands of neurons every day 75% of the brain's growth is due to neuronal mitotic division after birth 75% of the brain's growth is due to myelination and elongation of axons, and growth of glial cells after birth synapses are subject to strengthening throughout one's lifetime
75% of the brain's growth is due to neuronal mitotic division after birth
What are the long term memory presynaptic changes?
- amount of NT released - size of presynaptic terminal - # of axon terminals (sprouting)
What are the advantages of using invertebrate Models
-Fewer Neurons, grouped into accessible ganglia -same, identifiable, nerve cells in every Aplysia -Large Neurons -Nerve cells form same, reproducible circuits in every animal -The ability to learn
What is Associative Learning?
Associate Events Classical Conditioning - associating a stimulus that evokes a measurable response (US, unconditioned response) with a second stimulus that normally does not evoke this response (CS, conditioned response)
A convulsant drug might be one that Blocks GABA receptors in the cortex Blocks glutamate and other excitatory receptors in the cortex Causes rapid neuron death in the frontal cortex Blocks the release of serotonin
Blocks GABA receptors in the cortex
Usually, you never remember your dinner from a week back, but you have vivid memories of the food that you had last Tuesday at the fancy restaurant where you first met a dazzling person. Perhaps last Tuesday's dinner coincided with an emotionally charged event, like a first date with the love of your life. In that case, it would not be surprising if every detail of the evening was etched into your long-term memory. This demonstrates what points? The brain has mechanisms that ensure that some experiences are retained while others are lost. This example makes the point that not all memories are created equal. Neither A nor B is correct. Both A and B are correct.
Both A and B are correct.
What is a similarity between sensitization & classical conditioning?
Both involves PKA (protein kinase A)
What among the following choices is the unusual property associated with NMDA receptor that is important for LTP in the CA1? Ca2+ entry through the NMDA receptor specifically signals when presynaptic and postsynaptic elements are active at the same time Na+ and Mg2+ entry through the NMDA receptor specifically signals when presynaptic and postsynaptic elements are active at the same time Na+ and Ca2+ entry through the NMDA receptor specifically signals when presynaptic and postsynaptic elements are active at the same time Mg2+ entry through the NMDA receptor specifically signals when presynaptic and postsynaptic elements are active at the same time
Ca2+ entry through the NMDA receptor specifically signals when presynaptic and postsynaptic elements are active at the same time
What is the Bear Model?
Calcium entry triggers both LTP and LTD high-frequency stimulation (HFS) = more Ca → protein kinase → LTP low-frequency stimulation (LFS) = less Ca → protein phosphatase → LTD
Withdrawal from chronic use of depressants such as alcohol or barbiturates Can prevent epileptic seizures for up to a year, hence the high incidence of alcoholism among epileptics Can cause withdrawal seizures Can cause hallucinations of dancing pink elephants, whole rhythmic dancing causes seizures Never affects the frequency of seizures
Can cause withdrawal seizures
If a person does not respond to pharmacological treatment, ECT, or psychotherapy, what is a new alternative in treating major depressive disorder? Lobotomy Severing of the corpus callosum Yoga Deep brain stimulation
Deep brain stimulation
In Dr. Eric Kandel's words - "I entered medical school in the fall of 1952, dedicated to becoming a psychoanalyst. While in medical school I loved the clinical work but had no particular interest in basic science. In my senior year, however, I decided that perhaps even a New York psychoanalyst should know something about the brain, so I took an elective at Columbia University with the neurophysiologist Harry Grundfest." In the aftermath of this statement, what is the most relevant statement that describes Dr. Kandel's sentiments about his discovery of memory traces at the biochemical level? The spectacle of Vienna under the Nazis presented Dr. Kandel for the first time with the dark side of human behavior. How is one to understand the sudden viciousness of so many people? How could a highly cultivated society listen to Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven one day and the next day embrace the brutality of Kristallnacht? None of the above. Dr. Kandel was astonished to discover that science in the laboratory was dramatically different from taking courses and reading books. Dr. Kandel decided that to obtain insights into the human mind and its capability for good and evil, it would be better to become a psychoanalyst rather than an intellectual historian.
Dr. Kandel was astonished to discover that science in the laboratory was dramatically different from taking courses and reading books.
