Nursing research chapters
5 steps of EBP
1. asking an answerable question 2. searching for relevant research-based evidence 3. appraising and synthesizing the evidence 4. integrating evidence with other factors 5. assessing effeciveness of actions
Quantative study steps
1. formulating and delimiting the problem 2. reviewing related literature 3/ undertaking clinical fieldwork 4. defining framework and conceptual definition 5. formulating hypotheses 6. selecting a research design
Quantative study steps
13. collecting the data 14. preparing data for analysis 15. analyzing data 16. interpreting data 17. communictaing findings 18. putting evidence into practuce
Quantative study steps
7. developing protocols for the intervention 8. identifying the population 9. designing the sampling plan 10. specifying methods to measure variables 11. developing methods to safeguard rights 12. reviewing and finilizing the research plan
relationship
A ______________ is a bond or connection between variables. Cause-and-effect (causal) ___________ Associative (correlational) ____________
Abstract
A brief description of a study, located at the beginning of a report
credibility
A criterion for evaluating integrity and trustworthiness in qualitative studies, referring to the confidence in the truth of the data; analogous to internal validity and quantitative research
Critique
A critical appraisal that analyzes both weaknesses and strengths of a research report
Validity
A quality criterion referring to the degree to which the inference made in a study are accurate and well offended; in measurement, the degree to which an instrument measures what is it intended to measure
Journal article
A report appearing in professional journals such as research and nursing
Placebo
A sham or pseudo intervention sometimes used as a control group condition
Statistical significance
A term indicating that the results from an analysis of sample data are unlikely to have been caused by chance, at a specified level of probability
Confounding variable
A variable that is extraneous to the research question and that confounds understanding of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; confounding variables can be controlled in the research design in through statistical procedures
Statistical test
An analytical tool that estimates the probability that obtained results from a sample reflect true population values
Problem statement
An articulation about the problem and the need for a conducted study
Research problem
An enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling situation
Randomness
An important concept in quantitative research, involving having certain features of the study established by chance rather than design or personal preference
Bias
Any influence that distorts the results of the study and undermines validity
5 steps of EBP
Ask questions that reflect uncertainties in clinical practice. Search for and assemble evidence. Appraise and synthesize evidence. Integrate evidence with other sources. Assess effectiveness of decision or advice.
paradigm cases
Benner's approach consists of three processes: searching for __________________, thematic analysis, and analysis of exemplars 292 pc
constructivist grounded theory
Charmaz's ______________________ emerged recently, emphasizing interpretive asapects in which the grounded theory is constructed from relationships between the researcher and participants 196
CINAHL
Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature
Boolean operators
Databases allow for the use of ________________, which helps to delimit or expand a search •AND (delimits a search) •OR (expands a search) •NOT (narrows a search)
evidence hierarchy
EBP involves evaluating evidence to determine best evidence; often an ____________________ is used to rank study findings according to the strength of evidence provided, but different _____________ are appropriate for different types of questions
Phenomenological research
Focuses on the lived experiences of humans
hermeneutic circle
Gadamer, another phenomenologist described the the interpretive process as a circular relationship, the ________________---, where one understands the whole of a text, e.g. interview transcript, in terms of its parts and the parts in terms of the whole 188
emergent fit
Glaser discussed hte evolution of grounded theories through the process of ______________ to prevent invidivudal substantive theories from being respected little islands of knowledge; generating grounded theory does not necessarily require discoveing all new categoreis or ignoring ones previously identified in the literature 287 ef
Reflexivity
In qualitative studies, the researcher's critical self-reflection about his or her own biases, preferences, and preconceptions
Inference
In research, a conclusion drawn from the study evidence, taking into account the methods used to generate that evidence
P value
In statistical testing, the probability that the obtained results are due to chance alone; the probability of a type one error
Statement of Purpose: Qualitative Studies
Indicates the following: Nature of the inquiry Through the use of verbs such as explore, describe, understand, discover... The key concept or phenomenon The group, community, or setting under study
individual change
MIC is an index of ________________, not group differences; experts warn that it is inappropriate to interpret mean differences in relation to the MIC 271
PICOS
P-Population I-intervention/influence C- comparative intervention O- outcome S- setting
PICOT
P-Population I-intervention/influence C- comparative intervention O- outcome T- Time
components of qualitative evidence
PICO (T) P-Population I-intervention/influence C- comparative intervention O- outcome T- Time
Directional hypothesis
Predicts the direction of a relationship Example: older patients are more likely to fall than younger patients
Nondirectional hypothesis
Predicts the existence of a relationship, not its direction Example: older patients differ from younger ones with respect to their risk of falling)
Research aims or objectives
Specific accomplishments to be achieved by conducting the study
Research hypothesis
States the actual prediction of a relationship
Trustworthiness
The degree of confidence qualitative researchers have in their data and analysis, most often assessed using that criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and authenticity
Scientific merit
The degree to which a study is methodologically and conceptually sound
Reliability
The extent to which a measurement is free from measurement error; more broadly, the extent to which scores for people who have not changed are the same for repeated measurements
Transferability
The extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings or groups; analogous to generalizability
IMRAD
The organization of a research report into four main sections: the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections
Blinding
The process of preventing those involved in the study (participants, intervention agents, data collectors, or healthcare providers) from having information that could lead to a bias, particularity information about which treatment group a participant is in; also called masking
Hypotheses
The researcher's predictions about relationships among variables
Statement of purpose
The researcher's summary of the overall study goal
Findings
The results of the analysis of research data
Level of significance
The risk of making a type one error in a statistical analysis, with the criterion (Alpha) established by the researcher before hand
Research questions
The specific queries the researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem
Triangulation
The use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a phenomenon to converge on an accurate representation of reality
causal hypothesis
To support a ________________: demonstrate a statistical relationship temporal precedence ("cause precedes effect") elimination of alternative explanations
p
________ means probability level; i.e. .05= 5 times out of 100 would have a spurious result and 95/100 would have similar results 62
physical setting (participant observation)
__________ asks where questions, what are the main features of the setting 207
phase 2 clinical trial
___________ is a pilot test of treatment effectivemess; researchers see if the intervention is feasible and acceptable and holds promise; this phase is designed as a small-scale experiment or quasi-experiment218 p2
qualitative resarch
___________ is associated with constructivist inquiry
clinical nursing research
___________ is research on problems relating to clinical practice
etiology
___________ studies focus on identifying what causes health problems in order to help prevent harm or treat them
3 data collection methods for nurse researchers
___________: self-reports, observations, biophysiological measures
clinical trials
____________ are experimental research in the medical field
cause
____________ are seldom deterministic; they only increase the likelihood that an effect will occur
descriptive research
____________ are studies that summarize the status of a phenomena
activities (participant observation)
____________ asks what questiosnn; what is going on, what are the participants doing 207
participants (participant observation)
____________ asks who questions; who is present and what are their characteristics 207
Associative
____________ correlational relationship
phase 1 clinical trial
____________ is designed to establish safety, tolerance, and dose with a simple design; the focus is on developing the best treatment 217 p1
empirical evidence
____________ is evidence collected by way of hte human senses
cause
____________ is the independent variable that must precede an effect (outcome)
credibility
____________ isi an important aspect of trustworthiness; ____________ is achieved to the extent that the research methods inspire confidence that the results are truthful and accurate; _________________ in a qualitative study can be enhanced in several ways, but one strategy, triangulation, has implications for the design of all studies, including quantitative ones
temporal
