NRM 1300 - Final Exam

sustainable yield

the highest rate at which we can use a renewable resource indefinitely w/o reducing its available supply

Umbrella species

typically large & require a lot of habitat. • By protecting this larger area, other species are protected as well. • generally have the following characteristics: - biology is well known, - easily observed or sampled, - have large home ranges, - migratory, - long lifespan.

aquifer

underground soil or rock through which groundwater can easily move. The amount of groundwater that can flow through soil or rock depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.

flammable

a substance is anything that is likely to catch on fire

Invasive species: Chemical

use of pesticides - There are many kinds of herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, and not all of them will be appropriate for every situation.

steps in developing environmental policy

1. Problem recognition 2. Policy formulation 3. Policy implementation 4. Policy adjustment

Famine

"Famine is like insanity, hard to define but glaring enough when recognized. ... One country will define as food shortage what another country would call famine". True famine is shortage of total food so extreme and protracted as to result in widespread persisting hunger, notable emaciation in many of the affected population, and a considerable elevation of community death rate attributable at least in part to deaths from starvation.

Laws of energy

(first and second law of thermodynamics): 1. Conservation of energy, cannot be created or destroyed. • whenever energy is converted from one form to another in physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed. 2. Energy always moves from state of order to disorder. • states that "in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state. Energy always moves from state of order to disorder (spontaneous). It takes work (external) to go from disorder to order. Some energy used in work lost as heat.

Trophic levels

- At each level, called a trophic level, about 90% of the energy is lost. - Only 10% of the energy in one trophic level is ever passed to the next. • So, if a plant captures 1000 calories of solar energy, a bug that eats the plant will only obtain 100 calories of energy. • A chicken that eats the bug will only obtain 10 calories, and a human that eats the chicken will only obtain 1 calorie of the original 1000 calories of solar energy captured by the plant.

Invasive species: physical

- Manual method techniques include activities such as: • hand-pulling, • digging, • flooding, • mulching, • burning, • removal of alternate hosts • manual destruction or removal of nests, egg masses or other life stages. • work best on small pops or in areas where chemicals or motorized equipment cannot be used. - Mechanical Methods techniques include: • hoeing, • cutting, • girdling, • tilling, • mowing, • chopping • constructing barriers using tools or machines.

Four greatest risks in terms of shortened life spans are

- Poverty - Being born male, - Smoking - Being obese

Invasive species: management

- Prevention is the most effective option for managing invasive species - early detection is key • once populations are established, local control is about the only option • Local control is costly - Eradication is likely impossible or prohibitively costly - Managers are always interested in new and cheaper options

Environmental effects

- Renewable forests shrinking - Expansion of deserts - Erosion of top soil - Warming of temperature - Melting of ice - Sea level rising - Acidifying ocean - Floods - Droughts - Severe weather - Forest fires - Dry running rivers - Decrease in fish harvest - Dying coral reefs

Impacts of modern agriculture - watering

- Soil salinity increases - Water table depletion - Soil erosion - Nutrient depletion

Selection cut

- a regeneration cut designed to create & perpetuate an unevenaged forest. Trees removed singly or in small groups. - Usually removes lesser quality trees along w/ a few high quality trees. - Opens up forest to promote new growth & leaves high quality trees behind for seed trees. 1. Group Selection System: • the harvest of mature trees & thinning of intermediate trees at relatively short intervals on a repetitive basis • supports natural regeneration and reestablishment of a sustainable mixed-age stand • advantageous to wildlife that have adapted to the habitat conditions of an older forest 2. Single Tree Selection System: • highly selective system calls for the removal of individual trees, leaving the majority of the trees on a site standing • This system has been to remove dead & diseased trees from the forest, improving overall forest health

Environment

- everything around us - It includes the living and the nonliving things (air, water and energy) with which we interact in a complex web of relationships that connect us to one another and to the world we live in

Forest services

- habitat for 2/3 of terrestrial species - home for more than 300 million people - source of health benefits • traditional medicines/prescription drugs - Tree harvesting is 1 of the main benefits human gain - Ecosystem services: • support chemical cycling, reduce soil erosion, absorb & release water, purify air, influence climate, store carbon, wildlife habitat - Economic services: • fuel, lumber, pump, mining, livestock grazing, recreation, jobs

Impacts of modern agriculture

- pesticides - fertilizers • Groundwater pollution • Eutrophication - watering

Main five mass extinctions

1) Cretaceous (~65m yrs ago) 2) Triassic (~208m yrs ago) 3) Periman (~245m yrs ago) 4) Devonian (~360m yrs ago) 5) Ordovician (~438m yrs ago)

Types of forest

1) Old growth or primary forest 2) second-growth forest 3) tree plantation or commercial forest

IPCC Key insights

1. Climate change is now everywhere. Impacts have been found on every continent & across all oceans. 2. Humans & ecosystems are both vulnerable. - Climate events alter ecosystems: • disrupt food production • water supply • damage infrastructure & settlements • cause sickness and mortality • adversely affect mental health &human livelihood 3. Food security, water resources, human health, ecosystems, & the economy are all at stake. - Runaway' warming (a global temp increase of 4˚C above pre-industrial levels) the impacts may grow larger than our capacity to adapt. 4. Many global risks of climate change are concentrated in urban areas. - Heat stress, - extreme precipitation, - inland & coastal flooding, - landslides, - air pollution, - drought, - water scarcity 5. Building resilience is critical to limiting risks. - Even the most rigorous mitigation tactics still won't eliminate some additional warming. 6. Cutting heat-trapping gas emissions is essential. - Delaying mitigation actions will likely reduce options for climate-resilient pathways, and make them much less affordable. - ex.'s of actions that build resilience and cut gas emissions include: improved energy efficiency and cleaner energy sources.

What climate changes are happening now?

1. Glacier melts 2. sea-level rise

Deforestation and its effect

1. Loss of Habitat: - the loss of animal & plant species due to their loss of habitat 2. Climate Imbalance: - Trees release water vapor in the air, also provide the required shade that keeps the soil moist. - This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature further making conditions for the ecology difficult. 3. Increase in Global Warming: - Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees utilize the green house gases, restoring the balance in the atmosphere. - With constant deforestation the ratio of green house gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes. 4. Soil Erosion: - due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. - W/ the clearance of tree cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry. 5. Floods: - When it rains, trees absorb & store large amts of water with the help of their roots. - When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted & leads to floods or droughts 6. Wildlife Extinction: - Due to massive cutting down of trees, various species of animals are lost. - they lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. - Some even pushed to extinction.

Mechanisms of evolution

1. Natural selection 2. Mutation 3. Migration 4. Genetic drift

Types of environmental hazards

1. Physical hazards 2. Chemical hazards 3. Biological hazards 4. Cultural hazards

The process of Restoration Ecology

1. Site assessment • Involves biotic and abiotic conditions • What is there/was there/could be there • Extends to landscape that surrounds focal site • Often includes a regional reference of historical conditions 2. Setting goals • Rarely can we completely restore a historic ecosystem • Must define a clear goal of restoration • Taking into account resource limitations, compromises among participants & stakeholders 3. Design • level of genetics to ecosystem processes • Hydrology, geology, soil chemistry can all be very important • Often identifying & focusing on the few processes critical for achieving goals 4. Implementation • Can involve complicated & energy-intensive actions or fairly simple approaches, depending on the project • Must be amendable to changing plans as the project proceeds 5. Monitoring & Adaptive management • Allow repeated assessments of progress & changing of management strategies to facilitate goals • Common problem of colonization by disturbance-adapted invasive species during restoration • Effective projects should have long-term vision, monitoring and management

types of mineral mining

1. Surface mining- shallow mineral deposits removed, veg soil and rock are cleared away. 2. Open-pit mining- machines used to dig very large holes and remove metal resources 3. Strip mining- any form of mining involving extraction of mineral deposits that lie in large horizontal beds close to earths surface 4. Mountaintop removal- top of mountain is removed to expose coal that is then extracted 5. Subsurface mining- underground minerals removed through tunnels and shafts- less disturbance for environment, but more hazards for miners

agricultural period

2nd period of human population growth. - ranges from 10,000 years ago to about 1,000 years ago. - During this time period, the human population started to grow more rapidly due to advances in agriculture. - It was during this time that plants and animals were domesticated for farming. - There were also advances in irrigation and plowing techniques that increased overall crop yield. - As a result of increased food availability and more nutritious food, the human population grew faster than ever.

Industrial Period

3rd period of human population growth. - is from 1,000 years ago to current day - characterized by advances in technology. - Although there were advances in technology during the early part of this period, it wasn't until the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s that the advances in technology started to have a profound influence on the human population. - As a result of the technological advances of the industrial period, the human population grew at a rapid pace.

Famine success

A 2000 report from the World Resource Institute reveals: On average, per capita food production is 24% higher than in 1961. Prices are 40% lower. Dramatic increases in cereal-grain yields in many countries, beginning in the late 1960s > 1000%. Markedly reduced hunger > 20%

Growth and Development

A country's economic growth is usually indicated by an increase in that country's gross domestic product, or GDP. Generally speaking, gross domestic product is an economic model that reflects the value of a country's output. In other words, a country's GDP is the total monetary value of the goods and services produced by that country over a specific period of time. In the United States, our periods of large economic growth are mostly associated with new technology. The Industrial Revolution and the development of the Internet are two examples. When new developments bring an increase in output capacity, economic growth usually follows

Point source pollution

A single identifiable source of pollution. • examples: - smokestack of coal burning industry - drainage of factory - exhaust pipe

Keystone species

A species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is much larger than would be expected from its abundance. • By saving this species, you are saving habitat, prey, predators, interactions, etc... For all dependent species. • Examples- otters, prairie dogs, honeybees.

Water budget

A water budget is an accounting of all the water that flows into and out of a certain area. This area can be a wetland, a lake, or any other point of interest. Development can alter the natural supply of water and severely impact an area, especially if there are nearby ponds or wetlands. A water budget is needed to determine the magnitude of these impacts and to evaluate possible mitigation actions. A water budget describes the various components of the hydrologic cycle. The water budget typically includes: • Precipitation (P) • Evaporation (E) • Evapotranspiration (ET) • Surface runoff (SRO) • Groundwater flow (GF) The water budget is expressed as an equation relating these components: ΔS = P - E - ET ± SRO ± GF where ΔS is the change in storage

Environmental problems

According to a # of environmental and social scientists, the major causes of environmental problems we face are: 1. Population growth 2. Wasteful and unsustainable resource use (affluence) 3. Poverty 4. Failure to include costs in market prices 5. Increasing isolation from nature

Nonrenewable Resources use

Alternative energy sources, including nuclear and geothermal, that are dependent on fuels or a resource that may be used up much faster than it is replenished by natural processes • Each person in the US uses 22 metric tons of mineral resources per year • US imports all of its supplies of 20 key nonrenewable mineral resources and more than 90% of its supply of 4 other key minerals • Serious concerns about access to adequate supply of four strategic metal resources- Mn, Co, Cr, and Pt which are essential for the country's economic and military strength.