What two biological factors leave one more vulnerable to depression? Elevated CRH, decreased feedback inhibition of the HPA axis Decreased CRH, decreased feedback inhibition of the HPA axis Elevated CRH, increased feedback inhibition of the HPA axis Decreased CRH, increased feedback inhibition of the HPA axis
Elevated CRH, decreased feedback inhibition of the HPA axis
What is Declarative Memory?
Facts / Events, people, objects places explicit, results from conscious effort easy to form, easy to forget memory has to be accessed
Collateral Sprouting is the first step in regeneration True or False?
False
What is Hebb's rule #2?
Forgetting = synaptic weakening When the presynaptic axon is active, and, at the same time, the postsynaptic neuron is WEAKLY activated by other inputs, the synapse is weakened Or, neurons that fire out of sync lose their link!
Excitatory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus is mediated by ___________________ GABAergic receptors Dopaminergic receptors Serotonergic receptors Glutamate receptors
Glutamate receptors
Which is not a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Memory impairment Poverty of speech Reduced expression of emotion Hallucinations
Hallucinations
How do you induce LTP? How do you induce LTD?
High frequency stimulation = induce LTP Low frequency stimulation = induce LTD
Chronic stress has been shown to lead to the death of neurons in this structure: Amygdala Hippocampus Central Nucleus Prefrontal Cortex
Hippocampus
Restoration theories of sleep Hold that sleeping restores the spiritual balance of the mind and soul Hold that we sleep to restore and repair the body other than the brain Hold that we sleep to rest and recover and prepare to be awake again Hold that toxins that build up while we are awake are destroyed during sleep
Hold that we sleep to rest and recover and prepare to be awake again
What is Non-Declarative memory?
Implicit/Procedural Memory: skills and habits (Striatum) motor skills, such as riding a bike or gill withdrawal reflex (habituation) Classical conditioning -Skeletal musculature (Cerebellum) -Emotional responses (Amygdala) learned skills, movements, emotions implicit, results from direct experience requires repetition and practice, less likely to be forgotten memory not accessed consciously
What is the difference between sensitization & classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, serotonin and Ca++ act at the same time, but sensitization is a product of serotonin only
Who is Karl Lashley (1920s)?
Incorrect: All cortical areas do NOT contribute equally to all learning / memory Correct in stating that --the cortex participates in memory storage --the memory trace "engram" can be widely distributed in the brain
Antidepressants result in...(think G-protein coupled receptor pathway) Increased Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factors (BDNF) Inactivation of CREB Increased levels of glucocorticoids Atrophy of hippocampal cells
Increased Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factors (BDNF)
How can we study Learning and Memory?
Invertebrate Models -Calorifornia sea slug (Aplysia californica)
Considering Vertebrates and Invertebrates which have largely presynaptic changes and which have largely postsynaptic changes?
Invertebrates = changes are largely presynaptic Vertebrates = changes are largely postsynaptic
Inputs that fire together wire together. Where is this Hebbian prediction best demonstrated in the hippocampus? LTP in CA2 LTP in Dentate Gyrus LTP in CA3 LTP in CA1
LTP in CA1
What is Hebb's rule #1?
Learning = synaptic strengthening Pre and postsynaptic coactivation "When an axon of cell A excites a cell B and repeatedly and persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased." Or, when the presynaptic axon is active, and, at the same time, the postsynaptic neuron is STRONGLY activated by other inputs, the synapse is strengthened. Or, neurons that fire together, wire together!
What was the first good lab model for studying Parkinson's disease? MPTP-treated mice dopamine transporter knock-in mice reserpine-treated mice MPTP-treated C. elegans
MPTP-treated mice
Lithium was first used to treat: Mania Anxiety Depression Schizophrenia
Mania
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) The main side effect of ECT is ______________ due to possible effects to the ___________. Memory loss; hypothalamus Depression; hippocampus Anxiety; amygdala Memory loss; hippocampus
Memory loss; hippocampus
When NMDA receptors are activated and LOTS of Ca2+ enters a neuron, calmodulin-dependent kinase II is activated. This activated kinase can lead to synaptic modification by which of the following mechanisms? Phosphorylating AMPA receptors Releasing calcium from internal stores Inserting additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane More than one of the above (A and C) All of the above
More than one of the above (A and C)
Which of the following is NOT crucial for LTP? glutamate binding to NMDA receptors NMDA receptor internalization Ca++ influx into the post-synaptic cell concurrent depolarization of the pre and post-synaptic cell More than one of the above are NOT crucial for LTP
NMDA receptor internalization
Genetically engineered mice were bred to express fewer of these receptors to provide an animal model of the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia: Serotonin receptors GABA receptors NMDA receptors D2 receptors
NMDA receptors
Aguayo's studies showed that CNS neurons can never truly regenerate PNS neurons can never truly regenerate CNS neurons are able to resume growth and form functional synapses if they are allowed to grow in a PNS environment. PNS neurons can regenerate if there are Schwann cells to guide them.
