Nursing 200

Piaget's Second Stage

*1 to 4 months -First acquired adaptations or habits

2 Long-Standing Biologically Based Drives

*Evolutionary Theory* 1.) Survival 2.) Reproduction

Metacognition

-"Thinking about thinking" -Involves ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task -Improves with age and experience

Sternberg

-3 distinct types of intelligence: Academic, creative, and practical -Instruction matched to analytic, creative, or athletic abilities -Applications may not be supported by scientific research

Gardner

-7 intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal -Later added 2 more: naturalistic and spiritual/existential -Each associated with a region of the brain -Used in education

Social Norms Approach

-A method of reducing risky behavior among emerging adults that is based on their desire to follow social norms -This approach publicizes survey results to make emerging adults aware of the actual prevalence of various behaviors within their peer group

Naturally-Occurring Retirement Community (NORC)

-A neighborhood or apartment complex whose population is mostly retired people who moved to the location as younger adults and never left -An important reason for both aging in place and NORCs is the social convoy, the result of years of close relationships

Society and Sensory Loss

-A passive acceptance of sensory loss increases morbidity of all kinds -Problems: 1.) It is often difficult to individualize available technology 2.) Ageism is inherent in the design of everything from airplane seats to shoes 3.) Many disabilities would disappear if the environment were better designed

Growth Spurt

-A relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty -Sequence: Weight, height, muscles

The World's Aging Population

-A shift in the proportions of the population of various ages -Once there were 20 times more children than older people -Nearly 8% of the world's population and 13% of the US population are age 65 or older

Compression of Morbidity

-A shortening of the time a person spends ill or infirm before death; accomplished by postponing illness -Due to improvements in lifestyle, medicine, and technological aids -North Americans who live to be 95 are likely to be independent almost all of those years

Learning Late in Life

-A variety of teaching or training tasks to improve the intellectual abilities of older adults have been investigated -Schaie: Seattle Longitudinal Study (improvement of spatial understanding) -Basak and colleagues: video game protocol and improvement in skills related to specific executive functions -Vranica and colleagues: memory strategies instruction and improvement in memory functions

Genes and Alzheimer Disease

-AD in middle age is rare, usually caused by genes (ex. Down Syndrome) and progresses quickly -Most cases begin much later and many genes have some impact (ex. SORL1 and ApoE4) -Genetic tests for AD in late adulthood are rarely used before symptoms appear because they might evoke false fear or deceptive reassurance

Emotional Regulation

-Ability to control when/how emotions are expressed -Possibly due to connections between limbic system and prefrontal cortex -Most important psychosocial accomplishment between ages 2-6

Effortful Control

-Ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination -Reduced by unrealistically high or low self-esteem

Pragmatics

-Ability to use words and devices to communicate in various contexts -Allow children to change formal and informal codes to fit audience

Divorce During Adulthood

-Adults are affected (for better or for worse) by divorce in ways they never anticipated -Generally, those in very distressed marriages are happier after divorce, while those in merely distant marriages (most US divorces) are less happy than they thought they would be -Divorce reduces income, severs friendships, and weakens family ties

Romantic Partners During Adulthood

-Adults everywhere seek committed sexual partnerships to help meet their needs for intimacy as well as to raise children, share resources, and provide care when needed -Married people are a little happier, healthier, and richer than never married ones, but not by much -Cohabitors who expect to marry are happier than those who live together for convenience -Living apart together (LAT) are older than 30 years and have a steady romantic partnership

Prevalence of Obesity in the US

-Adults gain average of 1-2 lbs each year -2/3 of adults are overweight (BMI>25); 20% of these women are morbidly obese

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

-Advances in medicine have solved about half of all fertility problems -Overcomes obstacles such as low sperm count and blocked Fallopian Tubes

Leptin

-Affects appetite and is believed to be involved in the onset of puberty -Increases during childhood and peaks at around age 12 -Evokes uncertainty about its events

Age of Puberty

-Age 11 or 12 is the most likely age of visible onset -The rise in hormone levels that signals puberty is considered normal in those as young as 8 or as old as 14

The Elderly's View of Ageism

-Ageism becomes as self-fulfilling prophecy -Stereotype threat can be as debilitating for the aged as for other groups

Institutionalization of Ageism

-Ageism in US culture and has become pervasive in the media, employment, and retirement communities -Effects can erode feelings of competence -Attitudes toward longevity vary by context and culture

Gesturing During Infancy

-All infants gesture -Concepts with gesture are expressed sooner than speech -Pointing emerges in human babies around 10 months

Trends in Intimacy in Adulthood

-Almost all US residents born before 1940 married (96%) -Fewer of those born between 1940 and 1960 married (89%), and a significant number of them are now divorced and not remarried (16%) -Similar trends are found worldwide

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

-Also (like the fMRI) reveals activity in various parts of the brain. Locations can be pinpointed with precision, but PET requires injection of radioactive dye to light up the active parts of the brain -Limitations: many parents and researchers hesitate to inject radioactive dye into an infant's brain unless a serious abnormality is suspected

Tensions Between Older and Younger Adults

-Although elderly people's relationships with members of younger generations are usually positive, they can also include tension and conflict -Few older adults stop parenting simply because their children are grown -Adult children also imagine parental disapproval, even if it is not outwardly expressed

Technological Compensation for Vision Problems

-Brighter lights and bifocals or two pairs of glasses are needed -Cataracts, glaucoma, and macular degeneration can be avoided or mitigated if diagnosed early -Elaborate visual aids(canes that sense when an object is near, infrared lenses, service animals, computers that "speak" written words) allow even the legally blind to be independent

Prosocial Values Among 6-11 Year-Olds

-Caring for close family members -Cooperating with other children -Not hurting anyone intentionally

Frontal Lobe Disorders (Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration)

-Characterized by personality changes -Caused by deterioration of the frontal lobes and the amygdala -Emotional and personality changes are the main symptoms -Usually begins later

Theory-Theory

-Children attempt to explain everything they see and hear -Children develop theories about intentions before they employ their impressive ability to imitate

Growth Patterns (Early Childhood Years)

-Children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens -Each year from age 2-6, well-nourished children add almost 3 inches in height and gain about 4.5 lbs in weight -Center of gravity moves from the breastbone down to the belly button

Logical Extension

-Closely related to fast-mapping -Occurs when children use words to describe other objects in the same category

Andropause (Male Menopause)

-Coined to signify a drop in testosterone levels in older men, resulting in a reduction in sexual desire, erections, and muscle mass -Effectiveness of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is questionable

Edgework

-Occupations, recreational activities, or other ventures that involve a degree of risk or danger -Prospect of "living on the edge" makes edgework compelling

Consequential Strangers

-People who are not close but do have an impact -People of diverse religions, ethnic groups, ages, and political opinions- and diversity is one reason they may be consequential, particularly in current times

Vygotsky and International Contexts

-Vygotsky's emphasis on sociocultural contexts contrasts with Piaget's maturational, self-discovery approach -Culture affects content and method of learning

Hindrances of Physical Activity During Middle Childhood

1.) "Stranger danger" 2.) Recess elimination 3.) After school programs 4.) Lack of access to outdoor play spaces

2 Types of Analysis to Predict Danger and Prevent it

1.) Accident autopsy 2.) Statistical analysis

3 theorists who describe stages of development (discontinuous process):

1.) Freud 2.) Erickson 3.) Piaget

Factors Encouraging Excercise

1.) Friendship 2.) Communities

Benefits of Nuclear Families

1.) Generally function best 2.) Better educational, social, cognitive, and behavioral child outcomes 3.) Selection effects and parental alliance 4.) Positive effects beyond childhood

Three Periods of Prenatal Development

1.) Germinal Period 2.) Embryonic Period 3.) Fetal Period

2 Types of Child-Centered Programs

1.) Montessori Schools 2.) Reggio Emilia Approach

Two Recent Occupational Shifts

1.) More women are working in jobs traditionally reserved for men 2.) Women's work has gained new respect

According to the Lifespan Perspective, Growth is:

1.) Multidirectional 2.) Multicontextual 3.) Multicultural 4.) Multidisciplinary 5.) Plastic

3 Interacting Elements Underlying Motor Skills

1.) Muscle Strength 2.) Brain Maturation 3.) Practice

Health Problems in Middle Childhood

1.) Obesity 2.) Asthma

The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

1.) Openness: Imaginative, curious, artistic, creative, open to new experiences 2.) Conscientious: Organized, deliberate, conforming, self-disciplined 3.) Extroversion: Outgoing, assertive, active 4.) Agreeableness: Kind, helpful, easygoing, generous 5.) Neuroticism: Anxious, moody, self-punishing, critical

Influences of Moral Development

1.) Peer culture 2.) Personal experience 3.) Empathy

4 Types of Tertiary Prevention and Placement

1.) Permanency Planning 2.) Foster Care 3.) Kinship Care 4.) Adoption

Types of Bullying

1.) Physical-Hitting, pinching, kicking, etc. 2.) Verbal-Teasing, taunting, or name-calling 3.) Relational-Destroying peer acceptance and friendship 4.) Cyberbullying-Using electroning means to harm another

Levels of Injury Prevention

1.) Primary prevention 2.) Secondary prevention 3.) Tertiary prevention

4 Approaches of US Grandparents to Dealing With Their Grandchildren

1.) Remote Grandparents (sometimes called distant grandparents) are emotionally distant 2.) Companionate Grandparents (sometimes called 'fun-loving' grandparents) entertain and 'spoil' their grandchildren 3.) Involved Grandparents are active in the day-to-day lives of their grandchildren 4.) Surrogate Parents raise their grandchildren, usually because the parents are unable or unwilling to do so

3 Attitudes About the Purpose of Sex

1.) Reproduction 2.) Relationship 3.) Recreation

3 Factors Found to Increase Risk of SIDS

1.) Sleeping position (back is best) 2.) Maternal smoking 3.) Bedding type

3 Patterns of Relationships Between Love and Marriage During Emerging Adulthood

3 patterns occur, roughly in thirds: 1.) Arranged marriages 2.) Adolescents meet a select group and man asks woman's parents for permission 3.) People socialize with many and then fall in love and marry when they are able, the mot common in Western cultures

English as a Second Language (ESL/ELL)

A US approach to teaching English that gathers all the non-English speakers together and provides intense instruction in English. Their first language is never used; the goal is to prepare them for regular classes in English

AARP

A US group of people aged 50 and older that advocates for the elderly

No Child Left Behind Act

A US law enacted in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring states to qualify for federal education funding by administering standardized tests to measure school achievement

Onlooker Play

A child watches other children play

Elderspeak

A condescending way of speaking to older adults that resembles baby talk, with short, simple sentences, exaggerated emphasis, repetition, and a slower rate and higher pitch than normal speech

Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)

A course that is offered solely online for college credit. Typically, tuition is very low and thousands of students enroll.

Individual Education Plan (IEP)

A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs

Myelin

A fatty coating on the axons that speeds up signals between neurons

Kinship Care

A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver

X-Linked

A gene that is carried on the X chromosome.

Demographic Pyramid

A graphic representation of population as a series of stacked bars in which each age cohort is represented by one bar, with the youngest cohort at the bottom *Demographic pyramid is no longer accurate

Adoption

A legal proceeding in which an adult or couple is granted the joys and obligations of being that child's parent(s)

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn.

Foster Care

A legal, publicly supported system in which a maltreated child is removed from the parents' custody and entrusted to another adult or family, which is reimbursed for expenses incurred in meeting the child's needs

Shaken Baby Syndrome

A life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth. This motion ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections

Genetic Clock Theory of Aging

A mechanism in the DNA of cells that regulates the aging process by triggering hormonal changes and controlling cellular reproduction and repair

Midbrain

Area of brain that affects emotions and memory

Hippocampus

Brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations

Nature of School-Aged Children

Children between the ages of 6 and 11: -Attempt to master culturally valued skills and develop a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent -Learn to care for themselves -Often engage in activities without their parents' awareness or approval

English Language Learners (ELL)

Children in the US whose proficiency in English is low--usually below a cutoff score on an oral or written test

Telomerase

Enzyme that increases the length of telomeres

Stressor

Experience, circumstance, or condition that affects a person

Tertiary Prevention

Focus on limiting harm after maltreatment

Goals for Morbidly Obese

Gastric bypass or gastric banding are sought by about 200,000 in the US; complications are high

Pituitary

Gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands

Developmental Theory

Group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth.

Cross-Sectional Research

Groups of people of one age compared with people of another age.

Reported Maltreatment

Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities

Substantiated Maltreatment

Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified

Authoritarian Parenting

High behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication

Permissive Parenting

High nurturance and communication, but little discipline, guidance, or control

Use of Changing the Social Context in Preventing Drug Abuse

Higher prices, targeted warnings, better law enforcement has cut down smoking

Accumulating Stressors During Adulthood

Humans have always experienced stresses, some of which becomes stressors, and they have developed ways to cope with them

B Cells

Immune cells made in the bone marrow that create antibodies for isolating and destroying bacteria and viruses

T Cells

Immune cells made in the thymus gland that produce substances that attack infected cells in the body

Childhood Overweight

In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile

Childhood Obesity

In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile

Avoidable Injury (Early Childhood Years)

In every nation, more young children die from accidents than from any other specific cause -2 to 6 year olds in the US are at a greater risk than slightly older children

Influence of nonshared environment (ex. friends or schools) _____ with age

Increases

Erikson

Industry vs. inferiority

Stranger Wariness

Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but rather cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close

Self-Awareness at 5 Months

Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers

Self-Awareness in First 4 Months

Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met

Drug Abuse

Ingestion of a drug to the extent that it impairs the user's biological or psychological well-being

Epidural

Injection in particular part of spine to alleviate pain.

Child Maltreatment

Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age

Secondary Circular Reactions

Interaction between baby and something else; mirror neurons begin to function

Circular Reactions

Interactions of sensation, perception, and cognition

Synapse

Intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons

Copy Number Variations

Involve genes with various repeats or detections of base pairs.

Tertiary Circular Reactions

Involves active exploration and experimentation; exploration of range of new activities and variations in responses as way of learning

High-Stakes Test

Involves evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure

In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Involves mixing sperm with surgically removed ova from the woman's ovary and implanting the resulting zygote into a woman's uterus.

Bickering

Involves petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing

Aging in Place

Involves remaining in the same home and community in later life, adjusting but not leaving when health fades

Babbling

Involves repetition of certain syllables, such as "ba-ba-ba", that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old -Is experience-expectant -Begins to sound like native language around 12 months

Base Rate Neglect

Involves tendency to overlook or ignore the frequency of a specific factor when making a judgement or decision, even in the face of overwhelming odds

Genome

Involves the full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.

Strange Situation

Laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom

Fusiform Face Area of the Brain

Makes newborn infants adept at facial recognition

Learning Disorder

Marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by mental retardation, or by an unusually stressful home environment

Heterogamy

Marriage between people who tend to be dissimilar in SES, goals, religion, attitudes, local origin, etc.

Homogamy

Marriage between people who tend to be similar in SES, goals, religion, attitudes, local origin, etc.

Achievement Test

Measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing science, or some other subject

Public Health

Measures that help prevent morbidity, mortality, and disability in the public at large (i.e. immunization, preventive health practices)

Perception

Mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation

Avoidant Coping

Method of responding to a stressor by ignoring, forgetting, or hiding it

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Mistaken belief that if money, time, or effort that cannot be recovered has already been invested in some endeavor, then more should be invested in an effort to reach the goal

Chromosomes

Molecules of DNA.

Religious Identity During Adolescence

Most adolescents accept broad outlines of parental and cultural religious identity. Specific religious beliefs may be questioned.

Alzheimer Disease (AD)

Most common cause of Neurocognitive Disorder, characterized by gradual deterioration of memory and personality and marked by the formation of plaques of beta-amyloid protein and tangles of tau proteins in the brain

Measuring Health

Most of the US expenditure on health goes toward preventing death among people who are already sick

Hybrid Theory of Language Development

Multiple attentional, social and linguistic cues contribute to early language

Causes of Infertility in Males During Adulthood

Multiple factors (ex. advanced age, fever, radiation, prescription drugs, stress, environmental toxins, drug abuse, alcoholism, cigarette smoking) can reduce sperm number, shape, and motility

Beanpole Family

Multiple generations, but only a few members in each one

Variations in Drug Use by Place

Nations have markedly different rates of adolescent drug use, even nations with common boundaries. These variations are partly due to differing laws the world over

Disputed Components of Piaget's Findings

No sudden shift exists between preoperational and concrete operational logic

Relational Aggression

Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people

Part-Time Work and Self-Employment

Nonstandard work schedules often correlate with personal, relational, and child-rearing difficulties

Percentile

Number that indicates rank compared to other similar people of the same age

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.

Eclectic Perspective

Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories of development are selectively applied, rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.

Parental Imprinting

Occurs when genes are affected depending on whether they came from the mother or the father.

Availability Error

Occurs when people remember most easily the events or people who make a dramatic impact

Friendships in Older Children

Older children: -Demand more of their friends -Change friends less often -Become upset when a friendship ends -Find it harder to make new friends -Seek friends who share their interests and values

Conflicts with Parents During Adolescence

Parent-adolescent conflict typically peaks in early adolescence and is more a sign of attachment than of distance

Neglectful/Uninvolved Parenting

Parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives

Positive Parental Monitoring

Part of a warm, supportive relationship

Primary Sex Characteristics

Parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis

Weathering

Past stresses and medical disabilities

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Pattern of attachment (Type A) in which infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Carrier

Person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype.