Indirect costs

An effect not normally accounted for in the cost-revenue analysis of producers and often not recognized by them as part of their costs and benefits • Harmful side effects felt by people not involved in the market transaction

Environmental science

An interdisciplinary study of how humans interact with living and nonliving parts of their environment. It integrates information from the natural, social science and humanities 1. Goals: Learn how life on earth has survived and thrived 2. Understand how we interact with the environment 3. Find ways to deal with environmental problems and live more sustainably

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is a thin spherical envelop of gases surrounding the earth's surface. - Troposphere • inner layer • contains the air we breathe - Stratosphere • The next layer • Its lower portion holds enough ozone (O3) gas to filter about 95% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This global sunscreen allows life to exist on the surface of the planet.

Types of nonrenewable resoures

Examples include, Energy resources such as coal and oil, metallic mineral resources such as copper and aluminum, and nonmetallic resources such as salt and sand.

Biomagnification

Because of DDT's chemical properties, it has the tendency to accumulate in animals. As other animals higher up eat animals lower on the food chain, DDT becomes concentrated in the fatty tissues of the predators. This continues until reaching the primary predator of the food chain, who receives the highest dose of DDT, sometimes leading to adverse health effects. Once the use of DDT was discontinued in the U.S., its concentration in the environment and animals decreased.

coal

Coal is a fossil fuel formed by the accumulation and decomposition of plant material over millions of years. The energy of the sun is used by plants to extract carbon from carbon dioxide gas in the air. The plants then grow by turning that carbon into leaves, wood and flowers. The plants die and are buried and sometimes turn into coal. When we burn the coal the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and it is returned to the air. The quality of coal reserves is variable, with black coal having the highest energy content. Coal has a number of uses. Coal is used in power stations. It is sometimes used for heating in homes, or for district heating in cold climates, and often as a source of heat for industry. Metallurgical coal is used in the process of making steel. Other uses are to produce fertilizers, drugs, dyes, soap, tar, gas, creosol, disinfectant and pesticides.

Interference

Competition may also occur through more direct interactions such as in interspecific territoriality or in the production of toxins, in which case it is termed interference competition.

population growth

Exponential growth in which some quantity, such as population size increases at a constant rate per unit time

Pollution

Contamination of the environment by any chemical or other agent such us noise or heat to a level that is harmful to the health, survival or activities of humans or other organisms

Correlation vs. causation

Correlation: Two or more things or events tend to occur at about the same time and might be associated with each other, but isn't necessarily connected by a cause/effect relationship. Causation: When specific action caused a second event to happen. when specific action caused a second event to happen. - So if 2 events happened at the same time, it doesn't mean than 1 causes the other. - For instance, in sick people, a runny nose and a sore throat correlate to each other--they tend to show up in the same patients. That doesn't mean runny noses cause sore throats, or that sore throats cause runny noses.

Non-point source pollution

Dispersed and often difficult to identify. • examples: - pesticides - runoff fertilizers - trash from land to streams and lakes

Evolution

Evolution is the process whereby the earth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations of organisms in succeeding generation. • important for all of the biological sciences, including environmental science • It touches lots of aspects including ecological theory, economic theory, conservation, pest control, public health, and range management

food web

Ecologists use food webs to better understand the intricate workings of the ecosystems they study. • Understanding exactly who is eating whom can provide valuable information for conservation biologists as well. • uncovering food webs goes a long way to understanding the first half of an ecosystem, the community.

Environmental degradation and effects

Environmental (Natural Capital) degradation: - depletion or destruction of potentially renewable resources • such us: soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife that is used faster than it is naturally replenish. - Species are becoming extinct at least 100 times faster than in pre-human times, and extinctions rates are projected to increase by at least another 100-fold during this century due to environmental degradation

Concerns of Pesticides

Environmental concern: - Pesticides are toxic chemicals deliberately released by design into the environment. Although each pesticide is meant to kill a certain pest, a very large percentage of pesticides reach a destination other than their target. Instead, they enter the air, water, sediments, and even end up in our food. Pesticides easily contaminate the air, ground and water when they run off from fields, escape storage tanks, if not discarded properly and especially when they are sprayed aerially. Non-target organisms concern: - The effect of pesticides on non-target organisms has been a source of worldwide attention and concern for decades. Adverse effects of applied pesticides on non-target arthropods have been widely reported. Unfortunately, natural insect enemies e.g., parasitoids and predators are most susceptible to insecticides and are severely affected. The destruction of natural enemies can exacerbate pest problems as they play an important role in regulating pest population levels. Usually, if natural enemies are absent, additional insecticide sprays are required to control the target pest. In some cases, natural enemies that normally keep minor pests under check are also affected and this can result in secondary pest outbreaks. Along with natural enemies, population of soil arthropods is also drastically disturbed because of indiscriminate pesticide application in agricultural systems. Pollution concern: - Pesticides are a cause of pollution, affecting land and water in particular. The problem is huge and growing. In the US pesticides pollution has been found in nearly every lake, river and stream, according to a US Geological Survey in the 1990s. Other nations are affected badly, too. Pesticides cause pollution by running off agricultural fields and from horticultural land and domestic gardens, too. Rainwater washes the chemicals into nearby water sources. Disruption of Natural ecosystem concern: - Soil invertebrates including nematodes, springtails, mites, micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and other small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues etc. They are essential for the maintenance of soil structure, transformation and mineralization of organic matter. Pesticide effects on soil arthropods therefore negatively impact several links in the food web.

IPAT Model

Environmental impact (I) = Population (P) x affluence (A) x Technology (T) - 1st proposed by Paul Ehrlich & John Holdren in the early 1970s as a way to calculate the impact of humans on the environments. • Environmental impact (I) may be expressed in terms of resource depletion or waste accumulation; • population (P) refers to the size of the human population; • affluence (A) refers to the level of consumption by that population; • technology (T) refers to the processes used to obtain resources and transform them into useful goods and wastes.

Impacts of modern agriculture - fertilizers: eutrophication

Eutrophication is the enrichment of water by the addition of nutrients. The extra nutrients encourage the growth of algal blooms, particularly in stagnant water. Blue-green algae may produce toxins poisonous to animals, including humans. For these algae to grow, phosphorus must be present in the water above a certain level.

species evenness

Evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the diff species making up the richness of an area. • example: 2 diff fields for wildflowers. - 1st field consists of 300 daisies, 335 dandelions and 365 buttercups. - 2nd field comprises 20 daisies, 49 dandelions and 931 buttercups - Both samples have 1000 individuals - 1st sample has more evenness than the 2nd. - bc the total # of individuals in the sample is evenly distributed btw the 3 species. - 2nd sample, most are buttercups, w/ only a few daisies and dandelions present.

forest fires

Fire is neither innately good nor bad; it is just an agent of change. - Most animal species respond predictably to the passage of fire, although the responses vary among species. • Some flee, seek refuge, or rescue young. • Other species are attracted to burning areas (forage during fires or feed on charcoal and ash after fires) - Mortality levels are generally low. - The effect of fire on cover & food sources is substantial and generally positive even if it varies across the landscapes. - Effects on individuals may be substantially different than effects on populations.

Economic flaws

Flaw 1: Short Time Horizons Flaw 2: Assuming Infinite Growth Flaw 3: Ignored Costs

GMOs

GMOs (or "genetically modified organisms") are living organisms whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering, or GE. This relatively new science creates unstable combinations of plant, animal, bacteria and viral genes that do not occur in nature or through traditional crossbreeding methods. Virtually all-commercial GMOs are engineered to withstand direct application of herbicide and/or an insecticide. Despite biotech industry promises, none of the GMO traits currently on the market offer increased yield, drought tolerance, enhanced nutrition, or any other consumer benefit. Meanwhile, a growing body of evidence connects GMOs with health problems, environmental damage and violation of farmers' and consumers' rights

Sea-level rise

Global sea lvl has already risen by 4 to 8 ins in the past century, and the pace of sea level rise appears to be accelerating. • IPCC predicts that sea levels could rise 10 to 23 ins by 2100. • In the 1990s, the Greenland ice mass remained stable, but the ice sheet has increasingly declined in recent yrs. - This melting currently contributes an estimated 100th of an inch per yr to global sea level rise. • Greenland holds 10% of the total global ice mass. If it melts, sea levels could increase by up to 21 feet.

DDT

In 1939, Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller (1899-1965) discovered that DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) was highly poisonous to insects. The discovery was very important because of its potential for use in killing insects that cause disease and eat agricultural crops. For his work, Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1948. DDT was initially used with great effect to combat malaria, typhus, and the other insect-borne human diseases among both military and civilian populations. It also was effective for insect control in crop and livestock production, institutions, homes, and gardens. DDT's quick success as a pesticide and broad use in the United States and other countries led to the development of resistance by many insect pest species. Important characteristics that promoted the use of DDT at the beginning are: ! Broad spectrum ! Low mammalian toxicity ! Persistent in environment ! Not water soluble ! Inexpensive ! Easy application ! Increased crop yields ! Malaria control ! Delousing soldiers WW2 ! Mosquito control

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) means the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms.

Famine - How?

It is as a result of - Enhanced mechanization - Genetically improved varieties - Chemical fertilizers - Improved irrigation - Increased use of pesticides

Rehabilitation

It is defined as the action of restoring to a previous condition or status. - something is not expected to be in as original or as healthy a state as if it had been restored. - used to indicate any act of improvement from a degraded state.

Types of Experiment

Lab: •One variable tested, everything else held constant • Used to establish "cause-effect" • Application to real world is challenging Field: • High application to real world • Difficult to establish "cause-effect" Model: • Simplified construct of nature • Weather, climate, forest • Not perfect but "useful"

Affluence

Leads to more environmental degradation, waste and pollution. This results in higher level of total and per capita resource consumption along with more environmental degradation, waste and pollution. • can be harmful: - US is responsible for almost 1/2 of the global ecological footprint. - Affluent countries can get the resource allover the world without seeing the harmful effect. • advantage for the environment: - allows for more widespread education, which can lead to concern about environment. - More wealth can also mean more technological development to minimize environmental impacts.

substitute of nonrenewable resources

Materials revolution- finding alternatives to scarce mineral resources Silicon and other materials are replacing some metals for common use Graphene is another example Graphene has many extraordinary properties. It is about 100 times stronger than the strongest steel with a hypothetical thickness of 3.35Å that is equal to the thickness of the graphene sheet. It conducts heat and electricity efficiently and is nearly transparent.

Matter (atom, element, compound and molecules)

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. - can exist in three physical state: • solid, liquid and gas - two chemical forms: • elements and compounds. • Element is a type of matter that has a unique set of properties and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

Alternatives of IPM

Mechanical control: is the management of pests by physical means such as the use of a barrier (e.g., screens or row covers), trapping, weeding or removal of the pest by hand. It may also involve changing the physical conditions in a given area, for example, changing the temperature to make an area unfavorable for pests. Chemical pest control methods: have been used in an agricultural setting and within the household for a very long time. This often employs harsh pesticides that instantly eliminate pests upon application. These can either be applied systematically (targeting where plants are commonly ingested by pests) or to the entire crops as in the case of aerial spraying. While this is effective on large crops and within the household, chemical pesticides have harmful and residual effects on both human and animals living within the area. That is why chemical pesticides must be used with caution to avoid contaminating waterways and killing pets and livestock. Plus, there are regulations limiting their use in some areas, so be aware of this. Cover crops: - Cover crops can provide food and habitat for beneficial insects. Insect natural enemies need food and shelter during the winter, and keeping them close to current or planned crops may help protect newly planted crops. Cover crops can increase the overall number of beneficial insects.