____________ means a cause must precede an effect in time; i.e. lung cancer after smoking
unhypothesized significant reuslts
____________ occur when: exploring relationships that were not considered during the design of the study obtaining results opposite to those hypotehsized 268
bracketing
____________ refers to the process of identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study; researchers strive to ________________ out presuppositions in an effort t oconfront the data in pure form 188
variables
_____________ A characteristic or quality that takes on different values Examples: Blood type, Weight, Length of stay in hospital Used almost exclusively in quantitative research
Ethnographic research
_____________ Focuses on the patterns and lifeways of a cultural group
Results
_____________ Qualitative studies: Findings often organized according to major themes, processes, or categories identified in the analysis Almost always includes raw data—quotes directly from study participants
observational studies
_____________ are non experimental research in medical research
RCTs
_____________ are the *gold standard* because they come closer than any other design to meeting the criteria for inferring causal relationships
norms
_____________ are values derived from large, representative samples 241
frequency and duration (participant observation)
_____________ ask when questions, when did the activity begin and end? is the activity a recurring one 207
process (participant observation)
_____________ asks how questions; how is the activity organized? how does it unfold 207
barriers to EBN
_____________ fall into one of three categories: quality and nature of the research; characteristics of nurses; and organizational factors
data
_____________ for a continuous variable can be completely described in terms of the shape of the distribution, central tendency, and variability 257
purposive sampling
_____________ guide sresearchers in selecting data sources that maximize information richness 211
analysis bias
_____________ include: type I error type II error 265
phase 4 clinical trial
_____________ involve studies of the effectiveness of an intervention in the general population; the emphasis in effeciveness studies is on the external validity of an intervention that has demonstrated efficacy under controlled conditions 218 p4
data sturation
_____________ involves sampling until no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved 201
clinical nursing research
_____________ is research designed to guide nursing practice; ________________ typically begins with questions stemming from practice problems--problems you may have already encountered
translational research
_____________ is rresearch on how findings from studies can best be translated into practice
blinding
_____________ is sometimes used to avoid biases stemming from participants or researehc agents awareness of study hypotheses or research status
cross-cultural lvalidity
_____________ is the degree to which the components of a translated or culturally adapted measure perform adequately and equivalently relative to their performance on the original instrument
quantitative research
_____________ is the type of research most closely allied with positivism
evidence-based practice
_____________ is: •Starts with a clinical question •Broader than RU •Integrates research findings with other factors
relationship
_____________ means there must be an association between the presumed cause and the effect; i.e. an association between smoking and cancer
in vivo
_____________ measurements are those performed directly within or on living organisms, such as blood pressure and body temperature measurement
placebo
_____________ or sham drug used to promote blindness in studies
ordinal measurement
_____________ ranks people on an attribute; i.e. ADL capability; the numbers ignify incremental ability to perform ADLs independently, but they do not tell us how much greater one level is than another; as with nominal measures, the mathematic operations with _____________ are restricted 228
reliability
_____________ refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study; the term is most often associated with the methods used to measure variables
biophysiologic measures
_____________ to assess important clinical values in studies rather than reports or observations, blood pressure, weight
systematic review
_____________ types include: meta-analyses and meta-syntheses
randomization/ random assignment
_____________ with participants allocated to experimental and control groups at random to make the groups comparable at the outset
sample size
_____________, the number of study participants, is a major concern in quantiative research; there is no simple formula to determine how big a sample should be, but larger is usually better than smaller
reflexivity
_____________, the process of reflecting critically on the self and of scrutinizing personal values that could affect data collection and interpretation, is an important tool in qualitative research
PubMed
_____________- is a lifelong resource regardless of your institution's access to databases
in vitro
_____________-- measures data are gathered from participants by extracting biophysiologic material from them and subjecting it to analysis by laboratory technicians
Tradition evidence
_____________: based on customs and trends, follow the way it has always been done (We don't want to be stuck in the old mindset of "we've always done it this way". We want to change with the times and new evidence that emerges showing better ways that we can do things in clinical practice); not good for research
Data set
_____________: the entirety of data gathered for all study participants
Quantitative research
______________ Focused on gathering empirical evidence Objective methods used Information is quantitative (numeric)
Qualitative research
______________ Focused on understanding the human experience as it is lived Subjective methods used Information is qualitative (narrative/descriptive)
qualitative data
______________ analyses challenges: 1. no universal rules for analyzing 2. enourmours amount of work needed 3. requries creativity and strong inductive skills; proficient in discerning pattersn and waving them into a whole 4. reducing data for reporting purposes 277 qd
background questions
______________ are *foundational questions* about a clinical issue, such as what is cancer cachexia (progressive body wasting), and what is its pathophysiology
systematic reviews
______________ are a cornerstone of EBP and have assumed increasing importance; _____________ rigorously integrate research information on a topic so that conclusions about the state of evidence can be reached
cause-probing
______________ are designed to illuminate underlying causes of phenomena
producers of nursing research
______________ are nurses who actively design and undertake studies
cause-probing
______________ are studies designed to illuminate the underlying causes of phenomena
research questions
______________ are, in some cases, direct rewordings of statements of purpose, phrased interrogatively rather than declaratively
controlling subject characteristics
______________ can be done with: homogenity matching statistical procedures randomization (most effective)
minimal important change
______________ cannot legitimately be used to interpret group means or differences in means; however, the ____________ can be used to ascertain whether each person in a sample has or has not achieved a change greater than the ___________________ and then a responder analysis can be undertaken to compare the percentage of people meeing the threshold in different study groups 276
confidence intervals
______________ communicate information about how precise the study results are; nurse researchers will increasingly report ___________ information in the years ahead because of its value for interpreting study results and assess their utility for nursing practice 266
Discussion
______________ describes: interpretation of the results, linking with previous study results Implications for nursing practice and for further research Study limitations
quota sampling
______________ divides the population into homogenous strata to ensure representation of the subgroups of the sample; within each stratum, people are sampled by convenience
evaluation research
______________ focuses on developing useful information about a program or policy- information that decision makers need on whether to adopt, modify, or abandon the program 218 er
narrative analysis
______________ focuses on story as the object of inquiry to understand how individuals make sense of events in their lives; the underlying premise of _____________ is that people most effectively make sense of their world- and communicate meanings- by narrating stories; ______________ asks why did the story get told that way 191
validity
______________ in a measurement context is the degree to which an instrument is measuring the construct it purports to measure
evidence-based practice
______________ in an organizational context invovles many of the same steps as individual _______________ efforts but is more formalized and must take organizational factors into account
data management
______________ in qualitative research is reductionist in nature: it involves converting masses of data into smaller, more manageale segments 280 dm
Sources of Research Problems
______________ include: Clinical experience Nursing literature Social issues Theory Suggestions from external sources
measurement bias
______________ include: social desirability bias acquiescence bias naysayers bias extreme response bias recall/memory bias reactivity observer bias 265
photo elicitation
______________ interviews which are guided and stimulated by photographic images, sometimes using photos that participants themselves take (photovoice) 211
qualitative content analysis