PNS neurons can regenerate if there are Schwann cells to guide them.
During non-REM sleep, physiological control mechanisms are dominated by the Parasympathetic division of the ANS Cerebellum Enteric division of the ANS Sympathetic division of the ANS
Parasympathetic division of the ANS
What is Learning
Process whereby we acquire new information about the world Most of the knowledge we have about the world we learned A molecular problem involving a change in synaptic strength
A common brain structure abnormality among schizophrenic patients is: Reduced cerebellar cortex thickness. Reduced cortical thickness. Smaller ventricle-to-brain-size ratio. No structural abnormalities have been observed, even at the microscopic level.
Reduced cortical thickness.
What is Habituation? What are the steps?
Repeated Stimulation of Siphon --> Less contraction of Gill Muscle Repeated Stimulation --> Response weakens 1. Ca2+ channels in axon terminal of sensory neuron open less often when they are repeatedly opened and closed (become "rusty" or "worn out") 2. Less opening of Ca2+ channels --> reduced inward Ca2+ current --> lower presynaptic [Ca2+ ] --> less NT 3. Less activation of the motor neuron, Less withdrawal of gill muscle 4. Habituation
The most sophisticated understanding of long-term potentiation (LTP) has come from studying the _____________________ on the __________________ in brain slice preparations Schaffer collateral synapses, Dentate Gyrus neurons CA3 synapses, CA1 pyramidal neurons Schaffer collateral synapses, CA1 pyramidal neurons CA1 pyramidal neurons, Schaffer collateral synapses
Schaffer collateral synapses, CA1 pyramidal neurons
Although the mechanism of action of antidepressant drug effectiveness is still not completely known, it seems that over time the buildup of this neurotransmitter leads to an increased number of glucocorticoid receptors, helping to reduce HPA axis activity. GABA Serotonin Dopamine Norepinephrine
Serotonin
What is the usual flow of the HPA axis in response to a stressor? Stress →CRH released from hypothalamus →ACTH released from pituitary →Cortisol released from adrenal gland into the bloodstream Stress →ACTH released from hypothalamus →CRH released from pituitary →Cortisol released from adrenal gland into the bloodstream Stress →CRH released from hypothalamus →Cortisol released from pituitary →ACTH released from adrenal gland into the bloodstream Stress →ACTH released from hypothalamus →CRH released from pituitary →Cortisol released from adrenal gland into the bloodstream
Stress →CRH released from hypothalamus →ACTH released from pituitary →Cortisol released from adrenal gland into the bloodstream
What is Sensitization? What are the steps?
Strong, noxious stimulus --> strong response returns Apply a brief electrical shock to the head of Aplysia 5-HT is released presynaptically by L29 onto the sensory neuron A G-protein coupled receptor is activated by 5-HT --> activating of Adenylyl Cyclase --> production of cAMP from AMP --> activating Protein Kinase A (PkA) Protein Kinase A attaches PO4 to K+ channels, CLOSING them A decrease in K+ conductance prolongs the AP More Ca++ entry --> more NT release per AP and --> the gill withdrawal reflex is restored
The gill-withdrawal reflex when the siphon is touched was extensively studied by Dr. Kandel. Which of the following statements completely defines either the complete reflex or discoveries associated with it? Synaptic connections between neurons are mutable; they cannot be modified in learning, and those anatomical modifications are likely to subserve memory storage. Synaptic connections between neurons are not immutable; they can be modified in learning, however those anatomical modifications are not likely to subserve memory storage. Synaptic connections between neurons are mutable; they can be modified in learning, and those anatomical modifications are likely to subserve memory storage. Synaptic connections between neurons are not mutable; they can be modified in learning, and those anatomical modifications are likely to subserve memory storage.
Synaptic connections between neurons are mutable; they can be modified in learning, and those anatomical modifications are likely to subserve memory storage.