Disconnect with nature

More than 1/2 of world's people live in cities. - Artificial urban environments are growing in # - Most people are suffering from Nature deficit disorder, which is feeling of anxiety, depression and attention-deficit, & behavioral disorder, that might be resulting from a lack of contact with nature.

Famine causes

Natural causes include drought, excessive rains and flood, unseasonably cold weather, typhoons and other high winds, tidal waves, depredations by vermin and such insects as locusts, and plant diseases. The artificial causes-commonly political-include warfare that involves siege or blockade, or destruction of food stocks or growing grain; and wartime strains on economies that diminish manpower, machines, or fertilizers, thus reducing cultivated acreage, yields, and production.

GMO's - negatives

Negatives • Conversion of wildlife habitat to agriculture • More fertilizer • More herbicide • More herbicide-resistant weeds • Human health impacts unknown • Loss of crop diversity Effects of GMOs on human health are not fully know but the scientific evidence so far has suggested GMOs are "safe"

Impacts of modern agriculture - fertilizers: groundwater pollution

Nitrate leaching through the soil can present a serious health hazard and contributes to soil acidification. When high rates of nitrogen are used or where clover grass pastures fix substantial nitrogen, especially on sandy or permeable soils, inevitably some nitrate is leached and may enter groundwater if there is a watertable. If this groundwater is used for domestic supplies, the leaching presents a serious health hazard.

demography formula

Nt = N(t-1) + B + I - D - E The size of a population at a given time (Nt) is a function of three things: - The number of individuals "yesterday" (Nt-1) - The number who were added since then • Births (B) • Immigration (I) - The number who have disappeared since then • Deaths (D) • Emigration (E)

environmental policy steps - Policy adjustment

Once a policy is implemented efforts are then taken to look at the effects the policy had--did it do what it was supposed to? Should changes be made? Were there unexpected consequences? Have new issues rose that call for revision?

environmental policy steps - Policy formulation

Once the problem has been defined it must be picked up by a governmental body. There are two general agendas occurring at any given time: the public agenda and the institutional agenda. • The public agenda is the topics that are in public discussion that may merit a governmental response. This is informal--it is the things people like you and me find important. • The institutional agenda is what is important for policy. This includes the problems that are up for active discussion within policymaking bodies. This could be things that local or national congresses are considering, that the president is recognizing (particularly with larger actions, such as capand-trade systems), or might even be a case taken to a court.

National Parks

One of the first people generally credited with conceptualizing a "national park" was George Catlin (1796-1872). The idea had gained some acceptance years later, when in 1864 Congress donated Yosemite Valley to California for preservation as a state park. The establishment of Yellowstone National Park by act of Congress on March 1, 1872, for the first time signified that public lands were to be set aside and administered by the federal government "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." In 1891, President Harrison established Yellowstone Timberland Reserve as the nation's first forest reserve, and in 1903 President Roosevelt established Pelican Island in Florida as the first national wildlife refuge. There was still no real system of national parks in the United States until August 25, 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson signed the Organic Act creating the National Park Service (NPS).

What is organic Agriculture

Organic agriculture produces products using methods that preserve the environment and avoid most synthetic materials, such as pesticides and antibiotics. USDA organic standards describe how farmers grow crops and raise livestock and which materials they may use. Organic farmers, ranchers, and food processors follow a defined set of standards to produce organic food and fiber. Congress described general organic principles in the Organic Foods Production Act, and the USDA defines specific organic standards. These standards cover the product from farm to table, including soil and water quality, pest control, livestock practices, and rules for food additives. Organic farms and processors: • Preserve natural resources and biodiversity • Support animal health and welfare • Provide access to the outdoors so that animals can exercise their natural behaviors • Only use approved materials • Do not use genetically modified ingredients • Receive annual onsite inspections • Separate organic food from non-organic food Is organic better? • Organic farming requires 84% more land • Typically more expensive • Difficulties in transport and preservation

4R's of resource use

Over the last half century, the amount of waste created per person in the United States has almost doubled. The concept and promotion of the four Rs was created to help combat the drastic increase in solid waste production. o Reduce - use less o Reuse - use it over & over o Recycle - convert used resources to useful items and buy products made from recycled materials o Recover - generate energy from the waste (if we can't repurpose then at least get energy)

oil

Over the past decade, oil has become a global commodity. In this global marketplace, there have been fundamental changes, which will have a large impact on the future price of oil. There are factors that determine global supply and demand. On the supply side, the primary issue is peak oil. This refers to the concern that the world is running out of oil and that oil production will soon peak. Numerous doomsday predictions have been made by oil professionals at various times over the past two decades and have failed to come to fruition. Yet, the evidence is growing that these pessimistic forecasts may be right this time and that the era of cheap energy may be over. On the demand side, global composition of demand is shifting away from the advanced economies in Europe, Japan and North America towards developing economies, especially those in Asia. This means the impact of the US in determining oil price is becoming less and less of a factor.

overfishing

Overfishing is a major global issue. Many fish populations have become severely depleted due to overfishing. One example is the population of cod off the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada. Between the mid 1970s and early 1990s, a series of poor management decisions and inadequto not eat fish whose populations are threatened. The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California maintains a Seafood Watch program, which explains which fish populations are threatened and which are not. The program makes simple guides for each region of the country. Overfishing can result in permanent collapses in fish supplies. If a population of fish gets completely wiped out, then it cannot reproduce and regrow its numbers, even if people stop fishing entirely. In other words, the collapse can be irreversible. Irreversible collapses can be found in other instances of the tragedy of the commons, including biodiversity loss and certain ecological disruptions. But not all instances of the tragedy of the commons are irreversible. For example, overgrazing in Boston Common causes only a temporary loss of grass, since people can always grow more grass there.ate understanding of complex marine ecosystems led to the collapse of the cod fishery, devastation of livelihoods, a flux of environmental refuges, and long-term impacts on the northwest Atlantic ecosystem off the coast of the northern United States and Canada. Individual action can help avoid overfishing. For example, you as a consumer can choose

Components of IPM

Pest identification should be as accurate as possible. Management programs improve significantly with specific knowledge of the pest, its life cycle and behavior. Careful monitoring of species can enable you to detect subtle changes in a complex of pest species. Example: The displacement of leafminer species by the chrysanthemum leafminer, Liriomyza trifolii, can result in significant problems in leafminer control. Pheromone Traps: Pheromones are chemicals that insects use to communicate with one another. The pheromones used in these traps are synthesized species-specific female sex pheromones. The males that are attracted to the trap get stuck on the sticky liner. The traps are helpful in determining the proper time to apply control sprays.

Impacts of modern agriculture - pesticides

Pesticides are toxic chemicals designed to be released deliberately into the environment. Although each pesticide is meant to kill a certain pest, a very large percentage of pesticides reach a destination other than their target. Instead, they enter the air, water, sediments, and even end up in our food. Pesticides easily contaminate the air, ground and water when they run off from fields, escape storage tanks, when not discarded properly and especially when they are sprayed aerially. Collateral damage (UN, 2004: estimated 1 - 5 million cases of pesticide poisonings each year)

Population age structure

Population experts construct a diagram by plotting the %s or #s of males and females in total pop in 3 age categories. • Pre-reproductive - (ages 0 to 14) - normally too young to have kids • Reproductive - (ages15 to 44) - normally able to have kids • Post-reproductive - (ages 45 and older) - normally too old to have kids example: - country w/ a large % of its ppl younger than 15 (Represented by a wide base) will have rapid pop growth unless death rates rise sharply in the future. - bc of this # of births will rise for several decades - even if women have an avg of only 1-2 kids - due to the large # of girls entering their prime reproductive years. - Most future human pop growth will take place in less-developed countries bc of their typically youthful age structure & rapid pop growth rate.

Population vs Species

Population: - group of individuals of a given species who live in the same geographical area and can interbreed Species: - basic unit of biological classification; largest group of organisms that are capable of interbreeding and producing viable offspring

GMO's - positives

Positives • Grow crops on marginal lands • Less insecticide • Reduced water use

failure to include costs

Prices of goods & services rarely include their harmful environmental and health costs. • Shift government subsidies? • Tax pollution and waste? - example: Timber companies pay costs for cutting forests, but do not pay for resulting environmental degradation & loss of habitat.

developing environmental policy

Protecting the environment may seem like an important and somewhat straightforward thing. But nothing in politics is straightforward, and nothing is guaranteed to be held important. The process of making environmental policy is a long and difficult path that often yields frustrating results. This, however, is the nature of democracy--even when issues are important, the process of politics always takes precedent.

Replacement

Replacing current ecosystems w/ an alternative that satisfies some specified purpose

Limitations in science

Science can't prove or disprove anything absolutely • Provability, • Personal bias, • Complexity of nature, • Statistical and mathematical tools

Silent spring (Rachel Carson)

Silent spring meticulously described how DDT entered the food chain and accumulated in the fatty tissues of animals, including human beings, and caused cancer and genetic damage. A single application on a crop, she wrote, killed insects for weeks and months, and not only the targeted insects but countless more, and remained toxic in the environment even after it was diluted by rainwater. Carson concluded that DDT and other pesticides had irrevocably harmed birds and animals and had contaminated the entire world food supply. The book's most haunting and famous chapter, "A Fable for Tomorrow," depicted a nameless American town where all life -- from fish to birds to apple blossoms to human children -- had been "silenced" by the insidious effects of DDT.

Snowmobile controversy in Yellowstone

Snowmobiling in the park is controversial on several fronts. Conservationists are concerned about how snowmobiles, and snowmobile emissions in particular, may impact wildlife, air and water quality, noise levels, and the pristine aesthetic of the Yellowstone wilderness. Another concern is for the health effects upon both snowmobile riders and park rangers who are exposed to exhaust and high noise levels for significant amounts of time. Supporters of snowmobiling point to other considerations such as the economic benefits to local communities and the importance of preserving access to public lands. They also contend that newer technologies make cleaner, quieter snowmobiles that mitigate the effects of snowmobile use on air, water and noise pollution. • 1967: First allowed • 2000: All snowmobiles are banned • 2003: Ban overturned • 2013: compromise - Up to 510 snowmobiles per day - Must pass noise and air pollution tests

Succession

Succession is the process though which community begins recovery when most of the members of a community are destroyed - primary succession: • If all life is eradicated from an area, which is not common, a community must start from scratch - secondary succession • If some parts of the community are spared, which is more common, then the community recovers - stable climax communities. • If disturbances don't occur often, then a community can mature from primary (or secondary) communities

Ecosystem

System formed by interactions of many organisms functioning together and interacting through their physical and chemical environments.