______________ involves analyzing the content of narrative data to identify prominet themes and patterns among the themes; _________________ involves breaking down data into smaller units, coding and naming the units according to the content the represent, and grouping coded material based on share concepts 282 qca
validity
______________ is a more complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study's evidence; like reliability, ______________ is an important criterion for evaluating methods used to measure variables; in this context, ______________ is whether methods are really measuring the concepts they're supposed to measure
positivist paradigm
______________ is a reflection of a broad cultural movement (modernism) that emphasizes the rational and scientific
criterion validity
______________ is assessed with different statistical methods depending on the measurement level of hte focal measure and the criterion; when both are dichotomous, sensitivity and specificity are usually caluclated 258
evidence-based practice
______________ is based on: customer needs/wishes practitioner's skills/experience scientific evidence
qualitative data
______________ is narrative information collected by a study
replication
______________ is repeating of studies in different clinical settings to ensure that the findings are robust
feminist research
______________ is similar to critical theory research, but the focus is on gender domination and discrimination within society; similar to critical researchers, __________________ seek to establish collaborative and nonexplorative relationships with their informants and to conduct research that is transformative 192
nursing research
______________ is systematic inquiry designed to develop trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to nurses and theri clients
sensitivity
______________ is the ability of a measure to correctly identify a case, that is, to correctly screen in or diagnose a condition; a measure's ___________________ is its rate of yielding true positives 250
transferability
______________ is the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings
data/ datum
______________ is the information collected during the course of a study, it may take form of numeric values or narrative information
grounded theory
______________ is typically done with samples of about 20-30 people, using theoretical sampling; the goal in a ________________ is to select informants who best contribute to the evolving theory 202
counterfactual
______________ is what would have happened to the same people simultaneously exposed and not exposed to a causal factor; a good research design for cause-probing questions entails finding a good approximation to the idealized ___________________
Exhaustive
______________ means considering all elements or aspects of the issue; very comprehensive
informed consent
______________ means that participants have adequate information about the study, comprehend the information, and have the power of free choice, enabling them to consent or decline participation voluntarily
valid
______________ means that the study methods were sufficiently rigorous that the evidence can be trusted
results section
______________ presents the findings that were obtained by analyzing the study data; the text presents a narrative summary of key findings, often accompanied by more detailed tables 62
quality improvement
______________ projects are efforts ongoing in health care settings as an assessment, conducted of a patient care problem for hte purpose of improving patient care through peer analysis, intervention, resolution of the problem, and follow-up
Introduction
______________ provides Description of: Central phenomena, concepts, or variables Study purpose, research questions, or hypotheses Review of literature Theoretical/conceptual framework Study significance, need for study
primary studies
______________ published in journals are not pre-appraised for quality and use in practice
therapy/treatment/intervention
______________ questions ask: in (population), what is the effect of (IV) on (DV)
null hypotheses
______________ state that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables
quality improvement/risk data
______________ such as medication error reports, can be used to assess practices and determine the need for practice changes
operational definition
______________ the operations a researcher must perform to measure the concept and collect the desired information Individual's pain rating on 0 to 10 numeric rating scale, with 0 indicating no pain, & 10 indicating the worst possible pain
delphi surveys
______________ were developed as a tool for short-term forecasting; this technique involves a spanel of experts who are asked to complete several rounds of questionnaires focusing on their judgements about a topic of interest; multiple iterations are used to achieve consensus 222 ds
event sampling
______________, researchers select integral events to observe; ___________________ requires researchers to either know when events will occur or wait for their occurrence
sampling error
______________- is the difference between population values and sample values
grounded theory
______________-- researchers try to account for people's actions by focusing the the main concern that their behavior is designed to resolve; the manner in which they resolve this main concern is the core variable 196
Null hypothesis
______________: Expresses the absence of a relationship (used only in statistical testing) Example: older patients are just as likely as younger patients to fall
Categorical variable
______________: represent distinct groups Examples- marital status, gender
nonexperimental research
_______________ Data collected without an intervention or the introduction of treatments Called observational research in medical research
self reports
_______________ a method of collecting data by interviews and questionnaires
inference
_______________ about hte real world are valid to the extent that researchers have made good decisions in selecting proxies and have controlled sources of bias 260
logistic regression
_______________ analyzes the relationships between multiple independent variables an a nominal-level outcome; it is simimlar to multiple regression, although it employes a different statistical estimation procedure; __________________ transforms the probability of an event occurring into its odds 249
research utilization (RU)
_______________ and EBP are overlapping concepts that concern efforts to use research as a basis for clinical decisions, but ___________ starts with a research based innovation that gets evaluated for possible use in practice
inferential statistics
_______________ are based on the laws of probability, provide a means for drawing inferences about a population, given data from a sample; _______________ are used to test research hypotheses 238
domains
_______________ are broad categories that represent units of cultural knowledge; during this first level of analysis, ethnographers identify relational patterns among terms in teh ___________________ that are used by members of the culture 282 d
confirming cases
_______________ are cases that fit researcher's conceptualizations and strengthen credibility 200
qualitative data
_______________ are derived from narrative materials, susch as transcrips from auditaped interviews or participant's observers field notes 277 qd
primary sources
_______________ are descriptions of a study written by the researchers who conducted them
level III codes/ theoretical constructs
_______________ are hte most abstract codes; collapsing level II codes aids in identifying ________________ 285 L3
Hypotheses
_______________ are never proved or disproved Statistical ______________ testing cannot provide absolute proof Only probabilistic information supports an inference that a ______________ is probably correct (or not) _____________ are supported, or not, by the study data
disconfirming cases
_______________ are new cases that do no t fit and serve to challenge reseracher's interpretations 200
consumers of nursing research
_______________ are nurses who read research reports to keep up-to-date on findings that may affect their practice
parametic tests
_______________ are ones that focus on population parameters and involve certain assumptions about variables in the analysis, notably the assumption that they are normally distributed in the population 242
nursing sensitive outcomes
_______________ are patient outcomes that improve if there is greater quality or quantity of nursing care 220 n
threats to validity
_______________ are reasons that an inference could be wrong; a key function of quantaitive research design is to rule out _________________
exploratory designs
_______________ are sequential MM designs, with qualitative data being collected first; the design has as its central premise the need for initial in-depth exploration of a concept; usually, the first phase focuses on exploration or a poorly understood phenomenon, and the second is focused on measuring/ classifying it 216 exp
construct
_______________ are slightly more complex abstractions, often deliberately invented
results
_______________ are summarized in the results section of a research article; researchers present their interpretations of hte _____________ in the discussion section; researchers are seldom totally objective, though, so you should develop your own interpretations 260
research methods
_______________ are techniques researchers use to structure a study and to gather and analyze relevant information
research questions
_______________ are the specific queries researchers want to answer
descriptive statistics
_______________ are used to synthesize and describe data 229
exploratory research
_______________ begins with a phenomenon of interest; but rather than simply describing it, _____________ examine the nature of the phenomeon, the manner in which it is manifested, and other factors to which it is related
validity
_______________ broadly concerns the soundness of the study's evidence that is, whether the findings are convincing and well grounded
t-test