The main difference between a generalized seizure and a partial seizure is That the first is caused by chemical imbalances and the second is causes by tumors That a generalized seizure involved the entire cerebral cortex and a partial seizure involves a localized area That a generalized seizure can be reported verbally by the patient but a partial seizure cannot None of the above
That a generalized seizure involved the entire cerebral cortex and a partial seizure involves a localized area
How can the same signal, Ca2+ entry through the ionotropic receptor, trigger both LTP and LTD? The key difference lies in the level of AMPA receptor activation. The key difference lies in the level of metabotropic receptor activation. The key difference lies in the level of ionotropic receptor activation The key difference lies in the level of NMDA receptor activation.
The key difference lies in the level of NMDA receptor activation.
Which of the following statements accurately describes a difference between LTP and LTD in the hippocampus? Entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic cell is a trigger for LTP but not for LTD. The molecular events leading to LTP include the formation of a Ca2+-calmodulin complex, while the molecular events leading to LTD do not. LTP involves modification of membrane protein channels, while LTD does not. LTP depends on glutamate binding to NMDA receptors, while LTD does not. The molecular events leading to LTP include activation of a kinase, while the molecular events leading to LTD include activation of a phosphatase.
The molecular events leading to LTP include activation of a kinase, while the molecular events leading to LTD include activation of a phosphatase.
Some researchers, led by Eric Kandel of Columbia University, initiated a study of the nervous systems by investigating simple invertebrate systems animals for insights into the molecular mechanisms of memory. Why do you think that the researchers selected an invertebrate model rather than a vertebrate model? The reason for using them is that invertebrates have some important experimental advantages, including reproducible connections between neurons, and complex genetics. The reason for using them is that invertebrates have some important experimental advantages, including small nervous systems with large neurons. The reason for using them is that invertebrates have some important experimental advantages, including unknown and reproducible connections between neurons. The reason for using them is that vertebrates have no important experimental advantages.
The reason for using them is that invertebrates have some important experimental advantages, including small nervous systems with large neurons.
What are the short-term memory changes?
They're all post-synaptic! - phosphorylation of AMPA receptors - externalization of AMPA and NMDA receptors
What is Classical Conditioning?
US= strong shock of tail R= withdrawal of gill CS= gentle stimulation of siphon CS+US --> greater activation of adenylyl cyclase than only one, since CS increases Ca2+ current in presynaptic cell Higher [Ca2+] increases adenylyl cyclase sensitivity to G-protein activation Learning: presynaptic Ca2+ pulse coincides with adenylyl cyclase activation by G-protein --> HIGH [cAMP] --> HIGH protein kinase activity (PKA is also related to sensitization!) --> more NT
NMDA receptors are activated by simultaneous presynaptic and postsynaptic activity. Choose the correct sequence of events that leads to conduction via the NMDA receptors a. Presynaptic activation causes the release of glutamate, which acts on postsynaptic AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors b. At the negative resting membrane potential, the NMDA receptors pass little ionic current because they are blocked with Mg2+ c. When glutamate release coincides with depolarization sufficient to displace the Mg2+, then Ca2+ enters the postsynaptic neuron via the NMDA receptor b->a->c a->c->b a->b->c c->b->a
a->b->c
Which of the following are components of true regeneration? sprouting axonal elongation synapse formation all of above
all of above
Acute management of strokes includes neuroflo tissue plasminogen activators MERCI retrieval system a cooling helmet more than one of the above (but not all) all of the above
all of the above
The brain is particularly vulnerable because of its division of function general lack of cell division of neurons after birth unique blood supply physical constraints of space-limited skull all of the above
all of the above
Which of the following experimental manipulations would block LTP in a hippocampal slice preparation? removing all Ca2+ from the solution bathing the slice adding an antagonist for NMDA receptors adding a calmodulin-binding protein that prevents calmodulin from forming a complex with Ca2+ ions a & c all of the above
all of the above
Bill Clinton used to take his dog jogging with him. Every time Clinton jogged he stopped at the local McDonalds for a Big Mac hamburger which he shared with his dog. The dog began salivating every time Clinton put on his jogging shoes. This type of learning is referred to as associative learning sensitization habituation nonassociative learning
associative learning
Which regenerative capability makes the CNS modulatory fiber systems (noradrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, ect) different from the capabilities of other normal CNS axons? synaptic strengthening axonal elongation arborization wallerian degeneration
axonal elongation
Weston was diagnosed with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. He likely portrays which of the following? recurrent, intrusive thoughts repetitive behaviors a hypoactive HPA axis an infection of the brain with Treponema pallidum both A and B none of the above
both A and B
How does the hippocampus regulate the HPA axis? by detecting cortisol levels and inhibiting adrenal gland activity by detecting glucocorticoids and activating the hypothalamus by detecting CRH and increasing release of ACTH by detecting glucocorticoids and inhibiting the hypothalamus
by detecting glucocorticoids and inhibiting the hypothalamus
What is the leading cause of death due to brain disease? ischemia aneurism cerebral hemorrhage epidural hematoma
cerebral hemorrhage
What is Non-associative learning?