Efficient allocation

That combination of inputs, outputs and distribution of inputs, outputs such that any change in the economy can make someone better off (as measured by indifference curve map) only by making someone worse off

BLM

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) may best be described as a small agency under Department of the Interior with a big mission: To sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of America's public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations. It administers more public land - over 245 million surface acres - than any other Federal agency in the United States. Most of this land is located in the 12 Western states, including Alaska. The BLM also manages 700 million acres of sub-surface mineral estate throughout the nation. The conservation system includes 221 Wilderness Areas totaling 8.7 million acres, as well as 16 National Monuments comprising 4.8 million acres. The BLM is one of a handful of Federal agencies that generates more revenue for the United States than it spends. For example, in fiscal year 2012, nearly $5 billion will be generated by activities on BLM-managed lands

FIFRA

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is a United States federal law that set up the basic U.S. system of pesticide regulation to protect applicators, consumers, and the environment. It is administered and regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the appropriate environmental agencies of the respective states. Pesticides are broadly defined in FIFRA Section 2(u) as chemicals and other products used to kill, repel, or control pests. The broad definition of "pesticide" in FIFRA also applies to products with less familiar "pesticidal uses." For example, substances used to control mold, mildew, algae, and other nuisance growths on equipment, in surface water, or on stored grains are pesticides. The term also applies to disinfectants and sterilizing agents, animal repellents, rat poison, and many other substances. EPA estimates that as of May 2003, there were about 19,107 pesticide products currently in use. These all are regulated under FIFRA, but approximately 6,502 pesticide products used in food production also are regulated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).

wilderness

The Wilderness Act, signed into law in 1964, created the National Wilderness Preservation System and recognized wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."

Uses of Pesticides

The benefits of pesticides include increased food production, increased profits for farmers and the prevention of diseases. Although pests consume or harm a large portion of agricultural crops, without the use of pesticides, it is likely that they would consume a higher percentage. Due to the use of pesticides, it is possible to combat pests and produce larger quantities of food. By producing more crops, farmers are also able to increase profits by having more products to sell. Pesticides also increase farm profits by helping the farmer save money on labor costs. Using pesticides reduces the amount of time required to manually remove weeds and pests from fields. In addition to saving crops and livestock, pesticides have also had direct benefits to human health. It is estimated that since 1945, the use of pesticides has prevented the deaths of around seven million people by killing pests that carry or transmit diseases. Malaria, which is transmitted by infected mosquitoes, is one of the most commonly known and deadly diseases that has decreased in prevalence due to the use of pesticides. Other diseases that were minimized due to the use of pesticides include the bubonic plague, which is carried by rat fleas, and typhus, which is transmitted by both fleas and body lice.

Organization of matter in nature

The biosphere and its ecosystems are made up of living (Biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components. Ecologists assign each organism in an ecosystem to a feeding level, or trophic level, depending on its source of nutrients. We can broadly classify living organisms as producers and consumers. • Consumers can be classified into: - primary consumers or Herbivores (Plant eaters) - carnivores (Meat Eaters) - omnivores (animals which eat both plants and animals) • Decomposers - are consumers that, in the process of obtaining their nutrient, release nutrients from the wastes or remains of plant and animals and return those nutrients to the soil, water and air for reuse by producers. • Detritus feeders or detritivores - are other consumers that feed on the wastes or dead bodies (detritus) of other organism. - Examples: earthworms, hyenas, and vultures.

mass extinction

The extinction of many species in a relatively short period of time • the earth has experienced 5 mass extinctions, during which 50-90% of all species appear to have become extinct • Scientific evidence indicates after each mass extinction, the earth's overall biodiversity returned to = or higher lvls, but ec recovery required several million yrs

Population processes

The growth of the human population increased with the development of agriculture, and it accelerated rapidly at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Major disease epidemics, such as the bubonic plague, had little lasting effect on human population growth.

Invasive species types of introduction

The introduction of species beyond their natural range is closely linked to the movement of humans across the globe. • Wherever humans have traveled they have introduced species to new locations for food, social or economic purposes. - referred to as an intentional introduction. • Many more species have been accidentally transported around the world as the by-product of human activities such as trade, travel, & transport. - These are called unintentional introductions

Public lands

The original public domain included the lands that were turned over to the Federal Government by the Colonial States and the areas acquired later from the native Indians or foreign powers. • The total area of the 50 States is 2.3 billion acres • by 1802, all of the land west of the colonies between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River belonged to the Federal government. • In the course of national expansion from 1781 to 1867, the public domain rapidly grew beyond the bounds of the Appalachian West, with the Federal government acquiring over 1.8 billion acres of public domain lands.

Exponential growth

The relationship expressed in continuous time is called exponential growth. • is a growth in which some quantity, such as population size increases at a constant rate per unit time. - Human population growth is exponential. • A population growing continuously increases according to the equation: - N(t) = N(0)ert -The variable r is the exponential growth rate. - The constant e is the base of natural logarithms; it has a value of approximately 2.72.

Ecology

The study of how organisms interact with one another and with their non-living environment of matter and energy

water table

The top of the water in the soil, sand, or rocks is called the water table and the water that fills the empty spaces and cracks is called ground water.

Urban sprawl

The unplanned, uncontrolled spreading of urban development into areas adjoining the edge of a city. It is an aggregation or continuous network of urban communities

hazardous waste solutions - sanitary landfill

This is a method of waste disposal where the waste is buried either underground or in large piles. Although non-hazardous waste is often disposed of in landfills, the landfills for hazardous waste are constructed and monitored differently. Landfills for hazardous waste are made with thicker, impervious liners and with more heavy-duty removal systems for leaching materials. They are also constructed far from aquifers to reduce the risk of water contamination. These activities are used to manage waste that cannot be prevented or recycled. One way to dispose of waste is to place it in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills, where it is safely contained. Another way to handle this waste is through combustion. Combustion is the controlled burning of waste, which helps reduce its volume. If the technology is available, properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills can be used to generate energy by recovering methane. Similarly, combustion facilities produce steam and water as a byproduct that can be used to generate energy. ! Advantages- low operating costs, can handle large amount of wastes, filled land can be used for other purposes, no shortage of space in many areas ! Disadvantages- noise, traffic, dust, released greenhouse gases (can be collected), can leak and contaminate ground water

Direct cost

Those borne by the producer and passed directly on to the user or purchaser

Natural Resources

Three types of natural resources 1. Inexhaustible renewable 2. Renewable resources 3. Nonrenewable or exhaustible resources

reuse water

Water reuse can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for a direct beneficial purpose. The use of reclaimed water for irrigation and other purposes has been employed as a water conservation practice in Florida, California, Texas, Arizona, and other states for many years. Conservation measures, such as irrigating with reclaimed water, are one way to help ensure existing water supplies are utilized as efficiently as possible. The environmental benefits of using reclaimed water include: Increased water quantity: Decreased diversion of freshwater from wetlands and other ecosystems. Reduced use of potable water by industrial, housing, and recreational development projects that use reclaimed water. Reduction in the amount of groundwater withdrawal, which impacts base flow in many rivers and streams. Increased water quality: Reduction in the amount of nutrients entering the water bodies. Positive Cost Reliable supply Negative Public stigma Water quality?

renewable energy - hydropower

When water is used to generate electricity, it is called hydroelectric power, or hydropower. Most hydropower plants use a dam on a river to create a reservoir to store water. As water is released from the reservoir, it flows through a turbine and causes it to spin. This activates a generator that produces electricity. ! Pros: Hydropower is relatively inexpensive, and it leaves no harmful chemicals. ! Cons: Dams can change and destroy habitats near rivers. Dams can also prevent the migration of fish.

global distribution

When you look at an image of Earth, it's easy to understand that 70% of its surface is covered with water. This is because all that blue you see is water in the oceans - about 97% of all the water on Earth! Ocean water is very salty, much too salty for us to drink, so in the oceans it stays. That leaves only about 3% for all other water on Earth, which is all freshwater. But even most of that is not available to us! Of that 3%, 2/3 of it (so about 68% of all the freshwater, which is about 2% of all the total water on Earth) is frozen in ice caps and glaciers. While this may sound like an untapped resource, it's actually beneficial to us that this water is frozen where it is because it helps regulate sea levels and global temperatures on Earth. So we still have 1% of all the water on Earth left to distribute. About 30% of Earth's freshwater (approximately 0.6% of all water on Earth) is found as groundwater. This is one resource we do take advantage of - it's where we get much of our water for drinking and irrigating agricultural crops.

Natural Capital

World's stocks of natural assets, which include geology, soil, air, water and all living things. • Natural Capital = Natural Resources + Ecosystem Services

Mutation

a change in the organism's DNA. - Mutations may affect somatic (nonreproductive tissue), or they may affect the germ line (reproductive tissue). - somatic mutations cannot generally be passed on. - heritable mutations, the kind that can be passed on to the next generation. - Some mutations are harmful or lethal, many are totally neutral-they have no effect, and a few are favorable which their environment dictates.

special interest groups (SIG)

a community within a larger organization with a shared interest in advancing a specific area of knowledge, learning or technology where members cooperate to affect or to produce solutions within their particular field, and may communicate, meet, and organize conferences.

Pesticide Resistance

a genetically based phenomenon. Resistance occurs when a pest population— insects, for instance— is exposed to a pesticide. When this happens, not all insects are killed. Those individuals that survive frequently have done so because they are genetically predisposed to be resistant to the pesticide. Repeated applications and higher rates of the insecticide will kill increasing numbers of individuals, but some resistant insects will survive. The offspring of these survivors will carry the genetic makeup of their parents (Natural Selection). These offspring, many of which will inherit the ability to survive the exposure to the insecticide, will become a greater proportion with each succeeding generation of the population. The more times a population is exposed to a pesticide, especially a broad-spectrum pesticide, the more quickly resistance will develop. Resistance develops in a similar manner in other pests, such as plant disease agents, weeds, and rodents. Ironically, to produce a resistant population one must start with a pesticide that initially gives very good control.

Clear-cutting

a harvesting & regeneration technique that removes all the trees regardless of size on an area in 1 operation. - Creates a future even-aged forest. - can actually be a good method to create a very nice forest in the future - Usually requires the area to be fenced in to prevent deer from eating the seedlings.

Exploitation

a process involving resource depression or depletion has been labeled consumptive or exploitation competition.

Green Gases

allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface. - Some sunlight captured as heat on Earth & some is radiated back toward space. - When greenhouse gases are present in the right amounts, they trap just enough heat to keep the earth warm enough for organisms to survive while letting some of that heat back into space. - W/out greenhouse gases the earth would be very chilly 0°F (-18° C). - This trapping of heat under the atmosphere is called the greenhouse effect

alternative energy

a. Renewable and nonrenewable energy resources that are alternatives to fossil fuels. b. We do have alternatives: renewable resources, like wind, solar, hydroelectric, geothermal, and tidal power. These are resources that don't require using anything up (like with coal, oil, or gas). It might seem strange that we call these resources. After all, they're not something an area has in the ground that we can use up, the way fossil fuels can be. But, they're considered resources because they're still specific to an area. c. One area (such as Texas) might have abundant wind and, therefore, could be said to have strong wind resources. Another area, like the hot deserts of Arizona, might be perfect for solar power. And, the mid-Atlantic region has enormous wave power potential. The exact geophysical make-up and weather systems in an area are what determine its renewable energy resources, and this helps us figure out the best way to generate electricity in a particular place.