_______________ can be used to test the significance of the difference between group means 258
analysis of variance (ANOVA)
_______________ can be used to test the significance of the difference between group means; ________________ is used when there are three or more groups 258
process analysis
_______________ describes the process by which a program gets implemented and how it functions in practice 225 pr
clinical practice guidelines
_______________ distill a body of evidence into a usable form; unlike systematic reviews, _______________ give specific recommendations for evidence-based decision making e.g. American Academy of Family Physicians
care bundles
_______________ encompass a set of interventions to treat or prevent a specific cluster of symptoms
external validity
_______________ generalizability of the results is affected by sampling; inferences about hte extent to which the study results correspond to truth in the real world must take sampling decisions and sampling problems into account 264
Preappraised evidence
_______________ has been selected from primary studies and evaluated for use by clinicians
sample size adequacy
_______________ in a qualitative study is difficult to evaluate because the main criterion is information redundancy, which consumers cannot judge 201
generalizability
_______________ in a quantitative study concerns the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings
threats to internal valildity
_______________ include: temporal ambiguity selection history maturation mortality/ attrition
time sampling
_______________ involves selecting time periods during which obervations will occur; _____________ may be selected systematically or at random
quantitative research
_______________ involves the collection and analysis of numeric information; ____________ is typically conducted with the traditional scientific method
purposive sampling
_______________ involves using researchers' knowledge about the population to handpick sample members
pragmatism
_______________ is a paradigm often associated with MM research, provides a basis for a position that has been stated as the dictatorship of the research question; ______________ researchers consider that it is the research question that should drive the design of the inquiry; they reject a forced choice between the traditional postpositiivst and constructivist apprcoaches to research 214
minimal risk
_______________ is a risk expected to be no greater than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during routine procedures; when risks are not ________________, researchers must proceed with caution to reduce risks and maximize benefits
embedded design
_______________ is a term sometimes used in nursing studies; an _____________ is a design in which a second type of data is totally subservient to the other type of data 216 em
test-retest reliability
_______________ is adminsitering a measure twice in a short period to see if it yields consistent scores
inference
_______________ is an integral part of doing and critiquing research; an _______________ is an conclusion drawn from the study evidence using logical reasoning and taking into account the methods used to generate that evidence
empirical evidence
_______________ is associated with the scientific method, researchers in both traditions gather and analyze evidence gathered _________, that is, through their senses
participatory action research (PAR)
_______________ is based on the view that the production of knowledge can be used to exert power; _________________ researchers typically work with groups or communities that are vulnerable to the cnotrol or oppressio nof a dominant group 192
content validity
_______________ is defined as the extent to which an instrument's content adequately captures the construct--that is, whether a composite instrument has an appropriate sample of items for the construct being measured
phase 1 clinical trial
_______________ is designed to finalize features of the intervention 225 p1
human cooperation
_______________ is essential in both quantative and qualitative research; research must encourage people to participate in the study and to speak candidly
benchmarking data
_______________ is information on issues such as the rates of using various procedures or rates of clinical problems
observational bias
_______________ is possible reactivity when the observer is conspicuous and the observations are vulnerable to _________________; ________________ cannot be eliminated, but they can be minimized through careful observer training and assessment
research
_______________ is systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions and solve problems; the ultimate goal is to gain knowledge that would be useful for many people
target population
_______________ is the entire population of interest
criterion validity
_______________ is the extent to which scores on a measure are a good reflection of a gold standard
sampling interval
_______________ is the fixed distance between selected cases
ratio measrurement
_______________ is the highest level; _____________, unliek interval scales, have meaningful zero and provide information about hte absolute magnitude of the attribute; many physical measures, such as weight, are _____________________ 228
sensitivity
_______________ is the instrument's ability to identify a case correctly (i.e. rate of yileding true positives) 258
evidence-based practice
_______________ is the integration of the best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values
unit of analysis
_______________ is the most basic entity on which the analysis focuses
simple random sampling
_______________ is the most basic probability sampling; in ______________, researchers establish a sampling frame, a list of population elements; elements are numbered and then a table of random numbers are used to draw a random sample of the desired size
historical research
_______________ is the systematic collection and critical evaluation of data relating to past occurrences; _______________ relies primarily on qualitative data but can sometimes involve statistical analyses of quantitative data; nurses have used _________________ to examine phenomena in both the recent and more distant past 190
evidence-base practice (EBP)
_______________ is the use of the best evidence in making patient care decisions; such evidence typically comes from research conducted by nurses and other health care professionals
logistic regression
_______________ is used in lieu of multiple regression when the outcome is dichotomous 258
interrater reliability
_______________ is used to assess the extent to which two independent raters or observers assign the same score in measuring an attibute; the ratings are dichotomous classifications (e.g. presence vs absence of infusion phlebitis); if ratings are continuous scores, a __________________ is usually used 250
Rigorous
_______________ means being extremely thorough, exhaustive, and accurate
Spurious
_______________ means false
in vitro
_______________ measures include chemical measures, microbiologic measures, and cytologic or histologic measures
survey research
_______________ obtain quantitaitve information about the prevalence, distribution, and interrelations of variables within a population; political opinion polls ar eexamples; _______________ data are used primarily to gather information from nonclinical populations 220 sr
nonsigificant resuls
_______________ provide no evidence of the truth or falsity of the hypothesis 267
ethnography
_______________ provides a framework for studying the meanings, patterns, and lifeways of culture in a holistic fashion
outcomes
_______________ refer to specific clinical end results of patient care 220 o
reliability
_______________ refers to the accuracy of information obtained in a study
adequacy (qualitative sampling)
_______________ refers to the sufficiency and quality of data the sample yielded; an ______________ sample provides data without thin spots 203
grounded theory
_______________ seeks to describe and understand key social psychological processes that occur in a social setting
descriptive phenomenology
_______________ seeks to describe lived experiences, researchers strive to bracket out preconceived views and to intuit the essence of the phenomenon by remaining open to meanings attributed to it by those who have experienced it 195
confounding variables
_______________ the relationship cannot be explained as being caused by a third variable; i.e. smokers living in urban environments
descriptive theory
_______________ thoroughly describes a phenomenon
hypothesis testing
_______________ through statistical tests enables researchers to make objective decisions about relationships between variables 258
convenience sampling
_______________ uses the most readily available or convenient people
appropriateness (qualitative sampling)
_______________- concerns the methods used to select a sample; an ____________ sample results from the selection of participants who can best supply information that meets the stud's conceptual requirements 203
mixed methods research
_______________-- has numerous advantages, including complementarity of quantitative and qualitative data and the practicality of using methods that best address a question; ________________ has many applications, including the development and tesing of instruments, theories, and interventions 225
Hypotheses
_______________: A predicted answer to the research question Should almost always involve two or more variables
Research questions
_______________: Are sometimes direct rewordings of statements of purpose, worded as questions Are sometimes used to clarify or lend specificity to the purpose statement In quantitative studies, typically pose queries about the relationships among variables
Statement of Purpose: Quantitative Studies
_______________: Identifies key study variables Identifies possible relationships among variables Indicates the population of interest Suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the inquiry (e.g., to test..., to compare..., to evaluate...)