Self-Awareness

Person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people

Aptitude

Potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge

Value of Practical Intelligence

Practical intelligence valued during adulthood, useful in every society

Listening and Responding of Newborns

Preference for speech sounds and mother's language' gradual selective listening

Male Coping Methods of Stress

Problem-focused, sympathetic nervous system prepares for "fight-or-flight", testosterone levels rise

Automatization

Process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so that it no longer requires conscious thought

Religious Coping

Process of turning to faith as a method of coping with stress -During adulthood, religious faith and practice tend to increase; past experience coping with stress may be the reason

Methylation

Processes additional DNA and RNA that enhances, transcribes, connects, and alters genes.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Proposes that irrational unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.

Sociocultural Theory

Proposes thoughts and human development result from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society.

Object Permanence

Realization that objects or people continue to exist when they are no longer in sight

Brain Stem

Region deep inside brain which controls automatic responses

Aggressive-Rejected

Rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior

Withdrawn-Rejected

Rejected by peers because of timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior

Secure Attachment

Relationship (Type B) in which infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

Gametes

Reproductive cells (sperm and ova), each consisting of 23 chromosomes.

Sensation

Response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus

Flynn Effect

Rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

Accepted Components of Piaget's Findings

School-age children can use mental categories and subcategories more flexibly, inductively, and simultaneously than younger children

Cross-Sequential Research on Age and Intelligence

Seattle Longitudinal Study -500 adults, aged 20 to 50, were tested on five primary mental abilities (verbal meaning comprehension, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, and word fluency (rapid associations)) -New cohort was added and followed every 7 years -Found that people improve in most mental abilities during adulthood and decline later in life. -Each ability has a distinct pattern for each gender

Human Development

Seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

Genes

Segments of DNA which contain instructions for stringing together the right amino acids in the right order via pairs of four nitrogenous bases.

Guilt

Self-blame that people experience when they do something wrong

HPA Axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal)

Sequence of a chain reaction of hormone production, originating in the hypothalamus and moving to the pituitary and then to the adrenal glands

HPG Axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonad)

Sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the gonads

Cluster Suicides

Several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period of time

Calorie Restriction

Slows down aging

Parenthood

Some caregiving involves meeting another person's physical needs (feeding, cleaning, etc.), but much of it has to do with fulfilling another person's psychological needs

Expertise

Specialized skills and knowledge developed around a particular activity or area of special interest

Fast-Mapping

Speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning

Hygiene Hypothesis

States that the immune system needs to tangle with microbes when we are young and that children are overprotected from viruses and bacteria.

Heritability

Statistical term that indicates what portion of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population is inherited. -Ex. 90% of the height differences among children of the same age is genetic

Emotion-Focused Coping

Strategy to deal with stress by changing feelings about the stressor rather than changing the stressor itself

Problem-Focused Coping

Strategy to deal with stress by tackling a stressful situation directly

Humanism

Stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, etc.

Flipped Class

Students are required to watch videos of a lecture on their computers before class, and then class time is used for discussion, with the professor prodding and encouraging bu not lecturing.

Information-Processing Approach

Studies how the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information

Cross-Sequential Research

Study several groups of people of different ages and follow them over the years.

Dynamic-Systems Theory

Suggests that concepts of male and female behavior are affected by many developmental aspects of biology and culture, changing as humans grow older

Nature Perspective on Moral Development

Suggests that morality is genetic, an outgrowth of natural bonding, attachment, and cognitive maturation

Couvade

Symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers.

Selection

Teenagers select friends whose values and interests they share, abandoning friends who follow other paths

Wasting

Tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition

Delay Discounting

Tendency to undervalue or ignore future consequences and rewards in favor of immediate gratification -Reduced with age as prefrontal cortex matures -Postformal thinking allows for better planning

IQ Test

Test designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school. Originally, intelligence was defined as mental age divided by chronological age, times 100, hence the term intelligence quotient (IQ).

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

Test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes.

Organ Reserve

The capacity of organs to allow the body to cope with stress via extra, unused functioning ability

Gender Dysphoria

The distress individuals may feel as a consequence of feeling that they are in "the wrong body"

Telomeres

The ends of chromosomes in the cells

Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage in Erikson's model, in which older people gain interest in the arts, in children, and in human experience as a whole

Hayflick Limit

The number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into new cells

Maximum Life Span

The oldest possible age to which members of a species can live, under ideal circumstances. For humans, that age is approximately 122 years

Extrinsic Rewards of Work

The tangible benefits, usually in the form of compensation (ex. salary, health insurance, pension) that one receives for doing a job

Morality of Care

The tendency of females to be reluctant to judge right and wrong in absolute terms due to socialization

Morality of Justice

The tendency of males to emphasize justice over compassion and judging right and wrong in absolute terms

Allostatic Load

The wear and tear on the body that results from either too much stress or inefficient management of stress

Hegel

The word dialectic refers to the philosophical concept developed by Hegel two centuries ago, that every idea or truth bears within itself the opposite idea or truth

Self Theories

Theories of late adulthood that emphasize the core self, or the search to maintain one's integrity and identity

Stratification Theories

Theories that emphasize that social forces, particularly those related to a person's social stratum, or social category, limit individual choices and affect a person's ability to function in late adulthood as past stratification continues to limit life in various ways

Suicidal Ideation

Thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones

Reaction Time

Time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eye blink) or cognitively (with a thought)

Amygdala

Tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

Contact-Maintaining

Touching, snuggling, and holding

Multifactoral

Trait is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype.

Polygenetic

Trait is influenced by many genes.

Disorganized Attachment

Type of attachment (Type D) that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

Sensory Development

Typically precedes intellectual and motor development

Empathy

Understanding the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own

Allele

Variation of a gene, or any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.

Diathesis-Stress Model

View that mental disorders are produced by the interactions of genetics (diathesis) and a stressful environment and life events

Negative Parental Monitoring

When overly restrictive and controlling

Fluid Intelligence

*Cattell* -Those types of basic intelligence that make learning of all sorts quick and thorough -Includes ability such as working memory, abstract thought, and speed of thinking

Crystallized Intelligence

*Cattell* -Those types of intellectual ability that reflect accumulated learning -Ex. vocabulary and general information

2 Clusters of Intelligence

*Cattell* 1.) Fluid Intelligence 2.) Crystallized Intelligence

Gender Schema

*Cognitive Theory* -Child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences based on his/her observations and experiences -Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as either male or female, and then they think and behave accordingly

Jean Piaget

*Cognitive Theory* -Maintained that cognitive development occurs in four major age-related periods/stages -Intellectual advancement occurs lifelong because humans seek cognitive equilibrium

Preoperational Intelligence

*Piaget* -Cognitive development between the ages of 2-6 -Includes language and imagination -Suggests logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage

Formal Operational Thought

*Piaget* -Fourth and final stage of cognitive development -Characterized by more systematic logic and the ability to think about abstract ideas

Animism

*Piaget* -Involves belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive -Is related to egocentric reasoning -May be involved with rational as well as irrational ideas

Symbolic Thought

*Piaget* -Major accomplishment of preoperational intelligence -Allows a child to think symbolically, including understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item can symbolize something else -Helps explain animism

Classification

*Piaget* -Organization of things into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common -By age 8, most children can classify

Transitive Inference

*Piaget* -The ability to figure out the unspoken link between one fact and another -Linked to maturation of hippocampus which reaches critical point at around age 7

Four Limitations of Preoperational Thought That Make Logic Difficult Until About Age 6

*Piaget* 1.) Centration 2.) Focus on Appearance 3.) Static Reasoning 4.) Irreversibility

Focus on Appearance

*Piaget* Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent

Irreversibility

*Piaget* Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred

Static Reasoning

*Piaget* Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be

Centration

*Piaget* Includes characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others; may include egocentrism

Seriation

*Piaget* Includes knowledge that things can be arranged in logical series

Piaget's First Two Stages

*Primary circular reactions; infant's responses to his or her own body

Sigmund Freud

*Psychoanalytic Theory* -Proposes five psychosexual stages during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts -Personality has 3 parts: Id, Ego, and Superego

Identification

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else

Erik Erikson

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Described eight developmental stages (5 childhood and 3 adult), each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis.

Phallic Stage

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure

Superego

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Judgemental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents

Epigenetic Theory

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Stresses that genes and biological impulses are powerfully influenced by the social environment.

Electra Complex

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their fathers' exclusive love

Oedipus Complex

*Psychoanalytic Theory* Unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers' exclusive love

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

*Recessive-Gene Disorder* -Results in inability to metabolize phenylalanine (an amino acid found in many foods) -Buildup of phenylalanine causes brain damage, progressive mental retardation, and other symptoms

Fragile X Syndrome

*Recessive-Gene Disorder* Most common form of inherited mental retardation.

Sickle-Cell Trait

*Recessive-Gene Disorder* Offers some protection against malaria (African carriers are more likely than non-carriers to survive).

7 Forms of Love

*Robert Sternberg (1988)* 1.) Liking 2.) Infatuation 3.) Empty Love 4.) Romantic Love 5.) Fatuous Love 6.) Compassionate Love 7.) Consummate Love

3 Aspects of Love

*Robert Sternberg (1988)* 1.) Passion: An intense physical, cognitive, and emotional onslaught characterized by excitement, ecstasy, and euphoria 2.) Intimacy: Knowing someone well, sharing secrets as well as sex 3.) Commitment: Grows gradually through decisions to be together, mutual care giving, kept secrets, shared possession, and forgiveness

Piaget's Third and Fourth Stages

*Secondary circular reactions; infant's response to objects and people

Personal Compensation: Sex

*Selective Optimization with Compensation -Most people remain sexually active throughout adulthood; intercourse generally becomes less frequent, and other behaviors become important -Married couples adjust to whatever biological changes occur in their sexual arousal, but many also improve their relationship in the process

Fine Motor Skills

-Are more difficult to master -Involve small hand and finger movements -Often involve both sides of the brain -Influenced by practice and maturation -On average, mature 6 months earlier in females

Initiative vs. Guilt

-Erikson's third psychosocial crisis -Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them

Behaviorism on Infant Psychosocial Development

*Bandura-Social Learning Theory -Parents mold infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment -Behavior patterns acquired by observing the behavior of others -Bobo doll experiment

Longitudinal Research on Age and Intelligence

*Bayley and Colleagues* -Data found many intellectual gains through adulthood -Probably due to changes in the environment (more education, improved nutrition, smaller family size, fewer infections) and NOT changes in innate intelligence -Better than cross-sectional research but also has problems (ex. practice effects, high attrition rates, unusual cohort effects)

John Watson

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* -American Psychologist -One of the earliest proponents of behaviorism/learning theory

Ivan Pavlov

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Classical Conditioning

Classical/Respondant Conditioning

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Social Learning

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Learning occurs through modeling what others do

B.F. Skinner

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Operant Conditioning

Conditioning

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli.

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

*Behaviorism/Learning Theory* Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future.

Piaget's First Stage

*Birth to 1 month -Stage of reflexes

Culture and Family Caregiving

-Family bonds depend on many factors, including childhood attachments, cultural norms, and the financial and practical resources of each generation -Familial interdependence is influenced by gender, culture, and ethnic variations

Caring for the Frail Elderly

-Family caregivers experience substantial stress. Their health may suffer, and their risk of depression increases, especially if the care receiver has dementia -In the US, the spouse is usually the caregiver

Conflict

-Family conflict harms children, especially when adults fight about child rearing -Fights are more common in stepfamilies, divorced families, and extended families -Although genes have some effect, conflict itself was the main influence on the child's well-being

Clinical Depression

-Feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more -Varied causal factors: Biological and psychological stress, genes, rumination with peers

Prevalence of Obesity Worldwide

-Half a billion worldwide are obese -Plateau in US; rapid increase in many developing nations, especially Africa and Asia

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) During Emerging Adulthood

-Half of all emerging adults in the US have had at least one STI -STIs have always been present, but the rate has reached epidemic proportions due to sexual patterns -Half of all new cases worldwide occur in people younger than 26 -Best way to prevent STIs is lifelong monogamy -Worldwide, globalization fuels every contagious disease -AIDS has become a worldwide epidemic, with more heterosexual females than gay males testing positive for HIV

Family Patterns and Eating Disorder Reduction

-Healthy eating in childhood -Eating together during childhood

Early Infant Emotions

-High emotional responsiveness -Reactive pain and pleasure to complex social awareness -Social Smile (6 weeks) evoked by viewing human faces -Laughter (3-4 months) often associated with curiosity

Evolutionary Theory on Sex-Role Development

-Holds that sexual attraction is crucial for humankind's most basic urge: to reproduce -Suggests that young boys and girls practice becoming attractive to the other sex so that they will be ready after puberty to find each other and ensure extension of the next generation

Evolutionary Theory

-Humans have two long-standing biologically based drives: survival and reproduction -Proposes concept of selective adaptation -Suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial when the environment changes and benefits humanity as a whole

Problems Presented by Family Caregiving

-If one adult child is the primary caregiver, other siblings tend to feel relief or jealousy -Care receivers and caregivers often disagree about schedules, menus, doctor visits, etc. -Resentments on both sides disrupt mutual affection and appreciation -Public agencies rarely provide services unless an emergency arises -When caregiving results in resentment and social isolation, the risk of depression, poor health, and abuse escalates

Consequences of Bullying

-Impaired social understanding, lower school achievement, relationship difficulties -Depression

Ecological Niche

-In adulthood, people choose their particular social context based on individual personality needs and interests -Adults select vocations, mates, and neighborhoods, and they settle into chosen routines and surroundings -Ages 30 to 50 are marked by more stability of personality than are other periods of life

Compensation for the Brain

-In every aspect of aging, it is the brain that selects, optimizes, and compensates -The brain slows down, connections between parts are diminished, and volume decreases, especially in the neocortex and hippocampus -New neurons form and cognitive reserves compensate, but do not complete mitigate, brain senescence -Exercise, nutrition, and drug avoidance--and plasticity--protect the brain to some degree

Relationships With Younger Generations During Late Adulthood

-In past centuries, most adults died before their grandchildren were born -Today, some families span five generations

Temperament

-Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation -Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices

Control Processes

-Include executive function of the brain: selective attention, strategic judgement, and then appropriate action -Are the underlying impairment of cognition in late adulthood, especially impaired retrieval -Shift as analysis and forethought give way to reliance on prior knowledge, general principles, and rules of thumb

Grammar

-Includes all the devices by which words communicate meaning -Becomes obvious in holophrases between 18 and 24 months -Correlates with size of vocabulary

Hypothetical Thought

-Includes reasoning that uses propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality -Transforms perceptions

Caregiving

-Includes responding to the emotions of people who need a confidante, a cheerleader, a counselor, or a close friend -Parents and children care for one another, as do partners -Neighbors, friends, and distant relatives can also be caregivers

Diversity and Enrollment in College

-Increased diversity of the student body is more likely to encourage than discourage cognition -More faculty are moving from lecture format to learning methods that require student interaction and foster learning

Several Aspects of Adolescent Brain Development are Positive

-Increased myelination, which decreases reaction time -Enhanced dopamine activity, promoting pleasurable experiences -Synaptic growth enhances moral development and openness to new experiences and ideas

Benefits of Breastfeeding for the Family

-Increased survival of other children -Increased family income because of formula and medical expenses -Less stress on the father, especially at night

Internalizing Problems

-Involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless -More common in girls

Long-Term Memory After Age 65

-It is difficult to get an accurate assessment of long-term memory -Emotional memories encoded at one point in life tend to endure without much loss or distortion

Combining Intimacy and Generativity

-Job satisfaction depends on the job, the home situation, and the worker's ability to balance intimacy and generativity needs -Chosen schedules increase worker motivation, happiness, and health -The midlife crisis, the empty nest, and the sandwich generation are not common

John Holland

-John Holland's six-part diagram helps job seekers realize that income and benefits are not the only goals of employment -Workers have healthier hearts and minds if their job fits their personal preferences

Popular Children in the US

-Kind, trustworthy, cooperative -Athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant, aggressive (around the fifth grade)

Freud

-Latency -Children acquire cognitive skills and assimilate cultural values by expanding their world to include teachers, neighbors, peers, club leaders, and coaches -Sexual energy is channeled into social concerns

Vocabulary of School-Age Children

-Learn as many as 20 new words a day and apply grammar rules they did not use before -Become flexible and logical -Can understand prefixes, suffixes, compound words, phrases, metaphors, and figures of speech

Seeing During Infancy

-Least mature sense at birth -Newborns focus between 4 and 30 inches away -Experience and maturation of visual cortex improve shape recognition, visual scanning, and details -Binocular vision at 3 months

Dual Processing and the Brain

-Limbic system activated by puberty; prefrontal cortex matures more gradually -Cortical regions involving impulse control continue to develop through early adulthood -Adolescent brain gives fewer signals of caution/inhibition than adult brain -Subcortical regions involving sensation seeking develop rapidly after puberty

Cognitive Theory on Sex-Role Development

-Offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity that becomes apparent at about age 5 -Gender Schema

Religious Involvement During Late Adulthood

-Older adults are less likely to attend religious services than are the middle-aged -Yet, faith increases with age, as do praying and other religious practices -Religious institutions fulfill many needs, and a nearby house of worship is one reason American elders prefer to age in place

Multitasking in Late Adulthood

-Older adults who were better at working memory and multitasking used their prefrontal cortex; those who were worse did not -Brain shrinkage interferes with multitasking more than with other cognitive challenges -Multitasking slows downs people of every age, but older adults more so -Older adults usually need to concentrate on one task at a time

Function of Other Single-Parent Families

-On average, structure functions less well -Lower income and stability -Stress from multiple roles -Benefits from community support

Naming Explosion

-Once spoken, vocabulary reaches about 50 words, it builds quickly, at a rate of 50 to 100 words per month -21-month-olds say twice as many words as 18-month-olds

Emotional Stress During Emerging Adulthood

-One consequence of current sexual patterns may be emotional stress as relationships begin and end -If partners have differing ideas about the purpose of sex or the nature of gender, emotional pain and frustration can occur (unanticipated emotional entanglement)

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

-Procedure in which ova are surgically removed from a woman and fertilized with sperm in a laboratory -After the fertilized cells (the zygotes) have divided several times, they are inserted into the woman's uterus

Postformal Thought

-Proposed stage of cognitive development, after Piaget's fourth stage -Extends adolescent thinking by being more practical, flexible, and dialectical -Characterized by "problem-finding" -Occurs as person is more open with ideas and less concerned with absolute right and wrong

Cognitive Theory

-Proposes that thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions -Focuses on changes in how people think over time

Adult vs. Peer Values Among 6-11 Year-Olds

-Protect your friends -Don't tell adults what is happening -Don't be too different from your peers

Work Schedules

Another recent change in employment patterns is the proliferation of work schedules beyond the traditional 9-5, M-F -Flextime -Part-time work and self-employment -Components of ideal balance include adequate income, chosen schedules, and social support

PTSD

Anxiety disorder that develops as a delayed reaction to having experienced or witnessed a profoundly shocking or frightening event. Symptoms may include flashbacks to the event, hyperactivity/hypervigilance, displaced anger, sleeplessness, and nightmares between fantasy and reality

Prenatal Teratogens

Any agent or condition, including viruses or drugs, resulting in birth defects or complications.