Life-centered environmental worldview

all species have values as participating members of the biosphere, regardless of their potential or actual use for humans.

reclaimed water

also known as recycled water, is water recovered from domestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater treatment plants that has been treated to standards that allow safe reuse. Properly reclaimed water is typically safe for most uses except human consumption.

cultural hazards

also known as social hazards, result from your location, socioeconomic status, occupation and behavioral choices. For example, smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health, and this is a behavioral choice. If you live in a neighborhood with lots of crime, this is a hazard based on your location. Similarly, your diet, exercise habits and primary mode of transportation all influence your health and the health of the environment around you.

Ecological footprints

amount of land and water needed to supply a population or an area w/ renewable resources and to absorb and recycle the wastes and pollutions produced by such resource use. - Per capita ecological footprint is the average ecological footprint of an individual in a given country or area. • We would need 1.5 planets to indefinitely sustain the world's 2012 rate of total resource use.

wilderness definiton

an area of undeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character & influence without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions.

Indicator species

an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition. • can signal a change in the biological condition of a particular ecosystem, & thus may be used as a proxy to diagnose the health of an ecosystem. • Indicator species can also reflect a unique set of environmental qualities or characteristics found in a specific place • Characteristics of Indicator Species - Immobile - Easy to collect - Differ in their tolerance to amt & types of pollution - Easy to identify - Responsive - Integrators of environmental condition

teratogens

angel dust, benzene, formaldehyde, lead, mercury, PCBs, phthalates, thalidomide, vinyl chloride an agent or factor which causes malformation of an embryo.

Hazardous waste

any solid or liquid waste that is considered toxic, chemically reactive, flammable or corrosive.

Pesticide

are chemicals and other products used to kill, repel, or control pests

endocrine disruptors

are chemicals that can interfere with endocrine (or hormone) systems at certain doses. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders. Any system in the body controlled by hormones can be derailed by hormone disruptors.

hazardous waste solutions - surface impoundments

are hazardous waste that is liquid or has been dissolved is often placed in. These are shallow depressions in the earth that are lined with plastic and impervious materials. The liquid hazardous waste is dumped in the impoundment and left to evaporate. Once the liquid has evaporated, the solid hazardous waste residue remains at the bottom of the impoundment and can be removed and transported to a landfill. Surface impoundments pose many risks, including contamination, and are only used for temporary processing and storage. ! Pro- low cost, can be retrieved, indefinite storage with secure liners ! Con- pollution from water overflow and leaks, air pollution from VOCs, encourages waste production

Biomes

are large areas on Earth with similar conditions, such as similar climates and similar living organisms. • two main categories of biomes: - Terrestrial • The type of vegetation that is present in them, usually defines terrestrial biomes. The major climatic factors contributing to the vegetation types in these biomes are temperature and precipitation. - Aquatic • The type of water they contain defines aquatic biomes.

fossil fuels

are natural fuels formed from the remains of onceliving organisms, compressed at high temperature and pressure over millions of years. Examples include coal, which is made from dead plant matter, and oil and gas, which are made from dead marine animals. These fossil fuels have a lot of energy contained within them, which is released when the fuel is burned.

physical hazards

are physical processes that occur naturally in the environment. These include natural disaster events such as earthquakes, tornadoes, volcanoes, blizzards, landslides and droughts. Not all physical hazards are discrete events - some are ongoing, like ultraviolet radiation. UV radiation is considered a hazard because it damages DNA and can cause human health issues like skin cancer and cataracts.

rock types

are solid masses occurring naturally as part of our planet. As it turns out, rocks can be put into three fundamentally different types: 1. Igneous rock 2. Sedimentary rock 3. Metamorphic rock

Types of energy resources

are the opportunities an area offers to generate electricity based on its natural conditions and circumstances. Some of these energy resources are obvious; an area might contain coal, oil, wood, or gas. But others, like renewable resources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, and wave power are not so obvious—they're based on the natural weather patterns and features of an area.

Biodiversity hotspots

areas that support natural ecosystems that are largely intact & where native species & communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented. • areas w/ a high diversity of locally endemic species (not found/rarely found outside the hotspot)

carcinogens

arsenic, formaldehyde, benzene, radon, PCBs, UV, radiation, vinyl chloride promotes formation of cancer

Commensalism

benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. - It occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with another organism by which the host organism is not affected.

amensalism

between two species involves one impeding or restricting the success of the other without being affected positively or negatively by the presence of the other.

Genetics

branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms

Science

broad field of study focused on discovering how nature works using that knowledge to describe what is likely to happen in nature. It is a process and way of knowing and gaining new information. It results in conclusions, generalizations, theories and laws. Modern science deals only with testable observations and it does not deal with values

chemical hazards

can be both natural and human-made chemicals in the environment. Human-made chemical hazards include many of the synthetic chemicals we produce, like disinfectants, pesticides and plastics. Some chemical hazards occur naturally in the environment, like the heavy metals, lead and mercury. Some organisms even produce natural chemicals that are an environmental hazard, such as the compounds in peanuts and dairy that cause allergic reactions in humans. ! Carcinogens: arsenic, formaldehyde, benzene, radon, PCBs, UV, radiation, vinyl chloride ! Teratogens: angel dust, benzene, formaldehyde, lead, mercury, PCBs, phthalates, thalidomide, vinyl chloride ! Hormonally active agents and endocrine disruptors Evaluating chemical hazards - Toxicology: - scientific study of adverse effects that occur in living organisms due to chemicals. - Toxicity: - is the degree to which a substance can damage an Organism - Chronic or acute effects

Genetic drift

change in allele frequency by random chance. - It occurs if a population is not infinite in size. - In populations that are not infinitely large, there will be random error in which alleles are passed from generation, and allele frequencies will change at random. - Since no population is really infinitely large, there is always some genetic drift occurring - the effect is very small in large populations. - The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations.

Endocrine Disruptors

chemicals that may interfere with the body's endocrine system and produce adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune effects in both humans and wildlife. A wide range of substances, both natural and man-made, is thought to cause endocrine disruption. Chemicals that are known endocrine disruptors include diethylstilbestrol (the synesthetic estrogen DES), dioxin and dioxin-like compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT, Bisphenol A (BPA), Di(2- ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and Phytoestrogens. • Mimic or partly mimic naturally occurring hormones in the body like estrogens (the female sex hormone), androgens (the male sex hormone), and thyroid hormones, potentially producing overstimulation. • Bind to a receptor within a cell and block the endogenous hormone from binding. The normal signal then fails to occur and the body fails to respond properly. Examples of chemicals that block or antagonize hormones are anti-estrogens and anti-androgens. • Interfere or block the way natural hormones or their receptors are made or controlled, for example, by altering their metabolism in the liver

biological hazards

come from ecological interactions between organisms. Viruses, bacterial infections, malaria and tuberculosis are all examples of biological hazards. When these pathogens and diseases are transferred between organisms, it's called an infectious disease. We suffer from these diseases and pathogens because we're being parasitized by another organism, which, while hazardous, is also a natural process. ! Human activities that encourage spread of disease include a. Clearing or fragmenting of forests to make way for settlements, farms and expanding cities b. Hunting wild game for food c. Illegal international trade in wild species d. Industrialized meat production

Input

commodities companies need to produce goods and services (raw materials, labor and energy)

climax community

community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state. (peak of the comm. Best they can grow)

Geosphere

consists of the earth's intensely hot core, a thick mantle composed mostly of rock, and a thin outer crust.

Biosphere

consists of the part of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere where life is found

glaciers and icecaps

cover about 10% of the world's landmass. These are concentrated in Greenland and Antarctica and contain ~70% of the world's freshwater. Unfortunately, most of these resources are located far from human habitation and are not readily accessible for human use. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), 96% of the world's frozen freshwater is at the South and North poles, with the remaining 4% spread over 550,000 km2 of glaciers and mountainous icecapes measuring about 180,000km3.

Species diversity

defined as the number and abundance of different species that occupy a location

Shelterwood System

designed to remove certain trees & establish new growth under the protection of an over story of foliage - Sufficient mature trees are left standing to shelter the site until new growth is well established.

food chain

ecosystem ecologists sometimes depict the relationship between trophic groups in a linear way, with arrows pointing from one organism to another. • If there is only one producer, one primary consumer, one secondary consumer, and one tertiary consumer, this linear diagram is called a food chain. • help ecologists and students visualize the interactions between organisms in an ecosystem. • trophic interactions among organisms in an ecosystem are often really complex. It's rare that an ecosystem only has one species at each trophic level. Usually, there are multiple producers that are eaten by multiple primary consumers.

effects of invasive species

effects of invasive species can be divided into 3 different types: • harm to the physical environment • harm to economy • harm to human health

renewable energy - wind

energy that we get from the wind. Windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump water from the ground. Today, we use large, tall wind turbines that use the wind to generate electricity. Many wind turbines are often placed together in wind farms in flat areas with strong winds. ! Pros: Does not produce any waste or pollutants. It takes up little ground space. ! Cons: Wind turbines can disturb or kill flying creatures, like birds and bats. Wind is not constant and reliable everywhere.

Adaptive radiation

evolutionary divergence of members of a single lineage into a variety of different adaptive forms. - Usually the adaptive forms differ in their use of resources or habitats, and this divergence happens in a relatively short interval of geological time. - it's the tendency of a group of animals to evolve in response to selective pressures and adapt to their environments in different ways.

norenewable resources

exist in fixed quantity, or stock, in the earth's crust. (coal and oil, metallic mineral resources such as copper and aluminum, and nonmetallic resources such as salt and sand.)

Output

goods and services produced

GDP

gross domestic product

typical household energy expense

heating - 29% cooling - 13% water heating - 13% appliances - 12% lighting - 12% electronics - 21%

heterotrophs

heterotrophs cannot produce the nutrients they need through photosynthesis or other process. • 'other-feeders' • consumers

Earth-centered environmental worldview

holds that we are part of, and dependent on, nature and that the earth's life support system exists for all species.

differential reproduction

idea that those organisms best adapted to a given environment will be most likely to survive to reproductive age and have offspring of their own. - Organisms that are successful in their environments will be more likely to be successful in reproduction, and therefore the better-adapted organisms will reproduce at a greater rate than the less well-adapted organisms. - These offspring are then a larger proportion of the population in the next generation and are more "fit" for the environment

toxic

if it is harmful to human health when a person is exposed to the substance through inhalation, ingestion or touch.