independent variable
_______________: the presumed cause of a dependent variable
grounded theory
________________ Seeks to understand key social, psychological processes To develop a theory
Assembled information
________________ (e.g. quality improvement data): while quality improvement reports or pain reassessment reports are *helpful in recognizing occurrence trends, it doesn't lead to a solution*
phenomena/concepts
________________ are abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior or characteristics
field notes
________________ are broader and more interpretive that represent the observer's efforts to record information and to synthesize and understand the data 207
unstructured interview
________________ are conversational discussions on the topic of interest 211
level I codes/ in vivo codes
________________ are derived directly from the langauge of the substantive area; they have vivid imagery and grab 285 L1
case studies
________________ are in-depth investigations of a single entity or smaller nunmber of entities; the entitiy may be an individual, family, institution, or social unit; ______________ researchers attempt to understand issues that are important to the circumstances of the focal entity 190
descriptive qualitative studies
________________ are not embedded in a disciplinary tradition; such studies may be referred to as qualitative studies, naturalistic inquiries, or qualitative content analyses 196
descriptive field notes
________________ are objective descriptions of events and conversations that were observed 207
Statistical software
________________ are specialized computer programs which help you to collect, organize, analyze, interpret and statistically design data. There are two main statistical techniques which help in statistical data analysis: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
paradigm cases
________________ are strong instances of concerns or ways of being in the world; ________________ are used early in the analytic process as strategy for gaining understanding 285 pc
randomized control trials (RCT)
________________ are the "gold standard" for intervention studies because they yield the most persuasive evidence about the effects of an intervention
foreground questions
________________ are those that *can be answered based on current best research evidence* on diagnosing, assessing, or treating patients or on understanding the meaning or prognosis of their health problems
clinical trials
________________ are trials designed to assess hte effeciveness of clinical interventions, often involve a series of phases 225 ct
semistructured interviews
________________ are used when researchers have a lsit of topics or broad questions that must be covered in an interview 204
substatnive themes
________________ ask, what is the pattern of evidence
outcomes (participant observation)
________________ asks why questions; why is the activity happening? What did not happen and why? 207
Person's r
________________ can be used to test whether a correlation is significantly different from zero 258
external validity
________________ concerns inferences about generalizability, whether findings holed true over variations in people, conditions, and settings
construct validity
________________ concerns the extent to which a measure is truly measuring the target construct and is often assessed using hypotehsis testing procedures; both bivariate and multivariate statistical tests are appropriate in assessments of a new measure's _______________________ 251
correlation coefficients
________________ describe the direction and magnitude of a relationship between two variables and range from -1 through 0 to 1 257
probability sampling
________________ designs, which involve the random selection of elements from the population, yield more representative samples than nonprobability designs and permit estimates of the magnitude of sampling error
nonparametric tests
________________ do not estimate parameters and involve less restrictive assumptions about the distribution's shape 242
reflective field notes
________________ document researchers' personal experiences, reflections, and progress in the field 207
interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics)
________________ focuses on interpreting the meaning of experiences rather than just describing them 196
narrative analysis
________________ focuses on story in studies in which the prupose is to determine how individuals make sense of events in their lives 196
clinical significance
________________ for group-level results is often inferred on the basis of such statistics as effect size indexes, confidence intervals, and number needed to treat; however, _____________ is most often discussed in terms of individual patients, especially whether they have achieved a cinically meaningful change 276
critical theory
________________ has been applied in several discipliens but has played an essentially importnat role in ethnography 191
cultural theories
________________ include ideational theories, which suggest that cultural conditions stem from mental activity and ideas, and materialistic theories which view material conditions as the source of cultural development
effect size
________________ indexes are estimates of the magnitude of effects of an I component on an O component in PCIO questions; _____________ is important because with large samples, even minscule ____________ can be statistically significant 246
quasi-experiments/ trials without randomization
________________ involve an intervention but lack a comparison group or randomization; strong _______________ designs introduce controls to compensate for these missing components
processes
________________ involve aspects of clnical managment and decision making 219 p
focus group interviews
________________ involve groups of 5-10 people whose opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously; the interviewer (or moderator) guides the discussion using a topic guide 204
measurement
________________ involves assigning numbers to represent the amount of an attribute is present in a person or object
maximum variation sampling
________________ involves deliberately selecting cases with a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest; ____________ is often the sampling mode of choice in qualitative research because it is useful in illuminating the scope of a phenomenon and in identifying important patterns across variations 200
research control
________________ involves holding constant influences on the outcome variable so that the true relationship between the independent and outcome variables can be understood
interpretation
________________ involves making sense of study results and examining their implications
phase 2 clinical trial
________________ involves seeking preliminary evidence of efficacy and opportunities for refinements 225 p2
sampling
________________ involves selecting a portion of the population to represent the population
consecutive sampling
________________ involves taking all of the people from an accessible population who meet the eligibility criteria over a specific time interval or for a specificed sample size
systematic sampling
________________ involves the selection of every kth case from a list, such as every 10th person on a patient list; ________________ can be done so that essentially a random sample is drawn
substantive coding
________________ involves: open coding and then substantive coding 292 sc
core category/ core variable
________________ is a pattern of behavior that is relevant and/or problematic for study participants 286 cc
attrition
________________ is a selection bias that occurs after the study unfolds; groups initially equivalent can lose comparability because of ___________________, and differential group composition, rather than the independent variable, could be the cause of any group differences
population
________________ is an entire aggregate of cases
CINAHL
________________ is an important electornic database for nurses; it covers references to hundreds of nursing and allied health journals as well as to books and dissertations
statistical reliability
________________ is assessed by computing coefficients that range from .00-1.00; higher values indicate greater ________________
interrater reliability
________________ is assessing whether two raters or observers independently assign similar scores
quality improvement
________________ is defined as an assessment, conducted of a patient care problem for the purpose of improving patient care through peer analysis, intervention, resolution of the problem, and follow-up
history threat
________________ is external events that could affect outcomes
Empirical evidence
________________ is information received by the researcher's observation of patterns and behaviors (not influenced by personal beliefs or hunches)
quantitative data
________________ is numeric values collected by a study
nursing research
________________ is systematic inquiry undertaken to develop evidence on problems of importance to nurses
statistical power
________________ is the ability to detect true relationships among variables
statistical power
________________ is the capacity to detect true relationships and affects the statistical conclusion validity; the most straightforward way to achieve ______________ is to use a large enough sample
evidence-based practice
________________ is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making clinical decisions about patient care; it is a clinical problem-solving strategy that de-emphasizes decision making based on custom and emphasizes the integration of research evidence with clinical expertise and patient preferences
construct validity
________________ is the degree to which evidence about a measure's scores in relation to other variables support the inference that the construct has been well represented
nonresponse bias/ response bias
________________ is the difference between participants and those who declined to participate
face validity
________________ is the extent to which a measure looks like it is measuring the target construct
nominal measurement
________________ is the lowest lvel, involves using numbers simply to categorize attributes; gender is an example of a _____________________; the numbers used do not have quantitative meaning and cannot be treated mathematically; i.e. it makes no sense to compute a sample's average gender 228
randomization
________________ is the most effective method for controlling subject characteristics because it controls all possible confounding variables without researchers having to identify them
absolute risk
________________ is the proportion of people who experienced an undesirable outcome in each group 236
expectation bias
________________ is the risk that knowledge can influence study outcomes
mortality
________________ is the threat that arises from attrition in groups being compared; if different kinds of people remain in the study in one group versus another, then these differences, rather than the independent variable, could account for group differences in outcomes
concurrent validity
________________ is the type of criterion validity assessed when the measurements of hte criterion and the focal insturment occur at the same time
constant comparison
________________ is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant concepts and categories; categories elicited from the data are __________________ with data obtained earlier so that commonalities and variations can be detected 189
cohen's kappa
________________ is used to estimate interrater reliability when the ratings of two independent raters are dichotomous, the index used to estimate internal consistency is coefficeint alpha; reliability coefficients of .8 or higher are desirable 258
research control
________________ is used to hold constant outside influences on the dependent variable so that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be better understood
manifest content
________________ is what the text actually says, in purely descriptive studies, qualitative researchers may focus mainly on summarizing the __________________ communicated in the text 282 mc
biologic plausibility
________________ means evidence from basic physiologic studies indicate a causal pathway is credible
full disclosure
________________ means that the researcher has fully described the study, the person's right to refuse participation, and potential risks and benefits; the right to self-determination and _________________ are two elements that informed consent is based on
bivariate
________________ means two variables, describes the relationship between two variables 234
corroboration
________________ of results through either internal or external sources is another approach in a credibility assessment 276
selective approach
________________ pulls out key statements and phrases 292 sa
best evidence
________________ refers to research findings that are methodologically appropriate, rigorous, and clinically relevant for answering pressing questions
face validity
________________ refers to whether the instrument looks like it is measuring the target construct; it is helpful for a measure to have _________________ if other types of validity have also been demonstrated
explanatory research
________________ seeks to understand the underlying causes or full nature of a phenomenon
inclusion criteria
________________ state that a person should be included as a member of the population
quantitative researchers
________________ strive to control external factors that could affect study outcomes and subject characteristics that are extraneous to the research question
empirical evidence
________________ supporting research hypotheses never constitutes proof of their veractiy; hypothesis testing is probabilitic; there is always a probability that observed relationships resulted from chance- that is, a type I error has occurred 267
conceptual definition
________________ the abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does." (Margo McCaffrey, 1968)
intervention
________________ the researcher manipulates the independent variable by introducing an __________________
critical ethnography
________________ uses the principles of critical theory in the study of cultures 196
outcomes research
________________, a subset of health services research, comprises efforts to understand the end results of particular health care practices and to assess the effectiveness of health care services; ________________ represents a response to the increasing demand from policy makers and the public to justify health care practices in terms of improved outcomes and cost 219 or
quasi-experiments
________________, called trials without randomization, involve interventions but lack randomization, the signature of a true experiment
Scope of the problem
________________- how big a problem is it, and how many people are affected?
beneficence
________________- involves the performance of some good and the protection of participants from physical and psychological harm and exploitation