Lifespan Perspective

Approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

Proximity-Seeking

Approaching and following their caregivers

Prefrontal Cortex

Area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

Cataracts

As early as age 50, about 10% of adults have cataracts, a thickening of the lens, causing vision to become cloudy, opaque, and distorted. By age 70, 30% have cataracts. They can be removed in outpatient surgery and replaced with an artificial lens

Personal Fable

Aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, or experiences are unique, more wonderful, or awful than anyone else's

Recognition After Age 65

At every age, recognition memory is better than recall

Automatic Expert Cognition

Automatic Processing: Thinking that occurs without deliberate, conscious thought -Experts process most tasks automatically, saving conscious thought for unfamiliar challenges

Language Shifts

Becoming more fluent in the school language than in their home language

Mood Disorders During Emerging Adulthood

Before they reach age 30, 8% of Americans suffer from a mood disorder: mania, bipolar disorder, or severe depression

Familism

Belief that family members should support one another, sacrificing individual freedom and success if necessary in order to preserve family unity

Kinkeepers

Caregiver who takes responsibility for maintaining communication, gathers family for holidays, conveys important family news, and fosters generativity in other family members

One of the favorite activities of many retirees is _____________.

Caring for their own home

Threshold Effect

Certain teratogens are relatively harmless until exposure reaches a certain level.

Primary Prevention of Asthma

Changes in the entire society

Extrinsic Motivation

Drive/reason to pursue a goal that arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from outside

Induced Labor

Drug used to start, speed, or strengthen labor.

Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome)

Eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives

Acceleration

Educating gifted children alongside other children of the same mental, not chronological, age

Home Schooling

Education in which children are taught at home, usually by their parents

Aesthetic Sense and Creativity in Late Adulthood

Elderly artists with extraordinary talents did not feel that their ability had been age-impaired

Village Care

Elderly people who live near each other pool their resources, staying in their homes but also getting special assistance when they need it

Fear

Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

Female Coping Methods of Stress

Emotion-focused, oxytocin produced to aid "tend and befriend"

Peer Pressure

Encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude

Technology and Adolescence

Encourages rapid shifts of attention, multitasking without reflection visual learning instead of invisible analysis

Flexible Expert Cognition

Experts are creative and curious, deliberately experimenting and enjoying the challenge when things do not go according to plan

Strategic Expert Cognition

Experts have more and better strategies, especially when problems are unexpected

Prosocial Behavior

Extending helpfulness and kindness without any obvious benefit to oneself. Increases from age 3 to 6

Behaviors During Adolescence

Externalizing and internalizing behavior are more closely connected in adolescence than at any other age

Stunting

Failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition

Child Neglect

Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs

Family of Origin

Family each person is born into

Family of Choice

Family one creates for oneself as an adult

Birth

Fetal brain signals the release of hormones to trigger the female's uterine muscles.

Dendrite

Fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons

Axon

Fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

Primary Circular Reactions

First two stages of sensorimotor intelligence, involving the infant's own body

Secondary Prevention

Focus on identifying and intervening; insecure attachment

Primary Prevention

Focus on macrosystem and exosystem; stable neighborhood, family cohesion, decreasing financial instability, family isolation, and teenage parenting

Dynamic Perception

Focus on movement and change

Extreme Sports

Forms of recreation that include apparent risk of injury or death and that are attractive and thrilling as a result

Listening and Responding Before Birth

Language learning via brain organization and hearing; may be innate

Motor Skills

Learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid

Family Structure

Legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home; includes nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, and others

Developmental Psychopathology

Links the study of typical development with the study of disorders

Corpus Callosum

Long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them

Goals for Those Damaged by Weight

Losing enough to protect weight rather than to reaching normal weight

Expertise and Age

-Essential requirement of expertise is time -Circumstance, training, talent, ability, practice, and age affect expertise -Expertise sometimes overcomes the effects of age -Experienced adults often use selective optimization with compensation

Wages and Benefits

-Even though average income has doubled, overall happiness within the US has not risen in the past 50 years -The sense of unfairness is innate and universal, encoded in the brain. In the US, many are offended by the extremely high salaries of corporate executives

Selective Optimization with Compensation

-Every compensatory strategy involves personal choice, societal practices, and technological options -Three examples include sexual intercourse, driving, and the senses

Multitasking

-Example of selective optimization; more difficult with age -Older adults utilize compensatory strategies for optimal functioning

Consequences of Obesity

-Excess body fat increases the risk of almost every chronic disease, including diabetes -Diabetes linked to eye, heart, foot problems and early deaath -Social stigma and psychological impact occur

Visual Cliff

-Experimental apparatus that gives the illusion of a sudden drop-off between one horizontal surface and another -Infant performance depends on past experience, including social context

Still-Face Technique

-Experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant -Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of distress Conclusions: -Parent's responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development -Infants' brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

Wisdom

-Expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life -Life review, self-actualization, and integrity are considered parts of wisdom -Some elderly people are unusually wise

Intuitive Expert Cognition

-Experts rely on their past experiences and on immediate contexts; their actions are more intuitive and less stereotypic -Novices follow formal procedures and rules

Old-Old

*20% Older adults (those aged 75 to 85) who suffer from physical, mental, or social deficits

Piaget's Third Stage

*4-8 months -Attempts to make interesting things last

Piaget's Fourth Stage

*6-12 months -New adaptation and anticipation; means to the end

Gonads

Paired sex glands (ovaries and testes) that produce hormones and gametes

Pros and Cons of Co-Sleeping

Pros: -Easier response time -Less parental exhaustion -More convenient for breastfeeding Cons: -Higher SID -Ghosts in the nursery phenomenon

Overregularization

-Application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur -Makes language seem more "regular" than it actually is

Effortful Control

Ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination

Value of Analytic Intelligence

Analytic intelligence valued in high school and college, may be seen as absentminded

Psychometric Approach

Analyzes intelligence via IQ tests and other measures

Young-Old

*70% Healthy, vigorous, financially-secure older adults (those aged 60 to 75) who are well integrated into the lives of their families and communities

Piaget's Sixth Stage

*18-24 months -Mental combinations; intellectual experimentation via imagination

Oldest-Old

*10% Elderly adults (those over age 85) who are dependent on others for almost everything, requiring supportive services such as nursing-home care and hospital stays

Piaget's Fifth Stage

*12-18 months -New means through active exploration

Working Model

*Cognitive Theory* -Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences -The child's interpretations of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves -New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences

Information-Processing Theory

*Cognitive Theory* Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.

Assimilation

*Cognitive Theory* Experiences are interpreted to fit into old ideas

Accommodation

*Cognitive Theory* Old ideas are restructured to include new experiences

Cognitive Equilibrium

*Cognitive Theory* State of mental balance, no confusion. Needed for intellectual advancement.

Adolescent Egocentrism

*David Elkind* -Characteristic of adolescent thinking -Involves thinking intensely about themselves and about what other people think of them. Thinking about themselves as much more unique, special, and admired or disliked than they actually are. -Leads to interpretation of everyone else's behavior as a personal judgment

Ecological-Systems Approach

*Development is Multicontextual* -Developed by Bronfenbrenner -In the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. -Three nested levels that surround individuals and affect them: 1.) Microsystem 2.) Exosystem 3.) Macrosystem

Cohort

*Development is Multicontextual* All persons born within a few years of one another; group defined by the shared age of its members.

Socioeconomic Status

*Development is Multicontextual* Person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence.

Race

*Development is Multicultural* Group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance.

Vygotsky

*Development is Multicultural* Guided participation: A universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits

Social Construction

*Development is Multicultural* Idea based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality.

Difference-Equals-Deficit Error

*Development is Multicultural* Mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard.

Culture

*Development is Multicultural* Patterns of behavior passed from one generation to the next.

Ethnic Group

*Development is Multicultural* People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion.

Sensitive Period

*Development is Multidirectional* Time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, though it may still happen later with more difficulty.

Critical Period

*Development is Multidirectional* Time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen.

Epigenetic

*Development is Multidisciplinary* Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's or species' genetic inheritance.

Dynamic Systems Approach

*Development is Plastic* Human development is viewed as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his/her environment, including the family and society.

Tourette Syndrome

*Dominant-Gene Disorder* Some who inherit the dominant gene exhibit uncontrollable tics and explosive outbursts.

Identity Achieved

*Erikson -Search for identity begins at puberty and continues for much longer -Seeking to determine who they are still exists for most adults -At each stage, the outcome of earlier crises provides the foundation of each new stage

Generativity vs. Stagnation

*Erikson* -Stage after Intimacy vs. Isolation, when adults seek to be productive in a caring way -Adults satisfy their need to be generative in many ways, including creativity, caregiving, and employment

Role Confusion (Identity Diffusion)

*Erikson* A situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is

Identity

*Erikson* Consistent definition of one's self as a unique individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations

Foreclosure

*Erikson* Erikson's term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts parents' or society's roles and values wholesale, without questioning or analysis

Identity Achievement

*Erikson* Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans

Identity vs. Role Confusion

*Erikson* Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development in which a person tries to figure out "Who am I?" but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt

6 Stages of Faith

*Fowler* 1.) Intuitive-Projective (ages 3-7) 2.) Mythic-Literal (ages 7-11, some adults) 3.) Synthetic-Conventional (conformist) 4.) Individual-Reflective (active commitment) 5.) Conjunctive (postformal way of thinking, rarely achieved before middle-age) 6.) Universalizing (transforming experience may cause this, rarely achieved)

Intuitive-Projective Faith

*Fowler-Stage 1 Faith is magical, illogical, imaginative, and filled with fantasy, especially about the power of God and the mysteries of birth and death. It is typical of children ages 3 to 7.

Parasuicide

-Any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death -Parasuicide is common, complete suicide is not

Mythical-Literal Faith

*Fowler-Stage 2 Individuals take the myths and stories of religion literally, believing simplistically in the power of symbols. God is seen as rewarding those who follow divine laws and punishing others. Stage 2 is typical from ages 7 to 11, but it also characterizes some adults. Fowler cites a woman who says extra prayers at every opportunity, to put them "in the bank"

Synthetic-Conventional Faith

*Fowler-Stage 3 This is a conformist stage. Faith is conventional, reflecting concern about other people and favoring "what feels right" over what makes intellectual sense. Fowler quotes a man whose personal rules include "being truthful with my family. Not trying to cheat them out of anything...I'm not saying that God or anybody else sets my rules. I really don't know. It's what i feel is right"

Individual-Reflective Faith

*Fowler-Stage 4 Faith is characterized by intellectual detachment from the values of the culture and from the approval of other people. College may be a springboard to stage 4, as the young person learns to question the authority of parents, teachers, and other powerful figures and to rely instead on his or her own understanding of the world. Faith becomes and active commitment.

Conjunctive Faith

*Fowler-Stage 5 Faith incorporates both powerful emotional ideas (such as the power of prayer and the love of God) and rational conscious values (such as the worth of life compared with that of property). People are willing to accept contradictions, obviously a postformal manner of thinking. Fowler says that this cosmic perspective is seldom achieved before middle age.

Univeralizing Faith

*Fowler-Stage 6 People at this stage have a powerful vision of universal compassion, justice, and love that compels them to live their lives in a way that others may think is either saintly or foolish. A transforming experience is often the gateway to stage 6, as happened to Moses, Muhammad, the Buddha, and Paul of Tarsus, as well as more recently to Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Mother Teresa. Stage 6 is rarely achieved.

Latency

*Freud* -Emotional drives are quiet and unconscious sexual conflicts are submerged

Synthesis

*Hegel* A new idea that integrates the thesis and its antithesis, thus representing a new and more comprehensive level of truth

Thesis

*Hegel* A statement of belief

Antithesis

*Hegel* A statement that opposes the thesis

Abraham Maslow

*Humanism* Arranged human needs in a hierarchy. Contended that everyone must satisfy each lower level before moving higher.

First Theory of Language Learning

*Infants need to be taught* -BF Skinner (1957) noticed that spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced -Parents are expert teachers, and other caregivers help them teach children to speak -Frequent repetition of words is instructive, especially when the words are linked to the pleasures of daily life -Well-taught infants become well-spoken children -If adults want children who speak, understand, and (later) read well, they must talk to their infants

Third Theory of Language Learning

*Infants teach themselves* -Language learning is innate; adults need not teach it, nor is it a by-product of social interaction -Language itself is experience-expectant, although obviously the specific language is experience-dependent *Chomsky: -Language is too complex to be mastered through step-by-step conditioning -Language acquisition device (LAD) is innate -All babies are eager learners, and language may be considered one more aspect of neurological maturation

_____ makes it easier to master new, related information

*Information Processing* Extensive knowledge base

Siegler and Learning the Number System

*Information-Processing Theory* -Number understanding accrues gradually -New and better strategies for calculation are tried, ignored, half-used, abandoned, and then finally adopted -Practice with number lines in order to help them with other math concepts

Defining Issues Test (DIT)

*James Rest* -Way to measure moral thinking by having the test-takers rank possible solutions to moral dilemmas -In general, DIT scores rise with age -Criticism: DIT measures are incomplete; only some parts of moral development are considered

Postconventional Moral Reasoning

*Kohlberg* Emphasizes moral principles

Preconventional Moral Reasoning

*Kohlberg* Emphasizes rewards and punishments

Conventional Moral Reasoning

*Kohlberg* Emphasizes social rules

4 Age Differences in Self-Descriptions

*Labouvie-Vief* 1.) Protective (high in self-involvement, low in self-doubt) 2.) Dysregulated (fragmented, overwhelmed by emotions or problems) 3.) Complex (valuing openness and independence above all) 4.) Integrated (ability to regulate emotions and logic)

Mirror Recognition

*M. Lewis and Brooks, 1978 -Babies aged 9-24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses -None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them -15-24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity

Four Specific Ways Young People Cope with Adolescence

*Marcia* 1.) Role Confusion (Identity Difussion) 2.) Foreclosure 3.) Moratorium 4.) Identity Achievement

Maintaining Oxygen

*Newborn Reflex* Breathing, hiccupping, sneezing.

Maintaining Constant Body Temperature

*Newborn Reflex* Crying, shivering, tucking legs to body, pushing blankets off.

Managing Feeding

*Newborn Reflex* Sucking, rooting, swallowing.

Analytic Thought

*Older* -Thought that results from analysis, such as systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts -Depends on logic and rationality

6 Types of Social Play

*Parten-1932* 1.) Solitary Play 2.) Onlooker Play 3.) Parallel Play 4.) Associative Play 5.) Cooperative Play 6.) Rough-and-Tumble Play

Sadness

-Appears in first months -Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol -Is a stressful experience for infants

Social Compensation: Driving

*Selective Optimization with Compensation -Older adults drive more slowly, may not drive at night or when there is bad weather and may give up on driving altogether -Societal compensations for age-related driving deficits are generally not available -Driver competency testing is not required in most states

Second Theory of Language Learning

*Social impulses foster infant language* -Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings -The emotional messages of speech, not the words, are the focus of early communication -Each culture has practices that further social interaction, including talking -The social context of speech is universal, which is why babies learn whatever specifics their culture provides

Lev Vygotsky

*Sociocultural Theory* -Describes interaction between culture and education -Developed concepts of apprenticeship in thinking and guided participation

Process of Joint Construction

*Sociocultural Theory* New knowledge obtained through mentoring.

Zone of Proximal Development

*Sociocultural Theory* Skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help.