Enhancement

improving some aspect of ecosystem function

Manipulating the system

intentional conduct designed to deceive by controlling or artificially affecting the market. Manipulation can involve a number of techniques to affect the supply of, or demand for, a stock. They include: spreading false or misleading information about a company; improperly limiting the number of publicly-available shares; or rigging quotes, prices or trades to create a false or deceptive picture of the demand for a security. Those who engage in manipulation are subject to various civil and criminal sanctions. • Supply can be artificially curtailed. • Demand can be artificially enhanced. • Artificial Demand: - constitutes demand for something that, in the absence of exposure to the vehicle of creating demand, would not exist. • Planned obsolescence: - a policy of producing consumer goods that rapidly become obsolete and so require replacing, achieved by frequent changes in design, termination of the supply of spare parts, and the use of nondurable materials. • Artificial Scarcity: - is the condition resulting from the limiting of production of goods and services, which would otherwise be plentiful and inexpensive. • Cartels • Copyrights/Patents

competition

interaction between individuals or populations that is mutually detrimental

mutualism

interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit

non-municipal solid waste

is any non-liquid waste that is created due to the production of a product. Although products can sometimes turn into municipal solid waste themselves when they break or are done being used, non-municipal solid waste refers to any waste that is created while the product is being manufactured and before it reaches the consumer. The amount of non-municipal solid waste fluctuates more than municipal solid waste because it is influenced by changes in consumer demand and consumption. Non-municipal solid waste is a large category of waste that is often divided into three types: mining waste, agricultural waste, and industrial waste. Mining waste accounts for the majority of non-municipal solid waste in the United States, but the exact amount is difficult to determine because of the nature of mining. The main source of mining waste is the rocks and soil removed from the ground. Mining waste also includes the equipment used and any waste produced at the mining site. The exact amount of mining waste is hard to determine because the waste is not always accounted for or disposed of properly, such as rocks being dumped illegally

Natural gas

is a combustible, gaseous mixture of simple hydrocarbon compounds, usually found in deep underground reservoirs formed by porous rock. Natural gas is a fossil fuel composed almost entirely of methane, but does contain small amounts of other gases, including ethane, propane, butane and pentane. Methane is composed of a molecule of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel, producing primarily carbon dioxide, water vapor and small amounts of nitrogen oxides. Other fossil fuels are coal and oil, which together with natural gas, account for about 88 percent of U.S. energy consumption. The prevailing scientific theory is that natural gas was formed millions of years ago when plants and tiny sea animals were buried by sand and rock. Layers of mud, sand, rock and plant and animal matter continued to build up until the pressure and heat from the earth turned them into petroleum and natural gas. The first use of gas energy in the United States occurred in 1816, when gaslights illuminated the streets of Baltimore, Md. By 1900, natural gas had been discovered in 17 states. During the years following World War II, expansion of the extensive interstate pipeline network occurred, bringing natural gas service to customers all over the country. Currently, oil provides the largest share of U.S. energy consumption -- about 41 percent of the entire market. Natural gas provides about 24 percent, coal 23 percent, hydropower 4 percent and nuclear power 8 percent. However, about one-half of the oil Americans use is imported; in contrast, 85 percent of the natural gas U.S. consumers use is produced domestically. The remaining 15 percent primarily comes from Canada via pipeline.

Integrated waste management (IWM)

is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling, composting, and disposal program. An effective IWM system considers how to prevent, recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the environment. IWM involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and combining the most appropriate waste management activities for those conditions. The major IWM activities are waste prevention, recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfill.

Poverty

is a condition where people are unable to fulfill their basic needs for adequate food, water, shelter, healthcare and education. • When a person or population is desperate for short-term survival, they do not have the luxury of worrying about the long-term environmental quality or sustainability. • ~900 million ppl live in extreme poverty - less than $1.25 per day • About 1/3 of world's population live on less than $2.25 per day

types of solid waste

is a general term used to describe objects or particles that accumulate at the location where they are produced. Now, think back on the amount of waste you produce each day and multiple that by 300 million, which is the approximate population of the United States. That would be one large pile of waste! In fact, each year in the United States, over 11 billion tons of solid waste is disposed of. Due to the large variety of items that are considered solid waste, the type of waste is often divided into two categories. The categories of solid waste are referred to as municipal solid waste and non-municipal solid waste, and these two types of waste vary by where the waste originates.

permeability

is a measure of how well the spaces are connected.

inexhaustible renewable

is a natural resource that will never run out. So if we take advantage of the greatest natural resources, they will not be depleted & will continue to exist. Examples are: •water, •sunlight, •tidal energy, •ocean energy, and •wind energy. - Wind power tech is the fastest growing energy source in the world

Renewable resources

is a resource that can be replenished by natural processes as long as we do not use it up faster than natural process can renew it. • Examples include: forests, grasslands, fishes, fertile topsoil, clean air, and fresh water.

Tragedy of commons

is a situation where individuals act according to own self-interest benefits from maximally taking advantage of the resource behave contrary to the best interests of the whole by depleting some common resource. - widely known by the article written by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968. • Main examples include: - Grand banks fisheries - Bluefin tuna - passenger pigeons - Ocean garbage gyres - earth's atmosphere - population growth

keystone species

is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance • described as playing a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and #s of various other species in the community. • Removal changes the basic nature of the community. • Examples: - some species of hummingbirds are keystone species in the Sonoran Desert of North America • pollinate varieties of cactus & other plants. • w/ few hummingbirds, invasive species such as buffelgrass have taken over the ecosystem. - The sea otter in the Pacific Northwest. • feed on sea urchins, controlling their population. • If the otters didn't eat the urchins, the urchins would eat up the habitat's kelp. Kelp, or giant seaweed, is a major source of food and shelter for the ecosystem. • Some species of crabs, snails, and geese depend on kelp for food. Many types of fish use the huge kelp forests to hide from predators. • W/o sea otters to control the urchin population, the entire ecosystem would collapse.

Sustainable agriculture

is a type of agriculture that focuses on producing long-term crops and livestock while having minimal effects on the environment. This type of agriculture tries to find a good balance between the need for food production and the preservation of the ecological system within the environment. In addition to producing food, there are several overall goals associated with sustainable agriculture, including conserving water, reducing the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and promoting biodiversity in crops grown and the ecosystem. Sustainable agriculture also focuses on maintaining economic stability of farms and helping farmers improve their techniques and quality of life.

Migration

is an evolutionary force that results from migration of individuals or the dispersal of seeds, spores, etc. - Gene flow can potentially cause evolutionary change

Predation

is an interaction between organisms in which one organism captures the other.

groundwater

is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater, followed by lakes, reservoirs, rivers and wetlands: • Groundwater represents over 90% of the world's readily available freshwater resource (Boswinkel, 2000). About 1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking water supply (WRI, UNEP, UNDP, World Bank, 1998). • The amount of groundwater withdrawn annually is roughly estimated at ~ 600 - 700 km3, representing about 20% of global water withdrawals. How does water get into the ground? When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows along the land surface to streams or lakes, plants use some, some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and some seeps into the ground. Water seeps into the ground much like a glass of water poured onto a pile of sand. As water seeps into the ground, some of it clings to particles of soil or to roots of plants just below the land surface. This moisture provides plants with the water they need to grow. Water not used by plants moves deeper into the ground. The water moves downward through empty spaces or cracks in the soil, sand, or rocks until it reaches a layer of rock through which water cannot easily move. The water then fills the empty spaces and cracks above that layer. - Positive • Cost • Water quality - Negative • Non-renewable • Susceptible to spills/pollution

Economics

is concerned with decision making by agents, which include consumers, firms, government agencies, and non-profit organizations like environmental advocacy groups. One goal of economics is to understand what motivates particular decisions. This knowledge is used to anticipate (or predict) what decisions agents will make in particular contexts. Want to be able to predict behavior in order to use agents' incentives and motivations to achieve social goals -- to conduct public policy when we think it is appropriate. Economics is also the field that seeks to understand and explain the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services

Supply

is defined as the total quantity of a product or service that the marketplace can offer. The quantity supplied is the amount of a product/service that suppliers are willing to supply at a given price. This relationship between price and the amount of a good/service supplied is known as the supply relationship.

Hydrosphere

is made up of all the water on or near the earth's surface. It is water vapor and permafrost.

Environmental justice

is that all people - regardless of their race, color, nation or origin or income - are able to enjoy equally high levels of environmental protection. An ideal and social movement whereby every person is entitled to protection from environmental hazards regardless of race, gender, age, national origin, income, social class or any political factor. Environmental justice communities are commonly identified as those where residents are predominantly minorities or low-income; where residents have been excluded from the environmental policy setting or decision-making process; where they are subject to a disproportionate impact from one or more environmental hazards; and where residents experience disparate implementation of environmental regulations, requirements, practices and activities in their communities. Environmental justice efforts attempt to address the inequities of environmental protection in these communities.

Energy

is the capacity to do work - There are 2 major types of energy. • Moving energy (called kinetic energy) • stored energy (Potential energy). - Energy quality: a measure of the capacity of a type of energy to do useful work.

toxicity

is the degree to which a substance can damage an Organism

Ecological deficit

is the level of resource consumption and waste discharge by a population in excess of locally sustainable natural production and assimilative capacity

environmental policy steps - Problem recognition

is the process of defining a problem includes identifying the specific area that needs to be addressed and potential solutions for that problem. The early discussion on the topic will serve to set up the rest of the policy making, establishing the basic rhetoric used to promote the cause and identifying the key issues and points of emphasis.

waste management

is the process of managing waste that is created and implementing disposal methods that reduce harm to the environment.

waste reduction

is the process of reducing the total amount of waste produced and also using waste for alternative purposes.

energy pyramid

is the relationship among producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers drawn as a pyramid, with producers at the bottom and tertiary consumers at the top. • It takes a lot of producers for higher-trophic-level consumers, like humans, to obtain the energy they need to grow and reproduce.

ecological niche

is the role and position a species has in its environment • how it meets its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces. • A species' niche includes all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment. • Every living thing on Earth has a role to play in its environment. • Your niche also includes where and how you obtain food and all of the things you do in order to survive.

Environmental Economics

is the subset of economics that is concerned with the efficient allocation of environmental resources. The environment provides both a direct value as well as raw material intended for economic activity, thus making the environment and the economy interdependent. For that reason, the way in which the economy is managed has an impact on the environment which, in turn, affects both welfare and the performance of the economy. The study of relationships of the importance of the environment to the economy, Includes: • The impact of economic activity on the environment • Regulation of the economy and economic processes • Development of economic policy to minimize environmental degradation • Finding solutions to environmental problems

Bioaccumulation

is when a substance builds up in the body because the body does not have the proper mechanisms to remove it. Many synthetic pesticides cannot be broken down. Once they enter the body of an organism, they are permanently stored in the body tissue. DDT is highly fat soluble (dissolves in fat easily), but is poorly soluble in water. Due to its 'fat-loving' nature, it tends to accumulate in the fatty tissues of insects, wildlife, and people. DDT is stored and biomagnifies in fatty tissues, but produces no known toxic effects while it is stored. When fat stores are used during periods of starvation, the breakdown products of DDT are released into the blood where they are toxic to the liver and the nervous system.

environmental policy steps - Policy implementation

it is how it is implemented that really makes the changes that were desired from the beginning. The process of implementation goes a long way in influencing the form that the policy takes. This normally doesn't get as much attention by media and interest groups but it is just as important--if a law is not enforced as strongly or stronger than intended, for instance, the actual policy may differ drastically than what was envisioned by lawmakers. Often time subtle aspects of the implementation, such as the amount of funding or the organization given the responsibility, can have a large effect on the actual effect of the policy.

autotrophs

make the nutrients they need from the compounds and energy obtained from their environment. • self-feeders • primary consumers

minerals

naturally occurring chemical element or inorganic compound that exists as a solid with a regularly repeating internal arrangement of its atoms or ions. A mineral resource is a concentration of one or more minerals in the earth's crust that we can extract and process into raw materials and useful products at an affordable cost. Because minerals take millions of year to form, they are nonrenewable resources, and their supplies can be depleted. A few minerals consist of a single chemical element. They include gold and rare earth metals such as lanthanum. However, more than 2,000 identified minerals resources that we use occur as inorganic compounds formed by various combinations of elements. Examples include salt (sodium chloride, or NaCl) quartz (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), and rare earth oxides (formed when rare earth metals combine with oxygen).