concurrent
________________- means both strands occuring in one simultaneous phase 225
Background
________________- what is the nature of the problem, or the context of the situation, that readers need to understand?
Components of a Problem Statement
________________: - Identification of the problem - Background - Scope - Consequences - Knowledge gaps - Proposed solution
Simple hypothesis
________________: Predicts relationship between two variables (one independent variable and one dependent variable)
IMRAD format
________________: •Title and abstract •Introduction •Method •Results And •Discussion •References
Results
________________: The findings are presented in this section Quantitative studies: Descriptive information (e.g., description of subjects) __________ of statistical analyses Names of statistical tests Value of calculated statistics Level of statistical significance (index of how probable it is that the findings are reliable)
theory building and testing
________________: a theory gains acceptance as it escapes disconfirmation, and the use of multiple methods provides opportunity for potential disconfirmation of the theory; if the theory can survive these assaults, it can provide a stronger context for the organization of clinical and intellectual work 214 t
Continuous variable
________________: can take on an unlimited number of values between the lowest and highest point Examples- height, weight
instrument development
________________: nurse researchers sometimes gather qualitative data as the basis for developing formal instruments- that is, for generating and wording the questions on quantitative scales that are subsequently subjected to rigorous testing 214 id
Authority evidence
________________: people with expertise and power influence opinions and behavior; not good for research
roles of nurses in researech
________________: producers of research and consumers of research
objectivity
________________: qualitative reports are written in a conversational style, making them more inviting
intervention development
________________: qualitative research is also playing a nimportant role in the development of promising nursing interventions that are then rigorously tested for efficiency 214 ivd
jargon
________________: the authors of research articles use research terms that may seem esoteric
data/ datum
________________: the pieces of information researchers collect in a study Quantitative researchers collect numeric ___________ Qualitative researchers collect narrative ____________
dependenet variable/ outcome variable
________________: the presumed effect of an independent variable; often referred to as the outcome variable or outcome
Clinical experience, intuition
________________: using an insight or gut feeling; personal experience doesn't always translate to the broader clinical world; not good for research
personal diaries
_________________ are a standard data source in historical resarch; it is also possible to generate new data for a study by asking participants to maintain a ____________ over a specified period 205
level of significance (alpha)
_________________ are analogus to the CI values, an alpha of 0.05= 95% CI, and an alpha of 0.01= 99% CI 241
journal articles
_________________ are descriptions of studies published in professional journals
case studies
_________________ are intensive investigations of a single entity or small number of entities, such as individuals, groups, families, or communities 196
closed-ended/ fixed-alternative questions
_________________ are ones in which the response options are prespecified; the options may range from a simple yes or no to complex expressions of opinions
peer reviewers
_________________ are other researchers who make recommendations about acceptance of or revisions to the manuscript
self report/ patient repored outcome
_________________ are participants' responses to researchers questions, such as an interview; in nursing studies, ________________ are the most common data collection approach
explanatory designs
_________________ are sequential designs with quantative data collected in the first phase, followed by qualitative data collected in the second phase; either the quantative or qualitative strand can be given stronger priority; in __________________, qualitative data from the first phase are used to build on or explain the quantitative data from the initial phase 216 ex
in-depth interviews
_________________ are the most widely used method of collecting data for qualitative studies. Self-reports in qualitative studies include completely unstructured interviews, which are conversational discussion on the topic of interest; semi structured/ focused interviews, using a broad topic guide; focus group interviews, which involve discussions with small groups; diaries, in which respondents are asked to maintain daily records about some aspects of their lives; and photo elicitation interviews, which are guided and stimulated by photographic images, sometimes using photos that participants themselves take 211
research questions
_________________ are the specific queries researchers want to answer in addressing the research problem
statistical tests
_________________ are used to test hypotheses and to evaluate the reliability of the findings
6 research situations for MM
_________________ are: 1. concepts are new and poorly understood, and there is a need for qualitative exploration before more formal, structured methods can be used 2. neither a qualitative nor a quantitative approach, by itself, is adequate in addressing the complexity of the research problem 3. the findings from one approach can be greatly enhanced with a second source of data 4. the quantitative resutls are puzzling and difficult to interpret, and qualitative data can help to explain the results 5. a particular theoretical perspective might require both quantitative and qualitative data 6. a multiphase project is needed to attain key objectives, such as the development and assortment of an intervention 214
scope of the problem
_________________ asks: how big a problem is it, and how many people are affected?
proposed solution
_________________ asks: how will the new study contribute to the solution of the problem?
knowledge gaps
_________________ asks: what information about the problem is lacking?
consequences of the problem
_________________ asks: what is the cost of not fixing the problem?
background
_________________ asks: what is the nature of the problem, or the context of the situation, that readers need to understand?