General Intelligence (g)

*Spearman* -Intelligence is one basic trait that involves all cognitive abilities, which people possess in varying amounts -It cannot be measured directly but inferred from various abilities (ex. vocabulary, memory, and reasoning) -Many scientists are trying to find one common factor (genes, early brain development, or some specific aspect of health) that underlies IQ

Empty Love

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: No -Intimacy: No -Commitment: Yes

Liking

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: No -Intimacy: Yes -Commitment: No

Compassionate Love

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: No -Intimacy: Yes -Commitment: Yes

Infatuation

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: Yes -Intimacy: No -Commitment: No

Fatuous Love

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: Yes -Intimacy: No -Commitment: Yes

Romantic Love

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: Yes -Intimacy: Yes -Commitment: No

Consummate Love

*Sternberg's Forms of Love* -Passion: Yes -Intimacy: Yes -Commitment: Yes

3 Forms of Intelligence

*Sternberg* 1.) Analytic Intelligence-Valuable in high school and college, as students are expected to remember and analyze various ideas 2.) Creative Intelligence- Allows people to find a better match to their skills, values, or desires 3.) Practical Intelligence-Useful as people age and need to manage their daily lives

Piaget's Fifth and Sixth Stages

*Tertiary circular reactions' first with action and then with ideas

Montessori Schools

*Type of Child-Centered Program* Emphasize individual pride and accomplishment, presenting literacy-related tasks such as outlining letters and looking at books

Reggio Emilia Approach

*Type of Child-Centered Program* Involves a famous program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy; it encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting

Mentors

*Vygotsky* -Present challenges -Offer assistance (without taking over) -Add crucial information -Encourage motivation

Overimitation

*Vygotsky* -Tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned -Common among 2-6 year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient

Social Learning

*Vygotsky* Every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded in the social context

Guided Participation

*Vygotsky* Process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

*Vygotsky* Skills that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently

Apprentice in Thinking

*Vygotsky* Someone whose intellectual growth is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society

Scaffolding

*Vygotsky* Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's need and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process

Intuitive Thought

*Younger* Thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions

Aging, Risk, and Cardiovascular Disease

-A 90-year-old is 1,000 times more likely to die of CVD than is a 30-year-old, even if both have identical genes, social contexts, and health habits -Less than half of those over age 65 have CVD, diabetes, or dementia but almost everyone has had at least one of these three by age 90 -Risk factors and diseases of the aged are not distributed randomly: if a person has one risk factor, it is likely that he or she has several

Spermarche

-A boy's first ejaculation of sperm -Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production

Asthma

-A chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. -Signs and symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. -Causes include genes and environment, indoor and outdoor pollutants, and hygiene hypothesis

Priming

-A control strategy where words or ideas are presented in order to make it easier to remember something -With proper control processes, cognition in late adulthood can be good -Stereotype threat can trigger anxiety, fear, and depression, hurting cognition and learning potential

Vascular Dementia (VaD)

-A form of dementia characterized by sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated infarcts, or temporary obstructions of blood vessels, which prevent sufficient blood flow from reaching the brain; also called multi-infarct dementia -VaD is more common than Alzheimer disease for those over age 90 but not for the young-old -Vascular disorders correlate with the ApoE4 allele and, for some of the elderly, are caused by surgery that requires general anesthesia -This may cause a ministroke, which, added to reduced cognitive reserve, damages the brain

Menarche

-A girl's first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation -Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche

Assisted Living

-A living arrangement for elderly people that combines privacy and independence with medical supervision -Assisted living facilities range from group homes for 3 or 4 elderly people to large apartment or townhouse developments for hundreds of residents

Presbycusis

-A loss of hearing that is associated with senescence and that usually does not become apparent until after age 60 -May occur earlier with damage from loud music and earphones

Research on Elder Abuse Finds That...

-About 5% of elders say they are abused; up to 1/4 of all elders are vulnerable but do not report abuse -Elders who are mistreated by family members are ashamed to admit it -Outright abuse is now rare in nursing homes -In the US, the trend over the past 20 years has been toward fewer nursing-home residents (currently about 1.5 million people nationwide)

Drug Abuse During Adulthood

-Abuse of illegal drugs decreases markedly over adulthood -Marijuana use is slowest to decline (in the US, 8% of 24-34 year-olds still use it, impairing cognition and oral health) -Abuse of prescribed rugs increases in adulthood -In the US, the most abused addictive drugs are alcohol and tobacco

Instrumental Activities of Daily Life (IADLs)

-Actions that are important to independent living and that require some intellectual competence and forethought (ex. paying bills and driving a car) -The ability to perform these tasks may be even more critical to self-sufficiency than ADL abilitity

Activities of Daily Life (ADLs)

-Actions that are important to independent living, typically identified as five tasks of self-care: 1.) Eating 2.) Bathing 3.) Toileting 4.) Dressing 5.) Transferring from a bed to a chair -Inability to perform any of these tasks is a sign of frailty

Variations in Drug Use by Gender

-Adolescent boys generally use more drugs and use them more often -Gender differences are reinforced by social constructions about proper male and female behavior (ex. "If I don't smoke, I'm not a real man")

Variations in Drug Use by Generations

-Adolescent culture may have a greater effect on drug-using behavior than laws do -Most adolescents in the US have experimented with drugs and say that they could find illegal drugs if they tried -Most US adolescents are not regular drug users and about 20% never use any drugs -Rates vary from state to state

Sex Education From Peers

-Adolescent sexual behavior is strongly influenced by peers, especially when parents are silent, forbidding, or vague -Specifics of peer education depend on the group: All members of a clique may be virgins, or all may be sexually active -Only about half of US adolescent couples discuss issues such as pregnancy and STIs, and many are unable to come to a shared conclusion based on accurate information

Emotional Dependency During Adolescence

-Adolescents are more dependent on their parents if they are female and/or from a minority ethnic group -This can be either repressive or healthy, depending on the culture and the specific circumstances -Overall, parental reactions are crucial: Too much criticism and control might stop dialogue, not improve communication and behavior

Marijuana

-Adolescents who regularly smoke marijuana are more likely to drop out of school, become teenage parents, and be unemployed -Marijuana affects memory, language proficiency, and motivation

Adoption

-Adoptive parents have several advantages: they are legally connected to their children for life, the biological parents are usually absent, and they desperately wanted the child -Strong bonds can develop, especially when the children are adopted as infants -During adolescence, these bonds may stretch and loosen as some adoptive children become intensely rebellious

Morals and Religion During Emerging Adulthood

-Adult responsibilities, experiences, and education affect moral reasoning and religious beliefs -Maturation of values appears first in emerging adulthood -Moral decisions are least likely in adolescence -Paradoxical connection between attending religious services and developing religious convictions -Attending religious services becomes less frequent during emerging adulthood; developing religious convictions becomes more frequent

Life Review

-An examination of one's own part in life, which often takes the form of stories written or spoken by elderly people who want to share them with younger ones -Results are almost always positive

Toddler's Emotions

-Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused -Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating -Temper tantrums may appear

Use of Advertising Campaigns in Preventing Drug Abuse

-Antismoking announcements produced by cigarette companies increase use -Massive ad campaigns have worked in Florida and California, where teen smoking was cut by almost 50%

Child Sexual Abuse

-Any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests and whether or not genital contact is involved -Increases during puberty -Family members most likely to abuse -Victims often isolated and uninformed -Impact of abuse often continues into adulthood

Reactions to Disappointment

-Areas of the brain (the ventral striatal) are activated when a person feels regret -In this experiment, brain activation correlated with past loss and then unwise choices, with participants repeating behavior that had just failed -Older adults were usually wiser, evident in brain activation as well as actions. However, elders who had been diagnosed as depressed seemed to dwell on past losses. The positivity effect had passed them by

Behaviorism/Learning Theory

-Argued that scientists should examine only what they could observe and measure -Proposed that anything can be learned with focus on behavior -No specific stages proposed

Cultural Identity During Emerging Adulthood

-Aspects of identity change as the historical context changes, even as the search for self determination continues -Intermarriage between adults from diverse racial groups in the US has changed from 7% (1980) to 15% (2010) -Children are typically proud to be biracial -Bio-cultural identity correlates with healthy psychosocial development -Many emerging adults work to combine objective and subjective identity

Factors Which Influence Relationships Between Parents and Adult Children

-Assistance arises from need and from the ability to provide -Frequency of contact is related to geographical proximity, not affection -Love is influenced by the interaction remembered from childhood -Sons feel stronger obligation; daughters feel stronger affection

Benefits of Breastfeeding for the Baby

-Balanced Nutrition -Micronutrients not found in formula -Less childhood asthma; better vision -Protection against diseases -Stronger jaws, fewer cavities, less SIDS -Higher IQ, fewer educational risks -Less likely to become obese hypertensive by age 12

Treatment of the Elderly: Flu

-Because of primary aging, medical intervention affects the old differently than the young -Annual immunization is recommended for those over the age of 65 because their other infirmities make flue sometimes fatal -The 2012-2013 vaccine protected the elderly reasonably well against the B strains of the flu but provided almost no protection against the A strain even though it protected the young

Synchrony in the First Few Months

-Becomes more frequent elaborate -Helps infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction -Usually begins with parents imitating infants

Maximum Strength Potential During Emerging Adulthood

-Begins to decline by age 25 -50-year-olds retain 90% of muscle reserve they had at age 20

Balanced Bilingual

-Being fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other -Occurs is adults talk frequently, listen carefully, and value both languages

Retirement During Late Adulthood

-Besides needing the money, some employees over age 65 stay on the job because they appreciate the social recognition and self-fulfillment of work -It was once believed that older adults were healthier and happier when they were employed than when they were unemployed and that retirement led to illness and death -Only when retirement is precipitated by poor health or fading competence does it correlate with illness

Head-Sparing

-Biological mechanism -Protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth

Total Picture of Intellectual Aptitude

-Both fluid and crystallized intelligence must be measured -Age complicates calculations:fluid intelligence decreases with age and crystallized increases -Subset scores change over time: speed decreases with age and verbal ability increases -IQ scores fall only after substantial declines in fluid intelligence affect crystallized intelligence

Sexual Activity During Adolescence

-Boys are more influenced by hormones and girls by culture -Both are influenced by hormones, society, biology, and culture

Working Memory After Age 65

-Brain slowdown reduces working memory (older individuals take longer to perceive and process sensations) -Reduced working memory inhibits multitasking -When older people can take their time and concentrate, their working memory seems as good as ever -Concentration may crowd out other mental tasks that a younger person could do simultaneously

Cyberbullying

-Bullying that occurs via internet insults and rumors, texting, anonymous phone calls, and video embarrassment -Anonymity provided by technology often brings out the worst in people -Cyberbullying is particularly prevalent between 11 and 14 -May be worst when the imaginary audience is strong, the identity is forming, and impulsive thoughts precede analytic ones -Adolescent victims are likely to suffer from depression and may commit suicide

Look Before You Leap

-Burst of sensation seeking at puberty and the slow decline of impulsivity over the years of adolescence were the general trends of this study -Trajectories varied individually: decline in sensation seeking did not correlate with the decline in impulsivity

Brain Development--Size (Early Childhood Years)

-By age 2, a child's brain weighs 75% of what it will in adulthood -Extensive sprouting and then pruning of dendrites has already taken place -The brain reaches 90% of adult weight by age 6 -Social understanding develops as prefrontal cortex matures and emotional control improves

Bodily Balance During Emerging Adulthood

-By age 20, the immune system is well-developed -Usually, blood pressure is normal, teeth develop no new cavities, heart rate is steady, the brain is fully grown, and lung capacity is as large as it will ever be

Proximal Parenting

-Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching -May produce toddlers who were less self-aware but more compliant

Distal Parenting

-Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching -May produce children who were self-aware but less obedient

Big Five Dimensions of Personality

-Childhood temperament is linked to parent genes and personality -Personality is often assessed using five dimensions: 1.) Openness 2.) Conscientiousness 3.) Extroversion 4.) Agreeableness 5.) Neuroticism

Improved Motor Skills (Early Childhood Years)

-Children develop all their motor skills spontaneously and diligently as they play -Muscle growth, brain maturation, and guided practice advance every gross motor skill -Practice improves dexterity and advances fine motor skills, which involve small body movements

Nutrition (Early Childhood Years)

-Children need far fewer calories per pound of body weight than infants do -Obesity is a more frequent problem than malnutrition

Tobacco Use During Adulthood

-Cigarette smoking has declined in the US over the past 50 years -Worldwide trends are less encouraging (smoking rates are rising in developing nations and smoking-relating cancers are increasing throughout the world) -Variations among nations, cohorts, and gender indicate that smoking is affected by social norms, laws, and advertising

Outward Appearance During Adulthood

-Collagen decreases by about 1% per year -By age 30, skin is becoming thinner and less flexible and wrinkles become visible -By age 60, all faces are wrinkled -Hair turns gray and gets thinner -"Middle-age spread" appears (increased waist circumference) -Muscles weaken -Height decreases by late middle age -Muscles shrink; joints lose flexibility; agility is reduced -Genes and exercise cause variation in aging

Partnerships Over the Years

-Commitment is crucial for most people -Long-term committed partnership correlates with lifelong health and happiness -Honeymoon=happiest -Birth of first child=less happiness -Child reaches puberty=happiness returns -Ethnic differences are cultural and economic

Hikikomori

-Common among young adults in Japan -Victims isolate themselves for months or years

Closeness Within the Family During Adolescence

-Communication: Do parents and teens talk openly with one another? -Support: Do they rely on one another? -Connectedness: How emotionally close are they? -Control: Do parents encourage or limit adolescent autonomy?

Friends and Relatives During Late Adulthood

-Companions are particularly important in old age -As socioemotional theory predicts, the size of the social circle may shrink with age, but close relationships become more crucial -One amazing aspect of long-term relationships is how interdependent the partners become over time -Generally, older spouses accept each other's frailties, assisting with the partner's physical and psychological needs -Feelings of familism prompt siblings, cousins, and even distant relatives to seek out one another

Information-Processing Theory

-Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data -Like computers, people sense and perceive large amounts of information

Social Comparison

-Comparing one's attributes to those of other people -Helps children value themselves and abandon the imaginary, rosy self-evaluation of preschoolers -Self-criticism and self-consciousness rise from ages 6 to 11 -Materialism increases

Consequences of Divorce

-Consequences of divorce last for decades -Income, family welfare, and self-esteem are lower among the formerly married than among people of the same age who are still married or who have always been single

Nuclear Family

-Consists of a father, a mother, and their biological children under the age of 18 -Tend to be wealthier, better educated, healthier, more flexible, and less hostile -Has biological and adoptive parents dedicated to their children

Polygamous Family

-Consists of one man, several wives, and the biological children of the man and his wives -Is rare and illegal in the US

Single-Parent Family

-Consists of only one parent and his or her children under age 18 -Has children who fare worse in school and in adult life than most other children -Is often low-income and unstable, move more often and add new adults more often in single-mother households -Involves more than half of all contemporary US children who will live in a single-parent family before they reach age 18

Extended Family

-Consists of parents, their children, and other relatives living in one household -Included one in six US families in 2010; particularly common when children are small -Is less costly and more common in low-income households

Self-Concept

-Contains ideas about self that include intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, and ethnic background -Gradually becomes more specific and logical -Becomes less optimistic as influences from peers and society are incorporated

Origins of Disordered Eating

-Cultural Imae -Stress -Puberty -Hormones -Childhood Patterns

Culture and Family Structure

-Cultural context always matters and varies in support -In the US, cohabiting structure is worse for children than marriage due to higher separation incidence -Ethnic norms create differences -Single parenthood is differentially accepted and supported

Cons of Kohlberg's Findings

-Culture and gender ignored -Family not included -Differences between child and adult morality not addressed

Social Norms

-Customs for usual behavior within a particular society -Exert strong influence on emerging adults, including college students

Secular Trend

-Data on puberty over the centuries that reveals a dramatic example of a long-term statistical increase or decrease -Each generation has experienced puberty a few weeks earlier and has grown a centimeter or so taller than the preceding one -Trend has stopped in developed nations

Mortality

-Death -Usually refers to the number of deaths each year per 1,000 members of a given population; compiled from death certificates -Age-adjusted mortality rate in the US in 2010 was 757 per 100,000 -Lower for women in the US and worldwide; biological and cultural influences

Problems that are Less Problematic than in Earlier Decades

-Decreased teen births in every nation -Rise in use of protection -Decrease in teen abortion rate

Psychopathology During Emerging Adulthood

-Demands of emerging adulthood may cause psychopathology when added to preexisting vulnerability -Incidence of psychopathology increases in emerging adulthood -Rate of serious mental illness is almost double that for adults over age 25

Critique of Stratification Theories

-Developed habits may protect people from the worst stratification effects -Some theories may arise from cultural stereotypes -Selective survival may help to explain race crossover. Ethnic inequality may diminish because very old age is a powerful "leveler," overwhelming ethnic and SES stratification

Hearing During Infancy

-Develops during the last trimester of pregnancy -Most advanced of the newborn's senses -Speech perception by 4 months after birth

Neurological Development During Puberty

-Different parts of the brain grow at different rates -Myelination and maturation occur in sequence, proceeding from the inner brain to the cortex and from back to front -Limbic system (fear and emotional impulses) matures before the prefrontal cortex (planning ahead and emotional regulation) -When emotions are intense, especially when one is with peers, the logical part of the brain shuts down -When stress, arousal, passion, sensory bombardment, drug intoxication, or deprivation is extreme, the adolescent brain is overtaken by impulses that might shame adults

Financial Effects of Stratification

-Direct effects of poverty are magnified by gender, ethnicity, and age -Employment is directly and indirectly related to income in late adulthood (ex. Social Security benefits) -Stress and accumulating disadvantages are increasingly limited as age advances

Psychological Control

-Disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents -Higher parent control; lower math scores -Depressed child achievement, creativity, and social acceptance -Increased relational aggression

Morbidity

-Disease -Refers to the rate of physical and emotional, acute, chronic, and fatal diseases in a given population -Worldwide, as mortality decreases, morbidity increases

Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI)

-Disease spread by sexual contact, including syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV -Worldwide, sexually active teenagers have higher rates of most common STIs -Early age of first intercourse, failure to use condoms, and hesitancy to report infection contribute to high US infection rate

Treatment of the Elderly: Cardiovascular Disease

-Disease that involves the heart and the circulatory system -Considered secondary aging because not everyone develops it -No single factor (including age, hypertension, inactivity, and smoking) makes CVD inevitable