Free Market

o America, Canada o What to produce - determined by customers preference - price set by what consumers want o How to produce - determined by producers seeking profits o For whom to produce - determined by purchasing power - Nobody tells you what car you can buy but they make the prices only attainable for certain economic classes

Command Market

o Items have a set price o Asia, Africa o What to produce - government preferences o How to produce - government and their employees o Whom to produce - government preferences

flagship species

often used when referring to the ability of 1 threatened species to help drive conservation efforts that also benefit others. • whales, dolphins, elephants, tigers, gorillas • but there are no hard and fast rules for its use

antagonism

one species benefits at the expense of another.

Competitive Exclusion

one species displaces another when their niches overlap and they compete for the same resources. • The 'winning' species out-competes the 'losing' species. • This can occur during environmental change, when a new species enters an ecosystem and its presence conflicts with native species. • bc of this species do not always fill the full niche that they have the potential of filling. - Their potential full niche is called the fundamental niche. • Instead, they end up occupying a portion of the fundamental niche. This is called their realized niche.

renewable energy - solar

or energy from the sun, is harnessed using solar collectors. This collected energy can then be used to provide heat, light, or other forms of electricity. ! Pros: Sunlight is free and readily available almost everywhere. Using it does not create any wastes or pollutants. ! Cons: The technology needed to collect and use solar energy can be expensive. Sunlight can only be collected during the day when it is sunny.

gray water

or untreated wastewater from bathing or washing, is one form of wastewater. Wastewater may be land applied, but this is considered to be land treatment rather than water reuse.

Gen. Bottlenecks

periods of very low population size or near extinction. - This is another special case of genetic drift. The result of a population bottleneck is that even if the population regains its original numbers, genetic variation is drastically reduced.

Photosynthesis

plants capture solar energy that falls on their leaves and use it in combination with CO2 and H2O to form organic molecules including energy rich carbohydrates.

desalination

process that removes minerals from saline water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the removal of salts and minerals, as in soil desalination, which also happens to be a major issue for agricultural production. Salt water is desalinated to produce fresh water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. Due to relatively high-energy consumption, the costs of desalinating seawater are generally higher than the alternatives.

municipal solid waste

refers to any non-liquid waste that is created by an individual person, household, small business, or institution, such as a school or hospital. This type of waste is commonly called trash or garbage and includes everyday items, things that are broken, food that has spoiled, or simply any item a person no longer needs or wants. The most common items disposed of as municipal solid waste are paper, yard trimmings, food, plastics, metals, rubbers, and textiles. In recent years, the amount of electronic waste, also known as e-waste, has increased drastically as people become more reliant on electronics, such as computers and cell phones that are replaced and disposed of frequently. Based on the definition of municipal solid waste, the waste that you dispose of everyday would fall into this category. In the United States, people produce around 220 million tons of municipal solid waste each year. Although it is necessary to dispose of items, the shocking fact is that 25 million tons of the total amount of municipal solid waste is something that is valuable and important for human survival - Food! Food accounts for a large amount of waste each year. It is estimated that nearly one-quarter of the food produced is disposed of. In a world where some people are struggling to get enough food to survive, this statistic is alarming and bothersome.

water stress

refers to the ability, or lack thereof, to meet human and ecological demand for water. Compared to scarcity, "water stress" is a more inclusive and broader concept. It considers several physical aspects related to water resources, including water scarcity, but also water quality, environmental flows, and the accessibility of water. water quality, environmental flows, volumetric availability, accessibility

Deforestation

temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture, settlement, or other uses. - occurs for a # of reasons, including: • farming, mostly cattle due to its quick turn around • logging, for materials and development - It has been happening for thousands of years, It was only after the onset of the modern era that it became an epidemic.

environmental Policy

refers to the commitment of an organization to the laws, regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water pollution, solid waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance of biodiversity, the protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to direct and oversee human activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources, as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have harmful effects on humans.

Demand

refers to the quantity of a good that is desired by buyers. An important distinction to make is the difference between demand and the quantity demanded. The quantity demanded refers to the specific amount of that product that buyers are willing to buy at a given price. This relationship between price and the quantity of product demanded at that price is defined as the demand relationship.

Reintroduction

reintroducing a species of conservation interest

neutralism

relationship between two species, which do interact but do not affect each other. - describes interactions where the fitness of one species has absolutely no effect whatsoever on that of other.

Species interactions

result from the fact that organisms in an ecosystem interact with each other, in the natural world, no organism is an autonomous entity isolated from its surroundings.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

reviews & assesses the most recent scientific, technical, & socio-economic info produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. - doesn't conduct any research - nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters.

hazardous waste solutions

sanitary landfills, surface impoundments, deep-well injections

toxicology

scientific study of adverse effects that occur in living organisms due to chemicals.

Human-centered environmental worldviews

sees the natural world primarily as support system for human life • Planetary management worldview - holds that humans are separate from and in charge of nature and that we can manage the earth mostly for our benefit. • Stewardship worldview - holds that we can and should manage earth for our benefit, but we have an ethical responsibility to caring and responsible managers.

Environmental Worldview

set of assumptions and values reflecting how you think the world works and what you think your role in the world should be. - People have different views about environmental problems and their solutions. - Some ?'s are: • Why should we care about the environment? • Are we the most important species on the planet? • Do we have an obligation to see that our activities do not cause extinction of other species? • Should we try to protect all species or just some? • How do we decide? • Should every person be entitled to = protection from environmental hazards?

Smart Growth

set of policies & tools that allow & encourage more environmentally sustainable urban development w/ less dependence on cars - uses zoning laws and other tools to channel growth in order to reduce its ecological footprint.

Sustainability

solar energy, biodiversity, chemical cycle, natural capital

invasive species

species that are nonnative to the ecosystem under consideration & whose introduction causes economic harm, environmental harm or harm to human health.

Environmental ethics

study of varying beliefs about what is right and wrong with how we treat the environment?

corrosive

substance is something that can corrode, or break down, metals.

green tax

tax paid by consumers for products or services that are not environmentally friendly • It is to offset the negative impact resulting from the use of non-green products and services

fracking (hydraulic fracturing)

technique to extract natural gas from harder to access unconventional sources trapped in rock formations such as shale gas, coal bed methane and tight gas. Millions of liters of water and thousands of liters of chemicals are injected underground at very high pressure in order to create fractures in the rock allowing gas to flow up the well. Fracking for unconventional natural gas is expanding across Canada. But with the release of the award-winning documentary Gasland, high profile campaigns, and nearly daily media reports, the negative impacts of fracking are also being put in the spotlight. Industry representatives are responding with their spin to counter growing public concern.

Species richness

the # of different species

Gregor Mendel

the Father of Modern Genetics. - he did not receive any of this credit while he was alive.

Natural selection

the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with certain traits. - In populations, natural selection operates whenever individuals in the population vary in their ability to survive and reproduce. - causes evolutionary change whenever there is genetic variation for traits that affect fitness.

Pre-agricultural

the first period of human population growth. - This period is considered anything before 10,000 years ago. - human population growth was very slow, and it took tens of 1000's of years for the human population to double. - Although growth was slow, the population was able to increase due to the development of tools.

Climate

the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. - define as the avg weather for a particular region & time period, usually over 30-years. - looking at avgs of precipitation, temp, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, fog, frost, & hail storms

Invasive species: cultural control

the manipulation of forest structure & composition to control invasive species or the alteration of the stand so that effects will be limited if invasion occurs. • Trees that are potentially susceptible host species can be reduced thus limiting population outbreaks of insects and disease causing organisms. • Alternately, species that are resistant to invasive insects and diseases may be planted instead of nonresistant species.

Water cycle

the natural cycling of water through places and phases on Earth, affects weather, land features, global temperatures and drinking water supplies.

relative abundance

the number of individuals within each species, must be considered. • example: the number and abundance of different types of mammals in a forest.

species richness

the number of species per sample is a measure of richness. • The more species present in a sample, the 'richer' the sample. • increases w/ habitat heterogeneity. • takes no account of the # of ec species present. • if frogs, deer, & squirrels were found there would be a species richness of 3

Glaciers melts

the polar ice cap is now melting at the alarming rate of 9% per decade. - Arctic ice thickness has decreased 40% since 1960s. • Arctic sea ice extent set an all-time record low in Sept. 2007, w/ almost 1/2 a million square miles less ice than in Sept. 2005. • Multiple climate models indicate that sea ice will increasingly retreat as the earth warms. • At the current rate of retreat, all of the glaciers in Glacier National Park will be gone by 2070. - If the current rate of global warming conts, the Arctic could be ice-free by 2040.

Urbanization

the process by which large #s of ppl become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities. • A country is considered to be urbanized when over 50% of its pop live in the urban areas. • An urban area is spatial concentration of ppl who are working in non-agricultural activities. • Natural increase of urbanization can occur if the natural pop growth in the cities is higher than in the rural areas. (this scenario rarely occurs)

risk assessment

the process of using statistical methods to estimate how much harm a particular hazard can cause to human health or the environment

Salvage Cut

the removal of dead, damaged, or diseased trees w/ the intent of recovering value prior to deterioration. - allows new growth to take old growths spot. - Cut not designed for regeneration but can have that effect if done properly.

Seedtree System

the removal of the majority of mature trees, it leaves standing certain other mature trees, in small groups or singly, to serve as a seed source for natural regeneration. - By carefully selecting seed trees, foresters can help ensure more vital new growth.

Restoration Ecology Definition

the study of renewing a degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystem through active human intervention. - process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous historic ecosystem. - The goal to emulate the structure, function, diversity and dynamics of specified ecosystem. - It usually focused on abiotic conditions and plant communities, less frequently involves animal reintroductions

Demography

the study of the size, density and distribution of the human population. - This area of study takes into account birth rates, death rates, age distribution and any other factors that influence the size and growth of a population.