problem identification
_________________ asks: what is wrong with the current situation?
terminally ill
_________________ can seldom expect to benefit personally from research, and thus the risk/benefit ratio must be carefully assessed
corroboration
_________________ comes from internal and external sources, and the concept of replication is an important issue in both cases; interpretations are aided by considering prior resaerch on the topic; interpreters examine whether results are congruent with other studies 265
test-retest reliability
_________________ conerns the stability of a measure, and is assessed by making two separate measuremenst of the same people, often 1-2 weeks apart, and then testing the extent to which the two tests are consistent 249
correlation coefficient
_________________ describes the intensity and direction of a relationship; a _________________- indicates how perfect a relationship is 235
stratified random sampling
_________________ divides the population into homogeneous subgroups from which elements are selected at random
maturation threat
_________________ does not refer only to developmental changes but to any change that occurs as a function of time
maximum variation sampling
_________________ entails purposely selecting diverse cases on key traits 211
convenience sampling
_________________ entails selecting the most conveniently available people as participants; the problem with _______________ is that people who are readily available might be atypical of the population
survey research
_________________ examines people's characteristics, behaviors, intentions, and opinions by asking them to answer questions; ______________ can be adminsitered through personal interviews, telephone interviews, or self-adminsitered questionnaires 225 sr
quantitative research
_________________ findings are based on empirical evidence and strive for generalizability beyond a single setting or situation
critical ethnography
_________________ focuses on raising consciousness in the hope of effecting social change; ________________ attempt to increase the political dimensions of cultural research and undermine oppressive systems 192
phenomenology
_________________ focuses on the lived experiences of humans and is an approach to gaining insight into what the life experiences of people are like and what they mean
Triggers
_________________ for an organizational project include both pressing clinical problems (problem focused) and existing knowledge (knowledge focused)
nominal measurement
_________________ hte classification of attributes into mutually exclusive categories 257
trustworthiness
_________________ in qualitative research encompasses several different dimensions, including credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability, and authenticity
advantages of mixed methods design
_________________ include: complementarity practicality enhanced validity 214
retrospective designs (case-control designs)
_________________ involve collecting data about an outcome in the present and then looking back in time for possible causes
clinical significance at individual level
_________________ involve establish a benchmark is a threshold that designates a score on a measure that would be considered clinically important; with an established benchmark for clinical significance, each person in a study can be classified as having or not having a score or change score that is clinically significant 270
photo elicitation
_________________ involves an interview guided by photographic images; this procedure, most ofte used in ethnographics and participatory action resarch, can help to promote a collaborative discussion 205
measurement
_________________ involves assigning numbers to represent the amount of an attribute present in a person, using a set of rules; researchers strive to use measures that have good rules that minimize _______________ errors
point estimation
_________________ involves calculating a single statistic to estimate the parameter 239
interrater reliability
_________________ involves having two or more observers indepdently apply the measure with the same sample group to see if scores are consistent across raters
construct validity
_________________ involves inferences from the particulars of a study to compare the m to higher order constructs 264
absolute risk reduction
_________________ is a comparison of the two risks, computed by subtracting the AR for the exposed group from the AR for the unexposed group 236
theoretical sampling
_________________ is a method used in grounded theory studies and involves decisions about where to find data to develop an emerging theory optimally 200
meta-analysis
_________________ is a technique for integrating quantitative research findings statistically; in essence, _________________ treats the findings from a study as one piece of information; the findings from multiple studies on the same topic are combined and then all of the information is analyzed statistically in a manner similar to that in a usual study
phenomenology
_________________ is an aproach to understanding people's everyday life experiences 187
internal consistency
_________________ is assessing whether there is consistency across items in a composite scale in measuring a trait
posttest data/ outcome data
_________________ is information collected on the outcome after an intervention is implemented
pretest data/ baseline data
_________________ is information collected on the outcome before an intervention is implemented
nonprobability sampling
_________________ is less likely than probability sampling to produce representative samples, and yet most research samples in nursing and other disciplines are ________________
content validity
_________________ is relevant for composite measures, suc has multi-item scales; the issue is whether the content of the items adequately reflects the construct of interest; ________________ usually relies on expert ratings of each item 250
psychometrics
_________________ is the branch of psychology concerned with the theory and methods of psychological measurements
validity
_________________ is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
internal validity
_________________ is the extent to which it can be inferred that the independent variable is causing the outcome; RCTs tend to have high ________________ because randomization enables resarchers to rule out competing explanations for group differences
reliability
_________________ is the extent to which scores on a measure are consistent across repeated measurements if the trait itself has not changed; the types include: test-retest, interrater, and internal consistency 249
validity
_________________ is the measurement property that concerns the degree to which an instrument is measuring what it purports to measure; like reliability, ____________________- has several aspects; unlike reliability, it is challenging to establish 250
sampling
_________________ is the process of selecting elements from a population
sampling interval
_________________ is the standard distance between selected elements
ethnonursing resarch
_________________ is the study and analysis of the local or indigenous people's viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about nursing care and processes of designated cultures 187
sampling bias
_________________ is the systematic over-represesntation or under-representation of a population segment in terms of key characteristics
research utilization (RU)
_________________ is the use of findings from studies in a practical application that is unrelated to the original research; in _____________, the emphasis is on translating new knowledge into real-world applications
outcomes research
_________________ is undertaken to document the quality and effectiveness of health care and nursing services; a model of health care quality encompasses several broad concepts, including structure, process, and outcomes; efforts have been made to identify nursing sensitive outcomes 225 or
parameter estimation
_________________ is used widely to estimate a population pamameter-e.g. a mean, a proportion, or a difference in means between two groups 239
Spearman's rho
_________________ is usually the correlation coefficient used when variables are measured on an ordinal scale 257
evidence appraisals
_________________ may lead you to differnet courses of actions; it may suggest that usua lcare is hte best strategy; or it could suggest a promising clinical action
MeSH
_________________ medical subject headings; MEDLINE uses a controlled vocabulary called ______________- to index articles
symmetric distribution
_________________ occurs if, when folded over, the two halves of a frequecny polygon would be superimposed 230
selective coding
_________________ occurs in which only variables relating to a core category are coded 292 sc
interval estimation
_________________ of a parameter provides a wide range of values within which the parameter has a specified probability of lying 239
theoretical codes
_________________ provide insights into how substantive codes relate ot each other; ___________________ help grounded theorists to weave the broken pieces of data back together again 296 tc
interval estimation
_________________ provides a range of values, a confidence interval, between which the population is expected to fall, at a specified probability 257
point estimation
_________________ provides a single value of a population estimate (e.g. a mean) 257
research reviews
_________________ rely primarily on findings in research reports
vulnerable groups
_________________ require additional protection; these people may be vulnerable because they are not able to make an informed decision about study participation, because of diminished authonomy, or because their circumstances heighten the risk for harm
exclusion criteria
_________________ states that a person should not be included as a member of the population
constructivist grounded theory
_________________ the developed grounded theory is seen as an interpretation; the data collected and analyzed are acknowledged to be constructed from shared experiences and relationships between the researcher and the participants; data and analyses are viewed as social constructs 189
grounded theory
_________________ tries to account for people's actions form the perspective of those involved189
phenomenologists
_________________ typically work with a small sample of people (often 10 or fewer) who meet the criterion of having lived the experience under study 211
Ethnographic research
_________________ want to understand the worldview, their customs and nerve
basic social process
_________________, an example of a core variable 189
reliability
_________________, broadly speaking, is the extent to which scores are free from measurement error; ______________ also can be defined as the extent to which scores for people who have not changed are the same for repeated measurements; absence of variation and replication are important to ______________
transferability
_________________, the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings, as another aspect of trustrowthiness of a study
predictive validity
_________________, the focal measure is tested against a criterion that is measured in the future
triangulation
_________________, the use of multiple sources to draw conclusions about the truth, is on approach to enhancing credibility
social cognitive theory
_________________, which is sometimes called self-efficacy theory, offers an explanation of human behavior using the concepts of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and incentives
acquiescence response set bias
_________________- is a tendency to agree with statements regardless of their content by some people; the opposite tendency for other people to disagree with statements independently of the question content is less common
systematic sampling
_________________- is the selection fo every kth case from a list; by dividing the population size by the desired sample size, the researcher establishes the sampling interval
Hypotheses
_________________: Is articulated almost exclusively in quantitative (not qualitative) studies Is tested through statistical procedures
hypothesis generation
_________________: in depth qualitative studies are often fertile with insights about constructs or relationships among them; these insights then can be tested and confirmed with larger samples in qualitative studies 214 h
extreme response set bias