Diversity Within the Workplace

-Diversity at work is increasing (civilian workforce, military, within occupations) -Diversity in employees' backgrounds presents a challenge for employers and for workers -Not everyone has the same expectations, needs, and desires

Parkinson Disease

-Does not always lead to NCD -Starts with rigidity or tremor of the muscles as neurons that produce dopamine degenerate -Younger adults with Parkinson disease may avoid cognitive problems for years

Dominant-Recessive Heredity

-Dominant gene is far more influential than the recessive gene (non-additive) -Dominant gene can completely control the phenotype with no noticeable effect of recessive gene (though the effect of recessive genes can sometimes be noticed)

Alcohol Abuse During Adulthood

-Drinking in moderation: No more than two drinks a day increases life expectancy (alcohol reduced coronary heart disease and strokes and increases "good cholesterol" while lowering "bad cholesterol" and blood pressure) -Heavy drinking: increases the risk of violent death and is implicated in 60 diseases (disproportionate burden of harm in poorer countries: prevention and treatment strategies have not been fully established)

Intrinsic Motivation

-Drive/reason to pursue a goal that comes from inside a person -Seen when children invent imaginary friends

Common Physiological Causes of Severe Brain Loss in Middle Age

-Drug abuse -Poor circulation -Viruses -Genes

Age Trends in Drug Use

-Drug use becomes widespread from age 10 to 25 and then decreases -Drug use before age 18 is the best predictor of later drug use

Preventing Drug Abuse

-Drug use is progressive, and first use is usually social -Few adolescent drug users are addicts, but occasional use can lead to addiction -The younger a person is when beginning drug use, the more likely addiction will occur -Occasional drug use excites the limbic system and interferes with the prefrontal cortex. As a result, drug users are more emotional and less reflective

Allostasis

-Dynamic body adjustment that affects overall physiology -Homeostasis requires an immediate response from the body systems, whereas allostasis refers to longer-term adjustment

Hazards Related to Adolescent Sexual Activity

-Earlier puberty and weaker social taboos encourage sex at an earlier age -Early sex correlates with depression and drug abuse -Increased complexity and expense are related to parenting -More common and dangerous STIs

Language Learning (Early Childhood Years)

-Early childhood is a sensitive period or best time to master vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation -The average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more than 10,000 at age 6 -Vocabulary explosion -Fast-mapping -Logical extension

Puberty in Boys

-Early-maturing boys are more aggressive, law-breaking, and alcohol-abusing than later-maturing boys -Slow developing boys tend to be more anxious, depressed, and afraid of sex -Size and maturation are important for many adolescents in every nation

Puberty in Girls

-Early-maturing girls tend to have lower self-esteem, more depression, and poorer body image than later-maturing girls -Early-maturing girls may be attracted to older boyfriends and enter into abusive relationships more often

Benefits of Breastfeeding for the Mother

-Easier bonding with the baby -Reduced risk of breast cancer and osteoporosis -Natural contraception -Pleasure of breast stimulation -Satisfaction of meeting infant basic needs -Easier travel -No formula preparation

Anorexia Nervosa

-Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation -Affected individuals voluntarily under-eat often over-exercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition -Anorexia can be fatal

Vygotsky and Role of Instruction

-Education occurs everywhere and knowledge is acquired from social context -Guiding each child through zone of proximal development is crucial -Children are apprentices in learning -Language is integral as a mediator for understanding and learning

Logic and Self

-Egocentrism to abstract logic occurs between ages 11 and 18 (brain maturation, intense conversations, schooling, moral challenges, increased independence) -Previous research suggests egocentrism fosters adolescent risk-taking -Current perspectives propose egocentrism may be protective -Adolescents who feel psychologically invincible tend to be resilient

Destructive Protection

-Elders are discouraged from leaving home by some younger adults and the media -Street and violent crimes are lower for those over age 65 than for younger adults

Self-Awareness at 15-18 Months

-Emergence of the "me-self" -Sense of self as the "object of one's knowledge"

Taking Risks During Emerging Adulthood

-Emerging adulthood is marked by a greater willingness to take risks of all sorts, not just sexual ones -Young adults enjoy danger, drive without seatbelts, carry guns, try addictive drugs -Reasons for such risk taking are both social and biological -Edgework -Extreme Sports

Emotional Development (Early Childhood Years)

-Emotional Regulation -Effortful Control -Initiative vs. Guilt -Self-Concept -Protective Optimism

Employment

-Employment is the other major avenue for generativity -Adults have many psychosocial needs that employment can fulfill: 1.) Develop and use their personal skills 2.) Express their creative energy 3.) Aid and advise coworkers, as a mentor or friend 4.) Support the education and health of their families 5.) Contribute to the community by providing goods or services -Unemployment is associated with higher rates of child abuse, alcoholism, depression, and many other social problems

Erikson's Stages of Adult Personality

-Erikson originally envisioned eight stages of development occurring in sequence from birth through old ages. This included three stages that cover the years after adolescence. -Later in his life, Erikson suggested adults of many ages can be in the fifth stage, identity vs. role confusion, or in any of the three adult stages

Sexual Identity During Adolescence

-Erikson's gender intensification no longer fits adolescent development (now called gender identity that begins with the person's biological sex and leads to a gender role) -Adolescents experience a strong sexual drive as hormone levels increase -Some adolescents foreclose by exaggerating male or female roles; others seek a moratorium by avoiding all sexual contact

Intimacy Versus Isolation

-Erikson's sixth psychosocial stage emphasizes that humans are social creatures -Intimacy progresses from attraction to close connection to ongoing commitment -Marriage and parenthood, as emerging adults are discovering, are only two of the several paths to intimacy

Stratification by Gender

-Feminist theory draws attention to society's guides and pressure to put males and females on different paths -Irrational, gender-based fear may limit women's independence (i.e. older women persuaded not to live alone more than older men) -Men seek medical help less than women

Causes of Infertility in Females During Adulthood

-Fertility can be affected by anything that impairs physical functioning (ex. advanced age, diseases, smoking, extreme dieting, obesity) -Pelvic Inflammatory Disease can block the Fallopian Tubes, preventing sperm from reaching an ovum

Caring for Aging Parents

-Fewer adults are available to care for elderly family members and there are more older adults -Siblings' relationships can be strained if a parent becomes frail and needs care -One sibling usually becomes the chief caregiver

Political Activism During Late Adulthood

-Fewer turn out for massive rallies and only about 2% volunteer in political campaigns. -More letter writing to elected representatives, voting, and identifying with a political party -Many government policies affect the elderly, especially those regarding housing, pensions, prescription drugs, and medical costs

Anger

-First expressed around 6 months -Is a healthy response to frustration

First Loves

-First romances appear in high school and rarely last more than a year -Girls claim a steady partner more often than boys do -Breakups and unreciprocated crushes are common -Adolescents are crushed by rejection and sometimes contemplate revenge or suicide

Sleep Problems During Infancy

-First-born infants typically receive more attention and this may contribute to sleep problems -1/4 of parents of children under age three reported sleep problems -Parent reactions to infant sleep shape the baby's sleep patterns, which in turn affects the parents

The Aging Brain During Adulthood

-For most adults, neurological reserves, homeostasis, and allostasis protect the brain -Neurons fire more slowly, messages sent from the axon of one neuron are not picked up as quickly by the dendrite of another neuron, reaction time lengthens -Brain size decreases, multitasking gets harder, processing takes longer -Complex working memory tasks may become impossible

Mild Neurocognitive Disorder

-Formerly called Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) -Older adults who have significant problems with memory, but who still function well at work and home -Forgetfulness and loss of verbal fluency that often comes before the first stages of Alzheimer's -About half with become demented, but some stabilize with mild impairment and others regain their cognitive abilities -Measuring MND: qmci, biological indicators (biomarkers), clinical judgement of professionals

Industry vs. Inferiority

-Fourth of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises -Characterized by tension between productivity and incompetence -Self-pride depends not just on actual accomplishments, but on how others, especially peers, view accomplishments

Smell and Taste During Infancy

-Function at birth -Rapidly adapt to the social world -Related to family and cultural preferences -May have evolutionary function

Behaviorism on Sex-Role Development

-Gender differences are the products of ongoing reinforcement and punishment. They are learned through all roles, values, and morals -"Gender appropriate" behavior is rewarded more frequently than "gender inappropriate" behavior

Skipped-Generation Families

-Generally lower income, more health problems, less stability

Same-Sex Couple Families

-Generally, children develop well -Limited long-term studies

Personality Traits During Adulthood

-Genes, parental practices, culture, and adult circumstances all contribute to personality -Of these four, genes are probably the most influential, according to longitudinal studies -Since genes do not change from conception to death, it is not surprising that every study finds substantial continuity in personality

Causes of Bullying

-Genetic predisposition or brain abnormality -Parenting/caregiving environment -Peers

Growth During Middle Childhood

-Good childhood habits protect later adult health; influenced by peers and parents; lifelong impact -Oral health is important (time when permanent teeth come in) -Muscles become stronger, including hearts and lungs -Children run faster and exercise longer -Children master any motor skills that do not require adult-sized bodies

Weathering

-Gradual accumulation of stress; direct impact on intelligence -Effect of reduced IQ of African Americans -Gap most evident in early adulthood

Output During Late Adulthood

-Gradual decline of output of primary mental abilities (ex. verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency) is normal -In daily life, output is usually verbal -Two important modifiers are health and training

Longitudinal Study of Infant Temperament (Fox et al., 2001)

-Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation: 1.) Positive (exuberant) 2.) Negative 3.) Inhibited (fearful) -Less than half altered their responses as they grew older -Fearful infants were most likely to change -Exuberant infants were least likely to change -Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament

Sequence of Male-Female Relationships During Childhood and Adolescence (Dunphy, 1963)

-Groups of friends, exclusively one sex or the other -A loose association of girls and boys, with public interactions within a crowd -Small mixed-sex groups of the advanced members of the crowd -Formation of couples, with private intimacies

Neurological Advances (Early Childhood Years)

-Growth of prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5 -Myelination of the limbic system

Selective Expert

-Guided by culture and context -Is notably more skilled and knowledgeable than the average person about whichever activities are personally meaningful -Is more skilled, proficient, and knowledgeable at a particular task than the average person, especially a novice who has not practiced that skill -Does not necessarily have extraordinary intellectual ability

Middle School

-Increasing behavioral problems; many students dislike middle school -Student-teacher relationships undercut -Exposure to more teachers and peers; often impersonal and distant -Less learning and more risk -Less parental help -Finding acclaim (public acclaim difficult and many students seek peer acceptance) -Coping (blaming others, entity/incremental approach to intelligence)

Rising Self-Esteem During Emerging Adulthood

-Increasing self-esteem of many emerging adults occurs as they are able to set their own goals, make their own friends, and work toward whatever goals they seek -Only a minority experience decline in self-esteem -Continuity and improvement in attitudes of young adults occur

Stratification by Age

-Industrialized nations segregate elderly people, gradually shunting them out of the mainstream of society as they grow older -Segregation by age harms everyone because it creates socialization deficits for members of all age groups

Piaget

-Infants are active learners -Adaptation is the core of intelligence -Cognition develops in four distinct periods

Infant Memory

-Infants can process information and store conclusions -Infants can remember specific events and patterns -Early researchers underestimated infant memory (failure to differentiate between implicit and explicit memory)

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)

-International test taken by 15-year-olds in 50 nations that is designed to measure problem solving cognition in daily life -Overall, the US students did worse on the PISA than on the PIRLS or TIMMS

Intimacy During Adulthood

-Intimacy needs are lifelong -Adults meet their need for social connection through their relationships with relatives, friends, coworkers, and romantic partners

Theory of Mind

-Involves a person's theory of what other people might be thinking -Children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are -Is slow to develop but typically begins in most children at about age 4 -Can be seen when young children try to escape punishment by lying

Dialectical Thought

-Involves ability to consider a thesis and its antithesis and arrive at a synthesis -Includes being able to see the pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, possibilities and limitations -Is rare in adolescents, more often found in middle-aged people -Postformal thought, at its best, becomes dialectical thought, which may be the most advanced cognitive process

Infertility

-Involves being unable to conceive after trying for at least a year, although the definition varies from nation to nation -Is most common in nations where medical care is scarce and STIs are common -In the US, 12% of all couples are infertile, partly because many postpone childbearing -Half of those trying to conceive in their 40s are infertile and the other half risk various complications

Resilience

-Involves capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress -Suggests differential sensitivity

Survey

-Involves collection of information from a large number of people. -Produces answers that are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.

Dependency Ratio

-Involves estimating the proportion of the population that depends on care from others -Is calculated by comparing the number of dependents to the number of people in the middle -In most nations, including the US, the dependency ratio is about 1:2 -Assumes that older adults are dependent

Externalizing Problems

-Involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things -More common in boys

Choice Overload

-Involves having so many possibilities that a thoughtful choice becomes difficult -May occur with matchmaking sites

Human Genome Project

-Involves international effort to map the complete human genetic code -Was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing

Attachment

-Involves lasting emotional bond that one person has with another -Begins to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life -Overtakes synchrony -Demonstrated through proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining

Cognitive Flexibility

-Involves listening to others and considering diverse opinions -Cognitive flexibility is a characteristic more common in emerging adults than in younger people -Helps people deal with unforeseen events -Helps avoid retreating into emotions or intellect -Is a hallmark of postformal cognition

Cohabitation During Emerging Adulthood

-Involves living with an unrelated person--typically a romantic partner--to whom one is not married -Most young adults in the US, England, and Northern Europe cohabit rather than marry before age 25 -Half of all cohabiting couples in the US plan on marrying eventually -Earlier research suggests that cohabitation does not necessarily prevent later marriage problem -Cohabitation is neither the ideal nor the marriage equivalent that many emerging adults believe

Deductive Reasoning

-Involves reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics -Sometimes called top-down reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

-Involves reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to a general conclusion; may be less cognitively advanced than deduction -Sometimes called bottom-up reasoning

Prospective Memory

-Involves remembering to perform a future task -Fades notably with age -Includes the ability to quickly shift mentally among tasks

Sexting

-Involves sending sexual photographs -Is rarely known by adults -Pictures are often forwarded without the naked person's knowledge, and senders risk serious depression if the reaction is not what they wished

Hookups

-Involves sexual encounter with neither intimacy nor commitment -Estimated that about half of all emerging adults have hooked up -More common in younger college students than older, men than women, lonely than socially active

Ageism of Words

-Lines between normal age-related problems, mild disorder, and major disorder are not clearly defined, and the symptoms vary depending on the specifics of brain loss and context -Caution is advised in the use of words used to describe cognitive decline in the elderly (older terms: senile, dementia; DSM-5: Neurocognitive disorders (NCDs), either major neurocognitive disorder or mild neurocognitive disorder, depending upon the severity of the symptoms)

Psychopathology

-Literally, an illness of the mind/psyche -Various cultures and groups within cultures have different concepts of a specific psychopathology -Lack of emotional regulation may be an early sign of psychopathology

The Sexual-Reproductive System During Adulthood

-Local values shape contraceptive patterns -Female and male sterilization (2:1 ratio, ethnic variability) -Sexual arousal occurs more slowly with age and orgasm takes longer -Distress at slower responsiveness is more associated with anxiety, interpersonal relationships, and expectations than with aging itself -Adults of all ages enjoy very high levels of emotional satisfaction and physical pleasure from sex within their relationship -Men and women were most likely to be extremely satisfied with sex if in a committed, monogamous relationship

Disability

-Long-term difficulty in performing normal activities of daily life because of some physical, emotional, or mental condition -Only 30% of people with disabilities consider their health fair or poor -Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) used to measure person's impairment due to disabillity

Improved Behaviors and Abilities (Early Childhood Years)

-Longer attention span -Improved capacity for self-control -Social awareness and self-concept become stronger

Organ Growth During Puberty

-Lungs triple in weight, consequently, adolescents breathe more deeply and slowly -Heart doubles in size and the heartbeat slows, decreasing the pulse rate while increasing blood pressure -Only lymphoid system decreases in size

Imaginary Friends

-Make-believe friends who exist only in a child's imagination -Increasingly common from ages 3-7 -They combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation -Example of intrinsic motivation

Repeated Stress

-Makes resilience difficult -Is more devastating than isolated major stress -Includes such things as frequent moves, changes in caregivers, disruption of schooling

Reversible Impairment

-Malnutrition, dehydration, brain tumors, physical illness, and overmedication can cause NCD-like symptoms -Accurate diagnosis is crucial when a person is wrongly thought to have NCD -The most common reversible cause of NCD is depression -With age, bodies become less efficient at digesting food and using its nutrients

Domains of Instrumental Activities of Daily Life (IADLs)

-Managing medical care -Food preparation -Transportation -Communication -Maintaining household -Managing one's finances

Causes of Weight Gain

-Many US adults choose high-calorie, low-nutrient foods; more meat and fat and less fiber -Only 27% of US adults eat three daily servings of vegetables -Weight gain may be related to consumption of sugar, either sucrose or fructose (added to many packaged foods and beverages via corn syrup) -Too many high-calorie foods combined with too little activity

Vocational Identity During Emerging Adulthood

-Many go to college as a moratorium and to prepare for a job -Temporary jobs are part of preparation -Young workers tend to take a series of temporary jobs and feel no loyalty to their employer in reaction to the current global economy -Development of work ethnic continues to evolve throughout early adulthood

Friendship During Late Adulthood

-Many middle-aged adults, married and unmarried, have no children. Elderly people who have spent a lifetime without a spouse usually have friendships, activities, and social connections -All of the research finds that older adults need at least one close companion