change in behavioral response that occurs over time in response to a single type of stimulus -Habituation - learning to ignore a stimulus -Sensitization - learning to intensify a response to stimulus that previously evoked little or no reaction
The correct spectrum order of states of awareness, as defined by the Glasgow coma scale is consciousness <-> drowsiness <-> obtundation <-> stupor <-> unconsciousness consciousness <-> stupor <-> drowsiness <-> unconsciousness <-> obtundation drowsiness <-> consciousness <-> stupor <-> obtundation <-> unconsciousness none of the above.
consciousness <-> drowsiness <-> obtundation <-> stupor <-> unconsciousness
Long Term Memory?
days, months, years Hippocampus Remembering your sister's name
When the brain is in deep sleep, the EEG is most likely to show beta waves delta waves alpha waves theta waves
delta waves
Neurology is a branch of medicine that is concerned with the method by which neurons fire their action potentials diagnosis and treatment of mental (psyche) disorders diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders agoraphobia and panic attacks
diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders
Which of the following is not a symptom of Huntington's disease: psychosis chorea cell death dopamine transporter downregulation dementia
dopamine transporter downregulation
Which of the following is NOT a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease? dopaminergic dysfunction amyloid beta plaques cholinergic dysfunction tau neurofibrillary tangles
dopaminergic dysfunction
At Brown, Dr. Smith was involved in neural transplantation experiments. These studies involved implementing _____ tissue into ______ host cortex, in order to restore function to brains that have sustained damaged. synthetic, embryonic embryonic, adult adult, adult astrocytoma precursor, adult
embryonic, adult
Bipolar Disorder is a mood disorder characterized by episodes of mania and others of depression. severe insomnia that is nearly lethal two distinct personalities, each with their own pattern of interacting with the environment mixed episodes of major depression and normal mood levels
episodes of mania and others of depression.
Anxiolytics decrease anxiety by _____ transmission at _____ synapses. facilitating ... dopamine inhibiting ... serotonin facilitating ... GABA inhibiting ... norepinephrine
facilitating ... GABA
NMDA receptors are coincidence detectors; that is, in order for Ca2+ to enter through NMDA receptor channels, two conditions must be met simultaneously at the postsynaptic membrane. These conditions are: glutamate binding to the NMDA receptor and chlorine ion flux through AMPA receptor channels glutamate binding to the NMDA receptor and depolarization of the cell membrane. depolarization of the cell membrane and removal of the Mg2+ block from the NMDA receptor glutamate binding to the NMDA receptor and inactivation of AMPA receptors
glutamate binding to the NMDA receptor and depolarization of the cell membrane.
Regeneration occurs where in the CNS in the PNS in both the CNS and PNS
in the PNS
What is the most common method of treating Parkinson's disease? decreasing acetylcholine in striatal neurons decreasing dopamine in the striatum increasing dopamine in the striatum increasing acetylcholine in striatal neurons downregulating acetylcholine receptors in the globus pallidus
increasing dopamine in the striatum
The action of MAO inhibitors (Monoamine oxidase inhibitors) is ultimately destroying catecholamines and serotonin within neurons increasing serotonin and norepinephrine in the synapse blocking dopamine receptors increasing externalization of membrane receptors
increasing serotonin and norepinephrine in the synapse
Epilepsy is the name of a symptom, the occurrence of repeated seizures only occurs in the most intelligent 1% of the population is a viral disease has no genetic basis
is the name of a symptom, the occurrence of repeated seizures
A reduction in the amount of dopamine in the substantia nigra leads to ______ inhibitory input to the ______. less, hippocampus less, striatum more, striatum more, hippocampus
less, striatum
The _________ controls breathing, heart rate, and other vegetative functions. foramen magnum temporal lobe upper brainstem lower brainstem
lower brainstem
Which of the following is an endogenous blocker of the NMDA channel? magnesium alcohol calcium glycine sodium
magnesium
Short Term Memory?