Biodiversity

the variety of life on earth across all of the different levels of biological organization. • smaller scale, - biodiversity can be used to describe the variety in the genetic makeup of a species • larger scale, - it can be used to describe the variety of ecosystem types. • 1 genetic diversity - diversity we have bc of diff genes in diff organisms • 2 species diversity - diversity due to diff species • 3 ecological diversity - diversity of ecosystems • 4 functional - diversity we have bc of diff newton? Chemicals ((water)cycle)

Weather

the way the atmosphere is behaving - consists of the short-term changes in the atmo -most ppl think of it in terms of temp, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, & atmospheric pressure (high and low)

Invasive species: biological

use of animals, fungi or diseases • Control organisms - usually come from the native range of the target species & require a period of study to ensure that they will remain specific to the target population, & will not harm native species, crops, or other ornamental species. - they require both federal & state permits for their use.

water scarcity

volumetric availability

chemically reactive

when it is unstable or could react when exposed to another compound. Hazardous waste that is considered chemically reactive is likely to explode or produce harmful fumes when exposed to other compounds.

surface water

which is all the lakes, rivers and streams on Earth, makes up about 0.3% of all the freshwater (about 0.009% of all water on Earth). Think about all the large rivers we have on our planet, like the Nile, the Amazon, the Colorado and the Mississippi. All of these rivers and all of their streams don't even add up to 1% of Earth's total water! And what's even more amazing is that of all the surface water, rivers make up a measly 2%. Most surface water is found in lakes, which constitute more than 85% of all surface water. There is even more water to be accounted for, such as soil moisture, which is water that is in the ground but above groundwater, and water vapor in the atmosphere. All of this other water, including all those big clouds you see in the sky, makes up less than 1% of all the freshwater on Earth. Surface water - Positive • Renewable • Multiple uses - Negative • Cost • Water quality • Best reservoir sites already used

hazardous waste solutions - deep-well injections

which is when liquid waste is injected into a well that has been created in the porous rock deep below the water table. Around nine billion gallons of hazardous waste are injected into deep-wells each year in the United States. Although this method of hazardous waste disposal is designed to be long-term and keep the waste away from humans and ground water, sometimes the wells leak or are damaged and waste contaminates the water supply. ! Pro- safe if sites chosen carefully, can be retrieved, low cost ! Con- can leak, emits co2 and other air pollutants, encourages waste production ! Almost 2/3 of all liquid hazardous waste is used this way

US major environment laws

• 1969- EPA created • 1970- Clean Air Act • 1970- NOAA established to monitor ocean quality • 1971- Restriction of lead based paints in the home • 1972- Clean Water Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, DDT banned • 1973- Endangered Species Act • 1974- Safe Drinking Water Act • 1977- Soil and Water Conservation Act

Global National Parks

• 6600 major national parks in 120 countries • Most are too small to sustain many large animal species • Suffer from invasions by nonnatives • Large numbers of visitors degrading natural features • Lack of protection- illegal harvests by local and poachers • Less than 13% of the earth's land area is currently protected • Estimates that 20% protection would give adequate range of biomes • Would cost about $23 billion a year (4 x what is currently spent) • Opposition from developers

Mitigating hazardous wastes

• Avoid using pesticides and other hazardous chemicals • Use less harmful substances instead of commercial household cleaners • Do not dump pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze or other chemicals down toilet or drain or on ground • Do not throw old fluorescent light bulbs in the trash

Mimicry

• Batesian mimicry - a harmless animal mimics a dangerous or unpalatable animal. - Examples: many types of butterflies. • Mullerian mimicry - 2 unpalatable species resemble each other, they reinforce avoidance by predators by increasing the frequency of unfavorable encounters. - Examples: monarch butterfly & viceroy butterfly that make animals sick or taste very bad if they are eaten.

Uses of minerals

• Sand- glass, bricks, concrete • Gravel- roadbeds, concrete • Limestone- concrete and cement • Phosphate salts- inorganic fertilizers, detergents • Steel- buildings and vehicles- a mixture of iron, Mn, Co, Cr • Copper-electrical wiring • Aluminum- structural, beverage cans, aircrafts

influencing policy

• Become informed • Make views known at public hearings • Make views known to elected reps and understand their positions • Contribute money and time to candidates who support your views • Vote • Run for office • Form or join NGOs seeking change • Support reform of election campaign finance that reduces undue influence by corporations and wealthy individuals

Ecosystem services

• Benefits that ecosystems provides to humans w/ no monetary cost to us

Ecological efforts and costs

• California condor is the largest land bird in N. America. • 1967 the California condor was listed as "endangered" by the fed govnmnt. • By 1987, all remaining wild condors were placed into a captive breeding program. • Thus began an intensive recovery program to save the California condor from extinction. • In 2008, more California condors flying in the wild than in captivity for the 1st time since the program began. • The cost of the project was 1 million per year.

Municipal Parks

• Counties, cities, townships • Recreation - Primarily greenspace - Some fishing - Typically not hunting - Wide variety of other activities

parks definition

• Criteria for National Park - Natural beauty - Unique geological features - Unusual ecosystems - Recreational opportunities

Science terms

• Data - factual information collected by scientists. • Observation - is an act or instance of viewing or noting a fact or occurrence for some scientific or other special purpose. • Scientific hypothesis - a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. • Model - is an approximate representation or simulation of a system • Scientific theory - is a well-tested and widely accepted scientific hypothesis or a group of related hypotheses. • Proofs - Scientific theories can never be proved, only disproved. A new observation can always conflict with knowledge we already have. • Level of certainty (probability) - refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter.

frackings environmental effects

• Environmental effects - What to do with the waste? - Exempt from most federal regs. - Contamination of groundwater - Air pollution

environmental effects of nonrenewable resources

• Every metal product has a life cycle that includes mining, processing, product manufacturing, and disposal or recycling or product • Uses large amount of energy and water and results in pollution and waste • Removing metals from ores has harmful environmental effects too- removing waste materials from ores produces tailings (rock wastes that are left in piles or put into ponds where they settle out). Particles of toxic metals in tailings piles can be blown by wind or washed out by rainfall and contaminate surface and groundwater • Smelting:- is using heat and or chemical solvents to extract metals from mineral ores • emits large quantities of air pollutants, including SO2 which damage veg and acidify soils

State Parks

• Generally similar to national parks • 95 parks and natural areas in Texas • Management varies by state - Hunting, fishing - Camping - Fees

Industrial Meat Production

• Increased industrialization of meat production • Positives - Use more of the animal - Reduced cost • Negatives - E coli outbreaks from cross contamination - "Pink slime" - Concentration of animal waste

interspecific vs intraspecific competition

• Intraspecific competition - is competition between individuals belonging to the same species, usually to the same population. • Interspecific competition - occurs between individuals belonging to different species.

challenges of Restoration

• Lack of knowledge • Need to understand ecosystems very well to restore them from heavily disturbed state - Success may often occur because of natural components being in place, rather than any real knowledge or planning • Complicated interactions among species • Often most effective to focus on the major factors that changed the ecosystem & attempt to remove these factors • Animals are often ignored from restoration efforts even though they can be important components of ecosystem function • Scale issues • Small isolated urban habitats suffer from a lack of gene flow, connectivity, and buffers from urban environment • Heavily impacted areas require substantial abiotic remediation • Larger scale projects can be extremely difficult and resource intensive

Economic flaws - Short Time Horizons

• Length of time over which an investment is made • Standard economic theory uses a very short time horizon Discounting is the process of determining the present value of a payment or a stream of payment that is to be received in the future. Given the time value of money, a dollar is worth more today than it would be worth tomorrow given its capacity to earn interest. Discounting is the method used to figure out how much these future payments worth today ⇒ Overgraze now to improve the bottom line

Economic flaws - Assuming Infinite Growth

• Market economics are flawed because they are predicated on infinite growth • Infinite growth is not possible in a finite system

sustainable use of metals

• Reuse or recycle when possible • Redesign manufacturing process to use less mineral resources • Reducing mining subsidies • Increase subsidies for reuse, recycle and finding substitutes

principles for environmental policy

• Reversibility principle- avoid making decisions that cannot be reversed later if they turn out to be harmful • Net energy principle- avoid widespread use of energy resources or technologies with low or negative net energy yields, e.g., nuclear, tar sands, shale oil, corn ethanol • Precautionary principle- when substantial evidence indicates that an activity threatens human health or the environment, take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce harm, even if cause and effect is not 100% established. • Prevention principal- make decisions that help to prevent a problem from occurring or becoming worse. • Polluter-pays principle- develop regulations and use economic tools such as green taxes to ensure that polluter bears costs of dealing with pollution and waste. • Holistic principle- recognize that the environmental and other problems we face are connected and we need to address root causes. • Environmental justice principle- no group should bear an unfair share of burden created by pollution.

Economic flaws - Ignored Costs

• Standard economic theory only takes into account certain kinds of costs and benefits. • Those typically ignored: - Social and cultural - Environmental

supply depletion

• Supplies of nonrenewable mineral resources can be economically depleted- they may still exist, but it costs more than it is worth to find, extra, and process remaining deposits • There are several ways to extend supplies of mineral resources, but each of them is limited by economic and environmental factors • When extraction is no longer viable, must rely on recycling or reusing existing supplies, or find a substitute or do without • Depletion time- time it takes to use up a certain proportion (usually 80%) of the reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use • When disagreements, they are usually using different assumptions about supplies and rates of use • Each person in the US uses 22 metric tons of mineral resources per year • US imports all of its supplies of 20 key nonrenewable mineral resources and more than 90% of its supply of 4 other key minerals • Serious concerns about access to adequate supply of four strategic metal resources- Mn, Co, Cr, and Pt, which are essential for the country's economic and military strength.

Public opinion on environmental policies

• There has been a strong effort to weaken US environmental laws since 2000 • 80% of US public strongly support environmental laws • However only 10% of US public (and in economic downturn, 2-3%) considers the environment to be on the nation's most pressing problems

reduce demand for harvested trees

• Up to 60% of wood consumed in USA is wasted unnecessarily • Inefficient use of construction materials, excessive packaging, overuse of junk mail, inadequate paper recycling, failure to reuse or find substitutes for wood shipping containers • Other sources of paper- rice straw, annual plants such as hemp • Use reusable non paper items • Reduce fuel wood harvest

factors affecting population size

• decreasing Mortality is the number of individual deaths in a population over a period of time. • mortality In the human population is death rate. • death rate - the number of individuals that die per 1,000 individuals per year • increasing Natality, which is the number of individuals that are added to a population over a period of time due to reproduction. • Natality in the human population is birth rate. • Birth rate the number of individuals born per 1,000 individuals per year.

Sustainable forest management

• ecosystem services in estimates of economic value • Identify & protect highly diverse forested areas • Stop logging old growth • Stop clear cutting steep slopes • Reduce road building in forests • Leave more standing dead & large fallen trees for habitat & nutrient cycling • Put tree plantations only on deforested & degraded land • Certify timber grown by sustainable methods • Improve fire management

Laws of tens

• ~10% of introduced species are able to survive in new environment • ~10% of those survivors establish viable populations in the wild • ~10% of established populations become problematic