Sex Education From Parents

-Many parents wait too long, avoid specifics, and are uniformed about adolescent's relationships -Warm, open communication is effective

Maslow's Stages of Adult Personality

-Maslow described five stages which occur in sequence -Movement occurs when people have satisfied their needs at one level and are ready for the next step -In his later years, Maslow reassessed his final level (self-actualization) -He suggested another level after that, called self-transcendence, not attained until late in life

Brain Development During Middle Childhood

-Maturation supports an increasingly interconnected brain by age 7 or 9 years -Complex tasks slowly mastered with brain maturation (prefrontal cortex)

Use of Scare Tactics in Preventing Drug Abuse

-May increase drug use -The advertisements make drugs seem excited -Adolescents recognize the exaggeration -The ads give some teenagers ideas about ways to show defiance

Vitality

-Measure of health that refers to how healthy and energetic--physically, emotionally, and socially--and individual actually feels -Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) used to calculate vitality (a healthy, happy, energetic person who lives to be 70 has 70 QALYs)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

-Measures changes in blood flow anywhere in the brain (not just the outer layers) -Limitations: signifies brain activity, but infants are notoriously active, which can make fMRIs useless

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

-Measures electrical activity in the top layers of the brain, where the cortex is -Limitations: especially in infancy, much brain activity of interest occurs below the cortex

Memory

-Memory processes are affected by maturation and experience -Working memory improves steadily and significantly -Capacity of long-term memory is virtually limitless by the end of middle childhood -Memory storage expands overs childhood, but more important is retrieval -As the prefrontal cortex matures, children are better able to use strategies

Intimacy in Men During Emerging Adulthood

-Men tend to share activities and interests and talk about external matters but do not talk of failures or emotional problems -Demand less of their friends, so they have more of them

Rough-and-Tumble Play

-Mimics aggression with no intention to harm -Contains expressions and gestures signifying that the child is "just pretending" -Is particularly common among males -Advances children's social understanding but increases likelihood of injury -May positively affect prefrontal cortex development

Information-Processing Theory

-Modeled on computer functioning -Involves incremental details and step-by-step description of the mechanisms of thought

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

-Molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins -Promotes growth and sustains life

Moral Development (Early Childhood Years)

-Morality is multifaceted and included affective, cognitive, and behavioral components -Children develop increasingly complex moral values, judgements, and behaviors as they mature -Social bonds and theory of mind provide the foundation for more advanced moral action

Grandchildren

-Most (85%) elders over age 65 are grandparents -Factors influencing the nature of the grandparent-grandchild relationship: personality, ethnicity, national background, past family interactions, age and the personality of the child

Political Identity During Adolescence

-Most adolescents follow parental political traditions -A political identity may emerge with weakening parental party identity -Fanatical political religious movement participation rare -Most adolescents identify with their ethnicity

Changes in Historical Patterns in the US

-Most adults aged 20-30 are not married -Compared to any year in the past, fewer adults are married and more are divorced -Divorce rate is half the marriage rate because fewer people are getting married -Women who have their first baby under age 30 are more often unmarried

Vocabulary by Age 6

-Most children know most of the basic vocabulary and grammar of their first language -May speak a second or even a third language

Major Depressive Disorder

-Most common mood disorder -A loss of interest or pleasure for 2 weeks or more -May be rooted in imbalances in neurotransmitters and hormones

Friends

-Most crucial members of the social convoy -Often able to provide practical help and useful advice when serious problems (death of a family member, personal illness, loss of a job, etc.) arise

Prevalence of Neurocognitive Disorder

-Most elderly people never experience a neurocognitive disorder -Among people in their 70s, only 1 in 20 does, and even by age 90-100, most people still think well enough -Presented another way, the prevalent data sounds more dire (almost 4 million people in the US have a major NCD)

Ethnic Identity During Emerging Adulthood

-Most emerging adults identify with very specific ethnic groups -More than any other age group, emerging adults have friends with diverse backgrounds -Ethnic identity may affect choices in language, manners, romance, employment, neighborhood, religion, clothing, and values

Appearance During Emerging Adulthood

-Most emerging adults look vital and attractive -Vanity about personal appearance not readily admitted, but observable -Attraction to fashion and glamorous celebrities -Money spent on fashion -Excercise motivated by desire to look fit and attractive -Appearance concern may be connected to sex drive or employment-seeking

Alcohol

-Most frequently abused drug among North American teens -Heavy drinking may permanently impair memory and self-control by damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex -Alcohol allows momentary denial of problems. When problems get worse because they have been ignored, more alcohol is needed -Denial can have serious consequences

The Flipped Demographic Pattern is not yet Universal

-Most nations still have more people under age 15 than over age 64 -Worldwide, children outnumber elders more than 3 to 1, but not 20 to 1 as they once did -United Nations predictions for 2015 are for 1,904,088,000 people younger than 15 and 603,986,000 older than 64 -Not until 2075 is the ratio projected to be 1 to 1

Holding On to the Self

-Most older people feel their personalities and attitudes have remained stable over their life span, even as they recognize the physical changes of their bodies -Objects and places become more precious, as a way to hold on to identity

Head Start

-Most widespread early-childhood education program in the US -Began in 1965 and funded by the federal government -Initially, the program was thought to be highly successful at raising children's intelligence; ten years later, early gains were found to fade -Long-term gains: Early intervention is effective if it is sufficiently intense with effective teachers

Lewy Body Dementia

-Named after round deposits of protein (Lewy bodies) in the neuron -Numerous and dispersed throughout the brain -Motor movements and cognition are impacted -Main symptom is loss of inhibition

Unpopular Children in the US

-Neglected -Aggressive-rejected: Rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior -Withdrawn-rejected: Rejected by peers because of timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior

The Aging Brain

-Neurons form and dendrites grow in adulthood, particularly in the olfactory region and the hippocampus -New neurons provide cognitive adaptability to succeed in context of challenging and changing environments -Growth of brain is slow, limited, and not sufficient to restore itself to its younger state

Changes in College Students

-No longer for elite few; massification -Rates of college grads worldwide is up -Students are more technologically savvy -In most developed nations, there are more females than males in college -Few students major in liberal arts, more in business and professions (ex. law and medicine)

Event-Related Potential (ERP)

-Notes the amplitude and frequency of electrical activity (as shows by brain waves) in specific parts of the cortex in reaction to various stimuli -Limitations: reaction within the cortex signifies perception, but interpretation of the amplitude and timing of brain waves is not straightforward

Synesthesia

-Occurs when one sense triggers another in the brain -Cross-modal perception more common in infants; may be basis for early social understanding

Employment Stability

-One recent change in the labor market that impedes generativity is an increased frequency of hiring and firing -Between ages 25 and 42, the average US worker has five separate employers -Older workers find job changes particularly difficult (loss of seniority, lack of new skills, relocation) -Difficulties are magnified for immigrants who comprise about 15% of the US adult workforce

Monozygotic (Identical) Twins

-Originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development -Same genotype but slight variations in the phenotype, possibly due to environmental influences

Family Bonds in Adulthood

-Over the years of adulthood, parents and adult children typically increase in closeness, forgiveness, and pride as both generations gain maturity -Adult siblings also often become mutually supportive in adulthood -Adult siblings help one another ope with children, marriage, and elderly relatives -Sibling bonds are particularly likely to develop during adulthood among children who grew up in large families with major stressors like extreme poverty or a bitter divorce -Family closeness can sometimes be destructive (some adults keep their distance from their blood relatives)

Culture of Children

-Particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society (fashion, language, peer culture, attitudes, independence from adults, etc.)

Playmates

-People of about the same age and social status -Provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding -Preferred play partners over parents

Frail Elderly

-People over age 65, and often over age 85, who are physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively disabled -Most older adults become frail if they live long enough -Frailty is most common in the months preceding death

Selective Optimization with Compensation

-People try to maintain a balance in their lives by looking for the best way to compensate for physical and cognitive losses and to become more proficient in activities they can already do well (Paul and Margaret Baltes, 1990) -Each adult selects certain aspects of intelligence to optimize and neglect -Ex. multitasking

Gibson and Gibson

-Perception requires selectivity -Affordances provide opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment

Secondary Education

-Period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college) -Usually occurs from about ages 12-18, although the age range varies somewhat by school and by nation

Middle Childhood

-Period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 to 11 -Time when fatal diseases or accidents are rare; these years are the healthiest of the entire life span -Safeguarded by genetic and environmental factors -Additional protection from education about risks and vaccines

Vision During Adulthood

-Peripheral vision narrows faster than frontal vision -Color vision shifts from vivid to faded more quickly than does black and white -Nearsightedness increases gradually beginning in one's 20s -Farsightedness: lens of the eye is less elastic and the cornea flattens by middle age -Younger adults are usually either nearsighted OR farsighted; most older adults are both

Self-Concept

-Person's understanding of who he/she is, incorporation self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits -Connected to parental confirmation

Age and Cohort

-Personality shifts slightly with age -Rank order stays the same -General trend is positive -MIDUS: Study of midlife North Americans

Psychoanalytic Theory on Sex-Role Development

-Phallic Stage -Oedipus Complex -Superego -Electra Complex -Identification

Fine Motor Skills

-Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin -Shaped by culture and opportunity

Incremental Approach to Intelligence

-Poses that intelligence can be directly increased by effort -Suggests that children can master whatever they seek to learn if they pay attention, participate in class, study, and complete their homework

Controversy Regarding Piaget's Theory of Child Cognition and Postformal Thought Stage

-Prefrontal cortex is not mature until one's early 20s -Most cultures describe adult thoughts as qualitatively different from adolescent thought

Maturation of the Prefrontal Cortex (Early Childhood Years)

-Prefrontal cortex is very limited in infancy and continues to develop at least until early adulthood -Between ages 2-6, neurological increases are especially notable in the areas of the cortex, where planning, thinking, social awareness, and language occur -Maturation of the prefrontal cortex gradually facilitates focused attention and curbs impulsiveness -Benefits of maturation: 1.) Sleep becomes more regular 2.) Emotions become more nuanced and responsive 3.) Temper tantrums decrease or subside 4.) Uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common

Ageism

-Prejudice in which people are categorized and judged solely on the basis of their chronological age -Considers people as part of a category and not as individuals, can target people of any age

Piaget (Early Childhood Years)

-Preoperational Intelligence -Symbolic Thought -Animism -Described four limitations of preoperational thought that make logic difficult until about age 6 -Conservation

Breaking the Law During Adolescence

-Prevalence and incidence of criminal activities more common in adolescence -About one-fourth of young lawbreakers get caught -Most adolescents obey the law

New Emotions During Toddler Years

-Pride -Shame -Embarrassment -Disgust -Guilt

Brain Development--Speed of Thought (Early Childhood Years)

-Primary reason for faster thinking is new and extensive myelination -A gradual increase in myelination makes 5-year-olds much quicker than 3-year-olds, who are quicker than toddlers

Immunization

-Primes the body's immune system to resist a particular disease -Contributes to reduced mortality and population growth; herd immunity

Intelligence Research Strategies of the 20th Century

-Psychometricians believed that intelligence could be measured and quantified via IQ tests but disagreed about interpreting the data, especially about whether g rises or falls after age 20 -Methodology used: Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential.

Corporal Punishment

-Punishment that physically hurts the body, such as slapping, spanking, etc. -Increases obedience temporarily, but increases the possibility of later bullying, delinquency, and abusive behavior -Correlates with delayed theory of mind and increased aggression

Mastering Two Languages

-Quantity of speech in both languages the child hears is crucial -Children implicitly track the number of words and phrases and learn those expressed most often -Bilingual toddlers realize differences between languages, adjusting tone, pronunciation, cadence, and vocabulary when speaking to a monolingual person

Apgar Scale

-Quick assessment of newborn's: 1.) Heart Rate 2.) Breathing 3.) Muscle Tone 4.) Color 5.) Reflexes -Completed twice (1 minute and 5 minutes after birth) -Score of 0, 1, or 2 in each of the 5 categories (desired score of 7 or above)

Complex Tasks Mastered During Middle Childhood

-Reading -Variety of Social Skills -Controlling Impulses -Planning for Future -Analyzing Consequences

Exercise During Emerging Adulthood

-Reduces blood pressure, strengthens the heart and lungs -Makes depression, osteoporosis, heart disease, arthritis, and some cancers less likely -Those who are not fit during emerging adulthood are 4 times more likely to have diabetes and high blood pressure 15 years later

Sexual Orientation

-Refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes; a person's erotic desires -Currently in North America and Western Europe, not just two discrete orientations (homosexual and heterosexual), but a range of orientations including bisexual, asexual, mostly homosexual, adamantly heterosexual, and transgender are possible

Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins

-Result from the fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm -Only have half of their genes in common -Occur twice as often as other type of twins

Cognitive Development During Puberty

-Reward parts of adolescents' brains are far stronger than inhibition parts -Slower-maturing prefrontal cortex makes powerful sensations desirable (loud music, speeding cars, strong drugs, etc.) -Teens seek excitement and pleasure, especially the social pleasure of peer's admiration -Many types of psychopathology increase at puberty (especially early puberty)

Personality in Emerging Adulthood

-Rising self-esteem -Worrisome children grow up: Many children with marked aggression and those with extreme shyness grow up with little pathology. Old patterns do not disappear completely, but behaviors are often modified. -Plasticity: Personality is not yet fixed by age 20 Openness to new experiences allows personality shifts and stimulates eagerness for more education

Caring for Nonbiological Children

-Roughly 1/3 of all North American adults become stepparents, adoptive parents, or foster parents -Many adopted or foster children remain attached to their birth parents -If children are not attached to anyone (i.e. after spending years in an institution), they are mistrustful of all adults and fearful of becoming too dependent

Understanding Metaphors (School-Age Children)

-School-age children comprehend and enjoy puns, unexpected answers to normal questions, and metaphors -New cognitive flexibility and social awareness make these funny

Friendships in School-Age Children

-School-age children value personal friendship more than peer acceptance -Friendships lead to psychological growth and provide a buffer against psychopathology -Gender differences: Girls talk more and share secrets, boys play more active games

Social Referrencing

-Seeking emotional responses or information from other people -Observing someone else's expressions and using the other person as a social reference

Entity Approach to Intelligence

-Sees ability as innate, a fixed quantity present at birth -Rejects the idea that effort enhances achievement

Depression During Adolescence

-Self-esteem for boys and girls dips at puberty -Signs of depression are common -Level of family and peer support is influential -Cultural contexts are influential: familism

Senescence During Late Adulthood

-Senescence is pervasive and inevitable -Obvious in appearance (skin gets wrinkled, bodies change shape) and the senses -Only 10% of people over age 65 see well without glasses -Taste, smell, touch, and hearing are also impaired (ex. by age 90, the average man is almost deaf, as are about half of the women)

Senescence and the Brain

-Senescence reduces production of neurotransmitters that allow a nerve impulse to jump quickly -Results in a brain slowdown, seen in reaction time, talking, and thinking -Brain slowdown correlates with slower walking and most other physical disabilities (although transmission of impulses from the brain are disrupted with age, specifics correlate more with cognitive ability) -Brain senescence varies markedly from individual to individual (suggested reasons include gender, education, experience, and elders' assessment of whether their everyday activities are restricted by their health)

Touch and Pain During Infancy

-Sense of touch is acute in infants -Although newborns respond to being securely held, soon they prefer specific touches -Some people assume that even the fetus can feel pain, while others say that the sense of pain does not mature until months or years later

Testosterone

-Sex hormone, best known of the androgens (male hormones) -Secreted in far greater amounts by males than by females

Estradiol

-Sex hormone, considered the chief estrogen -Females produce more than males

Precocious Puberty

-Sexual development before age 8 -Occurs about once in 5,000 children for unknown reasons

2 Ethical Guidelines of Genetic Counseling

1.) Test results are kept confidential 2.) Decisions regarding sterilization, adoption, abortion, or carrying a pregnancy to term are made by the clients

Prevention and Treatment of Neurocognitive Disorders

-Since aging increases the rate of cognitive impairment, slowing down senescence may postpone major NCD, and ameliorating mild losses may prevent worse ones -Improving overall health is the first step in prevention and treatment -Engaging in regular physical exercise prevents, postpones, and slows cognitive loss of all kinds -Avoiding pathogens is critical

Skin and Hair Growth During Puberty

-Skin becomes oilier, sweatier, and more prone to acne -Hair on the head and limbs becomes coarser and darker -New hair growth occurs under arms, on faces, and over sex organs -In many ways, hair is more than a growth characteristic; it becomes a display of sexuality

Sleep During Infancy

-Sleep specifics vary because of biology and the social environment -Newborns sleep about 15-17 hours a day, in 1-3 hour segments -Newborns' sleep is primarily active sleep -Newborns have a high proportion of REM sleep

Tobacco

-Slows down growth (impairs digestion, nutrition, and appetite) -Causes protein and vitamin deficiencies -Can damage developing hearts, lungs, brains, and reproductive systems

Technological Compensation for Auditory Problems

-Small and sensitive hearing aids are available but many people still hesitate to get aids -Missing out on bits of conversation cuts down on communication and precipitates many other social losses -Younger people tend to yell or use elderspeak, both of which are demeaning -Elderly people are less vulnerable to stereotype threat if they have positive interactions with the younger generations

Successes in Immunization

-Smallpox -Polio -Measles -Rotavirus

Vygotsky (Early Childhood Years)

-Social Learning -Apprentice in Thinking -Mentors -Guided Participation -Zone of Proximal Development -Scaffolding -Overimitation -Words are the mediator between brain potential and comprehension: a.) Language advances thinking I. Internal dialogue or private speech II. Social mediation b.) Words enable many children between 2 and 6 I. Using one-to-one correspondence II. Remembering time and dates III. Understanding sequence

Stepparent Families

-Some function well; positive relationships more easily formed with children under 2; more difficult with teenagers -Solid parental alliance more difficult to form -Child loyalty to parents often undermined by disputes

Information Processing After Age 65: Input

-Some information never reaches sensory memory in older people because the senses never detect the stimuli -The brain automatically fills in missed sights and sounds -Most older people believe they see and hear whatever is important but vital information may be distorted or lost without the person realizing it

Bully-Victim

-Someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well -Also called a provocative victim because he or she does things that elicit bullying, such as stealing a bully's pencil

Fictive Kin

-Someone who is accepted as part of a family to which there is no blood relation -Adults need kind, fictive or otherwise

Lateralization

-Specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity -Left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa

CARDIA Study

-Specifics of diet matter -Fast foods, high-fat diets, and diet soda each had independent effects -Overall result affect not only body weight but also other health factors indicated by laboratory tests

Long-Term Partnerships During Late Adulthood

-Spouses buffer each other against the problems of old age, thus extending life -Married older adults are healthier, wealthier, and happier than unmarried people their age -One characteristic of long-married couples is that they often mirror each other's moods. Thanks to the positivity effect, the mood is often one of joy.