minutes/hours -Forgettable -Prefrontal Cortex Remembering someone's name the next day
Which of the following is not a component of regeneration? axonal elongation mitosis sprouting synapse formation
mitosis
A method to improve the functioning of rats with a syndrome similar to Parkinson's is administration of L-dopa administration of dopamine transplantation of embryonic substantia nigra into adult striatum more than one of the above (A and C)
more than one of the above (A and C)
Schizophrenia is characterized by all features EXCEPT large heritability factor "positive" symptoms of hallucinations, delusions, grossly disorganized speech "negative" symptoms of flat affect, lack of motivation multiple personalities
multiple personalities
The neurons most critical to controlling sleep-wake cycles are part of the diffuse modulatory neurotransmitter systems in the putamen part of the autonomic nervous system found in the temporal lobe
part of the diffuse modulatory neurotransmitter systems
Forest Gump, after returning from war, suffers from visions of lying in a muddy ditch, with explosions going off in the distance and bullets whizzing over his head. These "reliving" thoughts are symptoms of panic disorder bipolar disorder OCD posttraumatic stress disorder
posttraumatic stress disorder
What is Memory?
process whereby we retain that information over time We are who we are because of what we learn / what we remember a molecular problem - what are the molecular mechanisms whereby that storage occurs at each site? AND a systems problem - Where in the brain are various memories stored?
Psychotherapy is a treatment that relies on deep brain stimulation electroshock therapy to "re-set" the brain reducing subjective sense of discomfort by talking medication targeting synapses in the brain
reducing subjective sense of discomfort by talking
The most dangerous aspect of having a space occupying mass in the brain is risk of brain stem herniation "suffocation" of neurons increase in conductance of action potentials, inducing seizures none of the above
risk of brain stem herniation
What is working memory?
seconds -Repetition -Prefrontal Cortex repeating a phone number 30 seconds later
Which of the following is not a reason why homografts for Parkinson's disease are controversial? there is little histological evidence for improvement surgery can cause death small sample size questionable methodology in terms of treatment regimen
small sample size
Which of the following is NOT a reason why the brain is vulnerable: the brain is oxygenated by thin-walled arteries the skull makes brain swelling dangerous the brain is non-homogenous the brain receives less blood than other organs
the brain receives less blood than other organs
As you struggle to stay awake last night studying for this exam, you relied on your reticular activating system (RAS) which is the diffuse modulatory systems using ACh and serotonin that modulate brain sleep/wake states the collection of brainstem nuclei that produce wakefulness when stimulated the collection of basal ganglia responsible for wakefulness the thalamic nuclei that switch from spiking to burst mode to induce wakefulness
the collection of brainstem nuclei that produce wakefulness when stimulated
Concerning non-REM sleep it is about 25% of a typical night's sleep time stage 4 shows higher heart rate and body temperature than stage 1 there are sometimes dreams there is atonia
there are sometimes dreams
Weston has fallen to the ground and you suspect that he has had a stroke. You see that his pupils are different sizes. What should you do? think F.A.S.T. (Face, Arms, Smile, Time) give him Advil run away pour a bucket of water on him give him vinyl chloride to slow his blood
think F.A.S.T. (Face, Arms, Smile, Time)
Which of the following is not a state of consciousness: drowsiness or agitation torpor stupor consciousness
torpor
Which of the following could lead to a coma: widespread interruption of neuronal function small lesions in the brain stem small lesions to the cerebral cortex two of the above none of the above
two of the above
Who is Donald Hebb (1949 most famous publication)?
• How external events are represented in the activity of the brain • The internal representation of an object consists of all the cortical cells that are activated by the external stimulus, called the CELL ASSEMBLEY. • All the cells within a cell assembly are reciprocally interconnected • Persistent activation would result in consolidation via a "growth process"
What is LTP as a model of synaptic plasticity?
• LTP induced by a brief tetanus, lasting less than a second • LTP longevity - can last many weeks, perhaps a lifetime • High frequency stimulation not a requirement • What is required is that synapse be ACTIVE when the postsynaptic element is strongly depolarized • Temporal summation and spatial summation of EPSP's from many synapses (cooperativity)