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Thought

-Stages of morality stem from three levels of moral reasoning, with two stages at each level 1.) Preconventional Moral Reasoning 2.) Conventional Moral Reasoning 3.) Postconventional Moral Reasoning

New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS)

-Started in the 1960s -Found 4 categories of temperament

Memory After Age 65

-Stereotype threat impedes memorial processes; suspecting memory loss can impact memory -Memory loss can be normal and pathological, but generally explicit memory loss is greater than implicit memory loss -Source amnesia may contribute to less analysis of information when elders cannot remember origin of a fact

Stratification by Ethnicity

-Stratification theory says that factors such as education, health, employment, and place of residence create large discrepancies in income by old age -Immigrant elders often face multiple challenges related to cultural differences in care by children, housing, and stereotypes

Teacher-Directed Programs

-Stress academic subjects taught by a teacher to an entire class -Help children learn letters, numbers, shapes, and colors, as well as how to listen to the teacher and sit quietly -Make a clear distinction between work and play -Are much less expensive, since the child/adult ratio can be higher

Child-Centered Programs

-Stress children's natural inclination to learn through play rather than by following adult directions -Encourage self-paced exploration and artistic expression -Show the influence of Vygotsky, who thought that children learn through play with other children and through cultural practices that structure life

Two Kinds of Affordances Which All Babies are Attracted to

1.) Things that move 2.) People

Humanism on Sex-Role Development

-Stresses the hierarchy of needs, beginning with survival, then safety, then love/belonging -Helps children increasingly strive for admiration from their peers -Suggests children increasingly prefer to play with boys or girls because humans are social beings who want to be validated for who they are

Sociocultural Theory on Sex-Role Development

-Stresses the importance of values and customs -Some cultural aspects are transmitted through the parents, as explained with behaviorism, but much more arises from the larger community

Growth and Strength During Emerging Adulthood

-Strong and active bodies -Emerging adults are usually in good health -Traditionally, ages 18 and 25 were a time for hard physical work and childbearing. These are no longer expected of every young adult in the 21st century -Because of food availability, most emerging adults have reached full height (girls usually by age 16, boys by age 18) -Muscle growth and fat accumulation continue into the early 20s when women attain adult breast and hip size and men reach full shoulder width and upper-arm strength -Death from disease almost never occurs during emerging adulthood

Grammar of a Language

-Structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning -Word order and word repetition, prefixes and suffixes, intonation and emphasis

Time Management During Emerging Adulthood

-Struggle for emerging adults, but usually mastered as cognition matures -More characteristic of part-time college students

Pathways to Adolescent Crime

-Stubbornness leads to defiance -Shoplifting leads to arson and burglary -Bullying leads to assault, rape, and murder

Gender Differences in Suicide

-Suicide rates among male teenagers in the US are four times higher than the rate for female teenagers (Male culture shames those who attempt suicide but fail) -Males tend to shoot themselves; females swallow pills or hang themselves -Girls tend to ruminate while boys withdraw

Midlife Crisis

-Supposed period of unusual anxiety, radical self-reexamination, and sudden transformation -Once widely associate with middle age, but that actually had more to do with developmental history -Popularized by Gail Sheehy (1976) and Daniel Levinson (1978) -Theory criticized for imperfect and limited data

Anxiety Disorders During Emerging Adulthood

-Symptoms of anxiety disorders are shaped by age and genetic vulnerability -Include panic attacks, PTSD, and OCD -Evident in 1/4 of all Americans below age 25 -More common worldwide than depression

Schizophrenia

-Symptoms usually begin in adolescence -Involves about 1% of adults -Characterized by disorganized and bizarre thoughts, delusions, hallucinations, and emotions -Risk factors: genes, malnutrition when brain is developing, social pressure

Vocational Identity During Adolescence

-Takes years to establish -Early vocational identity is no longer relevant -Part-time work during high school is often related to negative outcomes

Separation Anxiety

-Tears, dismay, or anger occur when a familiar caregiver leaves -If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder

Social Networking During Adolescence

-Technology usually brings friends together in adolescence -Most social networking is between friends, but the Internet may be a lifeline for some -Online resources may be helpful for struggling teens because these are often anonymous -Some teens use technology to meet crucial health needs

Positivity Effect

-Tendency for elderly people to perceive, prefer, and remember positive images and experiences more than negative ones -Outgrowth of socioemotional activity and selective optimization -Research on what people hope for themselves (the ideal self) and how they perceive themselves (the real self) finds that, with age, the two selves come closer together -As self theory contends, self-acceptance leads to happiness

Effects of College During Emerging Adulthood

-Tertiary education improves verbal and quantitative abilities, knowledge of specific subject areas, skills in various professions, reasoning, and reflection -Most contemporary students attend college primarily to secure their vocational and financial future -College also correlates with better health in a variety of ways

Working During Late Adulthood

-The activities of older people are intense and varied -The psychological benefits of work can be obtained through volunteer work -Work provides social support and status, boosting self-esteem -For many people, employment allows generativity

Homeostasis

-The adjustment of all the body's systems to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium -As the body ages, it takes longer for these adjustments to occur, so it becomes harder for older bodies to adapt to stress -Nutrition and exercise underlie health at every age

Stepfamilies

-The average age of new stepchildren is 9 years. They usually are very strongly connected to their biological parents (this helps the child but hinders the stepparents) -Young stepchildren often get hurt, sick, lost, or disruptive, and teenage stepchildren may get pregnant, drunk, or arrested -Generativity with patient, authoritative parenting is needed

Elder Abuse is More Likely to Occur When...

-The care receiver is a feeble person who suffers severe memory loss -The caregiver is a drug-addicted relative -Care occurs in an isolated place -Visitors are few and far between

Biological Parenthood

-The chief form of generativity is establishing and guiding the next generation -Every parent is tested and transformed by the dynamic experience of raising children -Just when an adult thinks he or she has mastered the art of parenting, the child advances to the next stage and the adult is required to make major adjustments

Sleep During Late Adulthood

-The day-night circadian rhythm diminishes with age -Many older people wake before dawn and are sleepy during the day -If allowed to select a personal sleep schedule, many elders feel less tired than young adults

Sandwich Generation

-The generation of middle-aged people who are supposedly "squeezed" by the needs of the younger and older members of their families -In reality, some adults do feel pressured by these obligations, but most are not burdened by them, either because they enjoy fulfilling them or because they choose to take on only some sort of them or none of them

Evidence from Neuroscience

-The hypothalamus (memory) and the prefrontal cortex (planning, inhibiting unwanted responses, and coordinating thoughts) shrink faster than other areas -Complicated relationship among past education, current mental exercise, and the intellectual functioning in late adulthood -Schooling may slow the rate of brain shrinkage -Good health may protect the brain more than education -Education strengthens inhibition (the ability to say no or keep quiet). This masks impairment when the prefrontal cortex shrinks

Ecological Validity

-The idea that cognition should be measured in settings that are realistic and that the abilities measured should be those needed in real life -May be the key to accurately measuring cognition in the elderly

Motivation

-The impulse that propels someone to act -Comes from either a person's own desires or from the social context

Average Life Expectancy

-The number of years that the average person in a particular population is likely to live -In the US today, average life expectancy at birth is about 75 years for men and 81 years for women -Dramatic variations from nation to nation

Filial Responsibility

-The obligation of adult children to care for their aging parents -A major goal among adults in the US is to be self-sufficient -Adult children may be more willing to offer support than their parents are to receive it

Stereotype Threat

-The possibility that one's appearance or behavior will be misread to confirm another's oversimplified, prejudiced attitudes -The mere possibility of being negatively stereotyped arouses anxiety that can disrupt cognition and distort emotional regulation -Makes people of all ages doubt their ability, which reduces learning if their anxiety interferes with cognition

Senescence

-The process of aging, whereby the body becomes less strong and efficient -Begins in late adolescence

Adjusting Vocabulary to the Context (School-Age Children)

-The school-age child can switch from one manner of speaking, or language code, to another -Each code differs in tone, pronunciation, gesture, sentence length, idiom, grammar, and vocabulary -Sometimes people switch from the formal code (used in academic contexts) to the informal code (used with friends) -Many children use a third code in text messaging, with numbers, abbreviations, and emoticons

Sexual Activity During Emerging Adulthood

-The sexual-reproductive system is especially vigorous -Sexual-reproductive characteristics are produced by peaked sex hormones -The sex drive is powerful, infertility is rare, orgasm is frequent, and birth is easy, with few complications in the early 20s than at any other time -Average woman in her early 20s becomes pregnant within three months -Globalization, advanced technology, and modern medicine have combined to produce effective contraception, available in almost every nation -Advances in contraception have reduced the birth rate and increased the rate of sexual activity -Globally, emerging adults have fewer babies but engage in more sexual activity

Successful Efforts to Eliminate Bullying

-The whole school must be involved, not just the identified bullies -Intervention is more effective in the earlier grades -Evaluation of results is critical

Friendship During Emerging Adulthood

-Throughout life, friends defend against stress and provide joy -Friends, new and old, are particularly crucial during emerging adulthood -Most single young adults have larger and more supportive friendship networks than newly married young adults once did

Developing Moral Values During Middle Childhood

-Throughout middle childhood, moral judgement becomes more comprehensive, taking into account psychological as well as physical harm, intentions as well as consequences -Current research suggests raising moral issues and letting children talk about them may advance morality (not immediately, but soon). Such conversations might help the child think more deeply about moral values

Puberty

-Time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development -Usually lasts 3-5 years -Begins with a hormonal signal from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. The pituitary, in turn, signals the adrenal glands and the ovaries or testes to produce more of their hormones

Menopause

-Time in middle age (average age 51) when a woman's menstrual periods cease completely and the production of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone drops considerably -Dated one year after a woman's last menstrual period -Affected primarily by genes (17 identified) -Has psychological consequences that vary more than physical ones

Empty Nest

-Time when parents are alone again after their children have moved out and launched their own lives -Contrary to outdated impressions, relationship often improves -Most long-married people stay together because they love and trust each other, not simply because they are stuck

Oral Health (Early Childhood Years)

-Too much sugar and too little fiber cause tooth decay, which affects more than 1/3 of all young US children -Severe early decay harms the formation of permanent teeth and the jaw and may affect speech -Parent childhood experiences and habits, income, and access create barriers to good dental care for many low-income children

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)

-Treatment to compensate for hormone reduction at menopause or after removal of the ovaries -Usually involves estrogen and progesterone -Minimizes menopausal symptoms and diminishes the risk of osteoporosis in later adulthood -Involves health risks: heart disease and cancer

Adoptive and Foster Parent Families

-Typically function well; often better than average nuclear families -Vary tremendously in ability to meet child's needs

Experience of Aging During Adulthood

-Typically, adults feel 5 to 10 years younger than their chronological age -Senescence does not necessarily cause illness or even impairment -Coronary heart disease correlates with hypertension (high blood pressure) and cholesterol, which correlates with senescence -Aging also protects adults: slowing cancer growth, protecting organ reserve -Homeostasis and allostasis help each part of the body adjust to accommodate changes in other parts

Changes in College Institutions

-US has twice as many colleges as it did 50 years ago -More community colleges; more career programs -More part-time, women, and minorities hires -Income is most important reason why particular emerging adult will go to college and graduate

Sex Education From Educators

-US parents want up-to-date sex education for their adolescents -Timing and content may vary by state and community -Sex education varies by nations -Abstinence-only programs were not successful

First Words

-Usually occurs at about 1 yeara -6-15 months: understand 10 times more words than produced -12 months: begin to use holophrases; recognize vocalization from universal to language-specific

Volunteer Work During Late Adulthood

-Volunteering is linked to generativity, social connections, less depression, and health -Culture or national policy and the microsystem affect volunteering -Older retirees may be less likely to volunteer than middle-aged employed people -Less than 1/3 of adults of any age volunteer

Family Function

-Way a family works to meet the needs of its members -Families provide basic material necessities, to encourage learning, to help development of self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability

Social Networks

-Web site that allows users to publically share their lives and connect with large numbers of people -Major innovation of current cohort

Germinal Period

-Week 0-2 -Rapid cell division and beginning of cell differentiation -Development of placenta -Implantation (~10 days after conception)

Embryonic Period

-Week 3-8 -Basic forms of all body structures develop

Fetal Period

-Week 9-Birth -Fetus grows in size and matures in functioning

Effects of Money and Education on Health

-Well-educated, financially secure adults live longer Reasons: -Education teaches healthy habits -Education leads to higher income, which allows better housing and medical care -Education may be a marker for intelligence, which is a protective factor

Family Bonds

-When family bonds are similar to friendship bonds, relatives are mainstays of the social convoy -Physical separation does not necessarily weaken family ties -Relationships between parents and adult children are more likely to deteriorate if they live together

Polypharmacy

-When the elderly are prescribed several drugs (and the side effects can cause NCD symptoms) -Some drug combinations can produce confusion and psychotic behavior

The Effects of Falling

-With age, bones become more porous, losing calcium and strength. This can lead to osteoporosis where bones can be broken easily -Most common liability elders experience from falling is fear; they then reduce their activity, which causes them to become sicker

Intimacy in Women During Emerging Adulthood

-Women tend to share secrets, reveal their weaknesses and problems, and expect sympathy -Are more intimate and emotional

Problems with Parental Support During Emerging Adulthood

-Young adults from low-income families likely to remain within the low-SES population (parents cannot pay for college and living expenses during emerging adulthood) -Helicopter parents hover over their emerging adult child, ready to swoop down if any problem arises -Differential treatment may cause sibling rivalry or resentment

Protective Optimism

-Young children are not realistic: they believe they are strong, smart attractive, and able to achieve any goals (Erikson) -Consists of positivity bias that helps young children try new things (confidence in self helps young children to persist) -Begins around age 3 -Belief about child self-worth tied to parental confirmation

"Just Right" Phenomenon

-Young children's insistence on routine -Such strong preferences for rigid routines tend to fade by age 6

4 Effects of Mistreatment and Neglect

1.) Children regard people as hostile and exploitative 2.) Children are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children 3.) Children experience greater social deficits 4.) Children may experience large and enduring economic consequences

3 Types of Learning

1.) Classical Conditioning 2.) Operant Conditioning 3.) Social Learning

5 Strategies/Experiences to Support Literacy Learning

1.) Code-focused Teaching 2.) Book Reading 3.) Parent Education 4.) Language Enhancement 5.) Preschool Programs

Active Play Contributions

1.) Better overall health 2.) Less obesity 3.) Appreciation of cooperation and fair play 4.) Improved problem-solving abilities 5.) Respect for teammates and opponents of many ethnicities and nationalities

3 Factors Which Influence the Outcome of any Parenting Style

1.) Child's temperament 2.) Parent's personality 3.) Social context

2 Types of Early Childhood Education

1.) Child-Centered Programs 2.) Teacher-Directed Programs

3 Goals That are Furthered by the Entire Package of Sensations and Motor Skills

1.) Social Interaction 2.) Comfort 3.) Learning

2 Newer Developmental Theories

1.) Sociocultural Theory 2.) Universal Perspective

3 Cognitive Development Approaches

1.) Stage Approach 2.) Psychometric Approach 3.) Information-Processing Approach

4 General Principles of Psychopathology

1.) Abnormality is normal 2.) Disability changes year by year 3.) Life may be better or worse in adulthood 4.) Diagnosis and treatment reflect the social context

5 Essential Characteristics of High-Quality Day Care

1.) Adequate attention to each infant 2.) Encouragement of language and sensorimotor intelligence 3.) Attention to health and safety 4.) Professional caregivers 5.) Warm and responsive caregivers

3 Parts of the Brain that Regulate Emotion

1.) Amygdala 2.) Hippocampus 3.) Hypothalamus

Fertility Treatments

1.) Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) 2.) In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Baumrind's 3 Styles of Caregiving

1.) Authoritarian Parenting 2.) Permissive Parenting 3.) Authoritative Parenting

Five Basic Steps to the Scientific Method

1.) Begin with curiosity and pose a question 2.) Develop a hypothesis 3.) Test the hypothesis 4.) Draw conclusions 5.) Report the results

Logical Fallacies in Adolescence

1.) Sunk Cost Fallacy 2.) Base Rate Neglect

Possible Causes of why Older Adults Use More of Their Brains to Solve Problems

1.) Compensation- Using one brain region is inadequate for complex thinking, so older adults automatically use more parts. Intellectual output may be unimpaired, even though the process of thinking has changed. 2.) Reduced Brain Reserves-Insufficient reserves may make challenging tasks too hard. 3.) Wandering Minds-Brain stops using a focused region for each function, inhibition fails, attention wanders, and thinking becomes diffuse.

5 Steps to Changing a Habit

1.) Denial 2.) Awareness with motivational interviewing 3.) Planning 4.) Implementation with social support 5.) Maintenance with focus on stress and attentional myopia

Factors Influencing Knowledge Base

1.) Experience 2.) Current opportunity 3.) Personal motivation

Conditions That Must be Met in Order for Very Young Infants to Remember

1.) Experimental conditions are similar to real life 2.) Motivation is high 3.) Special measures aid memory retrieval

Key Observed Behaviors from Strange Situation

1.) Exploration of the toys (a secure toddler plays happily) 2.) Reaction to the caregiver's departure (a secure toddler misses the caregiver) 3.) Reaction to caregiver's return (a secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance)

5 Age-Related Dangers

1.) Falls 2.) Motor-Vehicle Deaths 3.) Poison 4.) Fire 5.) Drowning

3 Reasons for Traditional Pyramidal Shape

1.) Far more children were born than the replacement rate 2.) Before modern sanitation and nutrition, many children died before age 5 3.) Middle-aged people rarely survived adult diseases like cancer and heart attack *None of these statements are currently true

2 New Pedagogical Techniques that Foster Greater Learning

1.) Flipped class 2.) Massive open online courses (MOOCs)

3 Hypotheses as to Why Higher Education and Vocational Status Correlate with Less Cognitive Decline

1.) High-SES people began late adulthood with more robust and flexible minds, so their losses are not as noticeable 2.) Keeping the mind active is protective 3.) High-SES people generally avoid pollution and drugs and have better medical care than low-SES people

2 Theories of Universal Perspective

1.) Humanism 2.) Evolutionary Theory

Approaches to Learning a Second Language

1.) Immersion 2.) Bilingual Schooling 3.) ESL/ELL

3 Theories of Language Learning

1.) Infants need to be taught 2.) Social impulses foster infant language 3.) Infants teach themselves

4 Types of Aggression Evident in Early Childhood

1.) Instrumental Aggression 2.) Reactive Aggression 3.) Relational Aggression 4.) Bullying Aggression

Coping Measures to Reduce the Impact of Repeated Stress

1.) Interpretation of family situation -Parentification 2.) Development of friends, activities, and skills 3.) Participation in school success and after-school activities 4.) Involvement in community, church, and other programs

4 Types of Expert Thought

1.) Intuitive 2.) Automatic 3.) Strategic 4.) Flexible

Two Modes of Thinking

1.) Intuitive Thought 2.) Analytic Thought

Causal Factors of Low Achievement in Middle Childhood

1.) Limited early exposure to words 2.) Teachers' and parents' expectations

Criteria for Second Language Learning Success

1.) Literacy of the home environment (frequent reading, writing, and listening in any language helps) 2.) National culture 3.) Warmth, training, and skill of the teacher

Sports Risks During Middle Childhood

1.) Loss of self-esteem (teammates and coaches are sometimes cruel) 2.) Injuries (sometimes serious, including concussions) 3.) Reinforcement of prejudice (especially against the other sex) 4.) Increased stress (evidenced by altered hormone levels, insomnia)

2 Factors that Increase the Likelihood of Dysfunction in Every Structure, Ethnic Group, and Nation

1.) Low income or poverty 2.) High conflict

3 Sets of Reflexes Exhibited by Newborns

1.) Maintaining Oxygen 2.) Maintaining Constant Body Temperature 3.) Managing Feeding

3 Reasons that Increases in ADHD Diagnoses are Worrisome

1.) Misdiagnosis 2.) Drug Abuse 3.) Normal behavior considered pathological

2 Positions of Language

1.) Position One: Young children who are taught two languages might become semilingual, not bilingual, at risk for delayed, incomplete, and possibly even impaired language development 2.) Position Two: Soon after the vocabulary explosion, children who have heard two languages since birth usually master two distinct sets of words and grammar, along with each language's pauses, pronunciations, intonations, and gestures. Proficiency is directly related to how much language they hear

2 Main Signs of Autism Spectrum Disorder

1.) Problems in social interaction and the social use of language 2.) Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities

3 Grand Developmental Theories

1.) Psychoanalytic Theories 2.) Behavioral Theories 3.) Cognitive Theories

5 Types of Developmental Theories

1.) Psychoanalytic Theories 2.) Behaviorism 3.) Cognitive Theories 4.) Sociocultural Theories 5.) Universal Theories

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation

1.) Religious Identity 2.) Political Identity 3.) Vocational Identity 4.) Sexual Identity

Important Components of Resilience

1.) Resilience is dynamic-A person may be resilient at some periods but not at others 2.) Resilience is a positive adaptation to stress-If rejection by a parent leads a child to establish a closer relationship with another adult, that child is resilient 3.) Adversity must be significant-Resilient children overcome conditions that overwhelm many of their peers

4 Factors Which Selection of Which Affordance is Perceived and Acted Upon is Related to

1.) Sensory awareness 2.) Immediate motivation 3.) Current development 4.) Past experience

Cross-Sectional Research on Age and Intelligence

1.) US Army tested aptitude of all literate draftees during WWI -Intellectual ability peaked at about age 18, stayed at that level until the mid-20s, and then began to decline 2.) Classic study of 1,191 individuals aged 10 to 60 from 19 New England Villages -IQ score peaked between ages 18 and 21 and then gradually fell, with the average 55-year-old scoring the same as the average 14-year-old

2 Theories of Aging

1.) Wear and Tear Theory 2.) Genetic Clock Theory

Multifinality

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one cause can have many (multiple) final manifestations

Equifinality

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one symptom can have many causes

Set Point

A certain body weight that a person's homeostatic processes strive to maintain

Solitary Play

A child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby

Adolescence-Limited Offender

A person whose criminal activity stops by age 21

Life-Course Persistent Offender

A person whose criminal activity typically begins in early adolescence and continues throughout life; a career criminal

Body Image

A person's idea of how his or her body looks

Wear and Tear Theory of Aging

A process by which the human body wears out due to the passage of time and exposure to stressors

Charter School

A public school with its own set of standards that is funded and licensed by the state or local district in which it is located

Private School

A school funded by the tuition charges, endowments, and often religious or other nonprofit sponsors

Immersion

A strategy of learning a second language in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning

Bilingual Schooling

A strategy of learning a second language in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language

Selective Attention

Ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others: focus on most important elements in environment

Listening and Responding Around 6 Months

Ability to distinguish sounds and gestures in own language

Glaucoma

About 1% of those in their 70s and 10% of those in their 90s have glaucoma, a buildup of fluid within the eye that damages the optic nerve. Early stages have no symptoms. Without treatment, glaucoma causes blindness, but the damage can be prevented. Testing is crucial, particularly for African Americans and people with diabetes, since the first signs of glaucoma may occur for them as early as age 40.

Macular Degeneration

About 4% of those in their 60s and about 12% over age 80 have a deterioration of the retina, called macular degeneration. An early warning occurs when vision is spotty (ex. some letters missing when reading). Again, early treatment (medication) can restore some vision, but without treatment, blindness occurs about five years after macular degeneration starts

Cumulative Stress

Accumulated stresses over time, including minor ones, are more devastating than an isolated major stress

Antisocial Behavior

Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person; declines beginning at age 2

Fundamental Ecological Issue

Addresses the question: What should be assessed--pure, abstract thinking, or practical, contextual thought, depersonalized abilities, or everyday actions?

Invincibility Fable

Adolescent's egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving

Behavioral Teratogens

Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.

Uninvolved Parenting During Adolescence

Although teenagers may act as if they no longer need their parents, neglect can be very destructive

Allostatic Load

An accumulation of problems that make a person vulnerable to serious disease

Moratorium

An adolescent's choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example.

Flextime

An arrangement in which work schedules are flexible so that employees can balance personal and occupational responsibilities

Norm

An average, or standard measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population.

Response to Intervention (RTI)

An educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention

Permanency Planning

An effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the child

Reactive Aggression

An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical

Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS)

An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth and eighth graders. Although the TIMSS is very useful, different countries' scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are very hard to keep uniform

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

An ongoing and nationally representative measure of US children's achievements in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time; nicknamed, "the Nation's Report Card"

Genotype

An organism's genetic inheritance/genetic potential.

Sex Differences

Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body type

Positive Correlation

Both variables tend to increase or decrease together.

Hypothalamus

Brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body

Neurotransmitter

Brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

Down Syndrome

Called trisomy-21 because the person has three copies of the chromosome 21.

Pros of Kohlberg's Findings

Child use of intellectual abilities to justify moral actions was correct

Associative Play

Children interact, observing each other and sharing material, but their play is not yet mutual and reciprocal

Social Learning Theory on Sex-Role Development

Children notice the ways men and women behave and internalize the standards they observe

Cooperative Play

Children play together, creating and elaborating a joint activity or taking turns

Parallel Play

Children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together

Children's Moral Values

Children show a variety of skills, including making moral judgements and differentiating universal principles from conventional norms

Effects of Authoritative Parenting

Children: -Are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others -Are well-liked by teachers and peers, especially in societies in which individual initiative is valued

Effects of Permissive Parenting

Children: -Are unhappy and lack self-control, especially in peer relationships -Suffer from inadequate emotional regulation -Are immature and lack friendships (main reason for their unhappiness) -Continue to live at home, still dependent, in early adulthood

Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

Children: -Become conscientious, obedient, and quiet, but not especially happy -Feel guilty or depressed and blame themselves when things do not go well -Rebel as adolescents and leave home before age 20

Longitudinal Research

Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age.

Gender Differences

Differences in the roles and behaviors of males and females

Development is more ______ in late adulthood than at any other age

Diverse

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

Component of the information processing system in which current, conscious mental activity occurs

Sensory Memory (Sensory Register)

Component of the information processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed

Long-Term Memory

Component of the information processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely

Protein-Calorie Malnutrition

Condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind that can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss, and even death

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Condition in which a person not only has great difficulty concentrating for more than a few moments, but also is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive

Drug Addiction

Condition of drug dependence in which the absence of the given drug from the individual's system produces a drive--physiological, biological, or both--to ingest more of the drug

Genetic Counseling

Consultation and testing by trained professionals which enables prospective parents to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that may be passed onto their offspring.

Nurture Perspective on Moral Development

Contends that culture is crucial to the development of morality

Social Convoy

Coolectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers who move through life with an individual

Synchrony

Coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant

Graduates and Dropouts of College

Correlation between college education and later income is stronger now than previously due to the loss of unskilled jobs

Sex Education From the Media

Correlation between exposure to media sex and adolescent sexual initiation

Value of Creative Intelligence

Creative intelligence valued when new challenges arise, in only some political systems

Secondary Prevention of Asthma

Decreases asthma attacks among young high-risk children

Norms

Define standards of typical performance by which a child's development in a variety of domains can be measured

Child Abuse

Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being

Stage Approach

Describes shifts in the nature of thought, as in a postformal stage that follows the formal stage

Deviancy Training

Destructive peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms

Nurture

General term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived.

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

General term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and sustain a pregnancy.

Nature

General term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.

Additive Genes

Genes that add something to some aspect of the phenotype. -Ex. Height is affected by the contributions of ~100 genes

Instrumental Aggression

Hurtful behavior intended to get something that another person has and to keep it

Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)

Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth graders

Delinquency and Disobedience During Adolescence

Increased anger during puberty is normal, but most adolescents express their anger in acceptable ways

Course of Development of Motor Skills

Motor skills develop in a cephalocaudal (head-down) and proximodistal (center-out) direction

DSM-5 Diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder

Now combines diagnoses of deficits in the perception or processing of information; such difficulty is commonly referred to as a learning disability

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

Older people prioritize their emotional regulation, seeking familiar social contacts who reinforce their generativity, pride, and joy

Exercise During Late Adulthood

On average, only 35% of people over age 65 meet recommended guidelines for aerobic exercise; 16% for muscle strengthening

Negative Correlation

One variable tends to increase while the other decreases.

Hormone

Organic chemical substance that is produced by one body tissue and conveyed via the bloodstream to another to affect some physiological function

Cortex

Outer layers of the brain where most thinking, feeling, and sensing occurs

Worse/Psychological Parental Monitoring

Parents make a child feel guilty and impose gratefulness by threatening to withdraw love and support

Authoritative Parenting

Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children

Parental Monitoring

Parents' ongoing awareness of what their children are doing, where, and with whom

Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment

Pattern of attachment (Type C) in which anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when an infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

Facilitation

Peers facilitate both destructive and constructive behaviors in one another. This makes it easier to do both the wrong thing and the right thing

Shame

People's feeling that others blame them, disapprove of them, or are disappointed in them

Emerging Adulthood

Period between the ages of 18 and 25, which is now widely thought of as a separate developmental stage

Base Rate Neglect

Person ignores the overall frequency of some behavior or characteristic (called the base rate) in making a decision -Egocentrism makes base rate neglect more likely and more personal

Gross Motor Skills

Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking or jumping

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity (shape, hair patterns, breasts, etc.)

Concrete Operational Thought

Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions

Sensorimotor Intelligence

Piaget's term for the way infants think--by using their senses and motor skills--during the first period of cognitive development

Voucher

Public school subsidy for tuition payment at a nonpublic school. Vouchers vary a great deal from place to place, not only in amount and availability but also in restrictions as to who gets them and what schools accept them

Goal-Direct Behavior

Purposeful action that benefits from new motor skills resulting from brain maturation

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Ratio of weight to height, calculated by dividing a person's body weight in pounds by the square of his or her height in inches

Epigenetics

Refers to environmental factors that affect genes and genetic expression.

Comorbid

Refers to the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person

Bullying

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person

Replication

Repetition of a study using different participants. A sixth and crucial step to the scientific method that is needed before the scientific community accepts conclusions.

Scientific Observation

Requires the researcher to record behavior systematically and ojectively.

Experiment

Research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause/effect relationship between two variables.

Influence of shared environment (ex. children raised by the same parents in the same home) ______ with age

Shrinks

____ tends to solidify commitment, probably because similar people are likely to understand each other

Similarity

Goodness of Fit

Similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep

Birth Catch-Up

Small babies experience extra gain to catch up to the norm

Intrinsic Rewards of Work

The intangible gratifications (ex. job satisfaction, self-esteem, pride) that come from within oneself as a result of doing a job

Self-Actualization

The final stage in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by aesthetic, creative, philosophical, and spiritual understanding

Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage of Erikson's developmental sequence, in which older adults seek to integrate their unique experiences with their vision of community

Generational Forgetting

The idea that each new generation forgets what the previous generation learned. As used here, the term refers to knowledge about the harm drugs can do

Massification

The idea that establishing institutions of higher learning and encouraging college enrollment can benefit everyone (the masses)

Conservation

The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e. is conserved) when its appearance changes

Tertiary Prevention of Asthma

The prompt use of injections and inhalers

Body Mass Index (BMI)

The ratio of a person's weight in kilograms divided by their height in meters squared

Social Homogamy

The similarity of a couple's leisure interests and role preferences

Secondary Aging

The specific physical illnesses or conditions that become more common with aging but result from poor health habits, genetic vulnerability, and other influences that vary from person to person

Physical Development During Middle Childhood

The specifics of motor-skill development in middle childhood depend on the culture

Compulsive Hoarding

The tendency to cling to familiar places and possessions, sometimes to the point of becoming a health or safety hazard

Primary Aging

The universal and irreversible physical changes that occur to all living creatures as they grow older

Hidden Curriculum

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit rules and priorities that influence the academic curriculum and every other aspect of learning in a school

Subjective Thought

Thinking that is based on personal qualities of the individual thinker (i.e. experiences, culture, goals)

Objective Thought

Thinking that is not based on the thinker's personal qualities but instead based on valid facts and numbers

Zygote

Two gametes combine and produce a new individual with 23 chromosomes from each parent.

Adrenal glands

Two glands, located above the kidneys, that produce hormones including the "stress hormones" epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine

Brain Growth During Infancy

Two-year-olds are totally dependent on adults, but they have already reached half their adult height and 3/4 of their adult brain size

Assimilation

Type of adaptation in which new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas

Accommodation

Type of adaptation in which old ideas are reconstructed to include, or accommodate, new experiences

People Preference

Universal principle of infant perception; tied to evolution

Bullying Aggression

Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves

Pruning

Unused dendrites whither to allow space between neurons in the brain, allowing more synapses and thus more complex thinking

Dyscalculia

Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain

Dyslexia

Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment

Progression of Alzheimer Disease vs. Vascular Dementia

Victims of AD show steady, gradual decline, while those who suffer from VaD get suddenly worse, improve somewhat, and then experience another serious loss

Theories of Personality

View One: Personality is shaped by regional culture. -Difference in Big Five traits (self-rated personality) varies across cultures -People were happiest if their own personality traits matched the norms of their surroundings View Two: Personality is innate, fixed at birth and largely impervious to social pressure. -Big Five traits are found almost everywhere, with similar age trends -Personality is retained throughout adulthood; changes typically occur in early childhood

What Makes a Good Parent

View One: Tests of good infant care are useful; knowledge of infant development causes good care -KIDI (Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory) measures how much caregivers know about infants View Two: Knowledge of infant care development does not matter in caregiving -Immigrant child's later cognitive development is best predicted by parents' SES and language use, not by KIDI scores -Cultures vary in what they believe about infant development

Vocabulary Explosion

Vocabulary builds quickly, and comprehension is greater than production. Verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and many nouns mastered

Scientific Method

Way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based conclusions.

Doula

Woman who helps with labor, delivery, breastfeeding, and newborn care.

Flynn Effect

Younger cohorts often better than older cohorts