__________________ a tendency to consistently express extreme attitudes, leading to distortions because extreme responses may be unrelated to the trait being measured
vignettes
__________________ are brief descriptions of situations to which respondents are asked to react
research hypotheses
__________________ are statements of expected relationships between variables
characteristics of qualitaitve designs
__________________ are: flexible, capable of adjusting to what is learned during data collection often involves triangulating various data collection strategies tends to be holistic, strivign for an understanding of the whole requires researchers to become intesnely involved and reflexive and can require a lot of time benefits from ongoing data analysis to guide subsequent strategies 184
observational methods
__________________ can be used to gather such information as patient's conditions, verbal communcation, nonverbal communication, activities, and environmentla conditions
open coding
__________________ captures what is going on in the data 292 oc
Cause-and-effect
__________________ causal relationship
grand theories/ macrotheories
__________________ claim to explain large segments of human experience; in nursing, there are ________________ that offer explanations of the whole of nursing and that characterize the nature and mission of nursing practice, as distinct from other disciplines
pretest-posttest design
__________________ collect data both before the intervention (at baseline) and after it
beneficence
__________________ imposes a duty on researchers to minimize harm and maximize benefits; human research should be intended to produce benefits for participants or, more typically, for others
nonexperimental/ obervational studies
__________________ include descriptive research (studies that summarize the status of a phenomena) and correlational studies (examine relationships among variables but involve no intervention)
4 factors affecting readability of journal articles
__________________ include: compactness jargon objectivity statistical information
sampling biases
__________________ include: sampling error volunteer bias nonresponse bias 265
research design biases
__________________ include: expectation bias hawthorne effect contamination of treatments noncompliance bias selection bias attrition bias history bias 265
nonprobability sampling
__________________ includes convience, quota, consecutive, and purposive sampling; _________________ is convenient and economical; a major disadvantage is potential for bias
credibility assessments
__________________ involve an assessment of study rigor through an analysis of validity threats and biases that could undermine the accuracy of the results 275
experiments/ RCTs
__________________ involve an intervention, control, and randomization
focus group interviews
__________________ involve dicussions with small groups about the topic of interest 211
intrepreting study results
__________________ involves attending to six considerations: credibility and accuracy of results precision of the estimate of effects magnitude of effects and importance of results meaning of results, especially with regard to causality generalizability of the results implications of the results for nursing practice, theory develpoment, or further research 260
construct validity
__________________ involves inferences from the particulars of the study to the higher order constructs they are intended to represent; if studies contain _______________ errors, the evidence could be misleading
evidence-based practice (EBP)
__________________ involves integrating integrating research evidence into clinical decision making; ___________________ encourages clinicans to think critically about clinical practice and to challenge the status quo when it conflicts with best evidence 260
simple random sampling
__________________ involves the random selection of elements from a sampling frame that enumerates all the elements
nesting
__________________ is a common sampling approach in whihch a subsample of the participants in one strand also participates in the other 225
mapping
__________________ is a feature that allows people to search for topics using your own keywwords rather than subject headings used in databases
phase 3 clinical trial
__________________ is a full experimetnal test of treatment efficacy 225 p3
sampling frame
__________________ is a list of population elements
consecutive sampling
__________________ is a nonprobability sampling method that involves recruiting all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval or for a specified sample size
knowledge translation (KT)
__________________ is a term that is often associated with the efforts to enhance systematic change in clinical practice
knowledge translation (KT)
__________________ is a term used primarily about system wide efforts to effect systematic change in clinical practice or policies
intervention research
__________________ is a term used to refer to a distinctive process of planning, developing, testing, and disseminating interveintions 225 ir
intervention research
__________________ is increasingly used by nurse researchers to describe an approach distinguished by a distinctive process of planning, developing, and testing interventions-especially complex interventions 218 ir
descriptive phenomenology
__________________ is interested in the question, What do we know as persons? _________________ insist on the careful portrayl of orginary conscious experience of everyday life; a depiction of things as people experience them; these things include hearing, seeing, believing, feeling, remembering, deciding, and evaluating 187
construct validity
__________________ is the extent to which an instrument adequately measures the targeted construct, as assessed mainly by testing hypotheses
content validity
__________________ is the extent to which an instrument's content adequately captures the construct
reliability
__________________ is the extent to which scores for people who have not changed are the same for repeated measurements; a ____________ measure minimizes measurement error
range
__________________ is the highest minus hte lowest score in a distribution; the chief virtue of the _______________ is ease of computation; because it is based only on two scores, however, the ____________ is unstable; from sample to sample drawn from a population, the _____________ can fluctuate greatly 232
mode
__________________ is the number that occurs most frequently in a distribution; the _________________ identifies the most popular value 231
reflexivity
__________________ is the process of reflecting critically on the self and of analyzing and noting personal values that could affect data collection and implementation
evidence-based practice
__________________ is the process of shared decision-making between practitioner, patient, and others significant to them based on research evidence, the patient's experiences and preferences, clinical expertise or know-how, and other available robust sources of info
sampling bias
__________________ is the systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of the population
triangulation
__________________ is the use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth; in a quantitative study, this might mean having two ways to measure an outcome, to assess whether results are consistent
culture
__________________ is the way a group of people live- the patterns of human activity and the values and norms that give activity significance 185
open coding
__________________ is used in the first stage of constant comparison, captures what is going on in the data; _______________ may be the actual words participants used; through ___________________, data are broken down, and their similiarities and differences are examined 285 oc
analysis of variance
__________________ is used to test mean group differences of three or more groups; _______________ sorts out the variability of an outcome variable into two components: variability due to the independent variable, and variability due to all other sources 244
repeated measures ANOVA
__________________ is used when data are collected at multiple time points 258
full disclosure
__________________ means that researchers have fully described to prospective participants their rights and the costs and benefits of the study; when _______________ poses the risk of biased results, researchers sometimes use concealment or deception
feminist research
__________________ methods typically include in-depth interactive and collaborative individual or group interviews that offer the possibility of reciprocally educational encounters; __________________ seek to negotiate the meanings of the results with those participating in the study and to be self-reflective about what they themselves are learning 192
interval measurement
__________________ occurs when researchers can rank people on an attribute and specify teh distance between them; most psychological scales and tests yield ____________________; many statistical procedures require ________________ 228
directional hypotheses
__________________ predict the direction of a relationship between two variables
research hypotheses
__________________ predict the existence of relationships between two variables
Q-sorts
__________________ present participants with a set of cards on which statements are written; participants are asked to sort the cards along a specified dimension, such as most helpful/ least helpful
informed consent
__________________ procedures, which provide prospective participants with information needed to make a reasoned decision abotu participation normally involve signing a consent form
etiology/harm
__________________ questions ask in (population), does (IV) cause or increase risk of (DV)
prognosis
__________________ questions ask: in (population), does (IV) affect or increase risk of (DV)
evidence hierarchies
__________________ rank evidence sources according to the strength of evidence they provide, and in most cases, RCTs are near the top of these hierarchies
systematic
__________________ research means that investigators progress through a series of steps according to a prespecified plan
phenomenology
__________________ seek to discover the essence and meaning of a phenomenon as it is experienced by people, mainly through in-depth interviews with people who have had the relevant experience 195
clinical trials
__________________ test clinical interventions; _______________ are undertaken to evaluate an innovative therapy or drug are often divided into a series of phases 217 ct
qualitative researchers
__________________ typically select articulate and reflective informants with certain types of experience in an emergent way, capitalizing on early learning to guide subsequent sampling decisions 211
theme analysis
__________________ uncovers cultural themes 292 ta
semistructured interviews
__________________ use a broad topic guide to discuss the topic of interest 211
schematic models/ conceptual maps
__________________ visually represent relationships among phenomena and are used in both quantitative and qualitative research
eligibility criteria
__________________, including both inclusion and exclusion criteria, are used to define population characteristics
typical case sampling
__________________- involves the selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average 200
assumption
__________________- is a principle that is believed to be true without verification
Knowledge gaps
__________________- what information about the problem is lacking?
Consequences of the problem
__________________- what is the cost of not fixing the problem?
anonymity
__________________-, the most secure means of protecting confidentiality, occurs when the researcher cannot link participants to their data
univariate
__________________-means one variable 234
Hypotheses
__________________: Suggests the predicted relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable Must contain terms that indicate a relationship (e.g., more than, different from, associated with)
compactness
__________________: authors compress a lot of information into a small space; interesting, personalized aspects of the investigation cannot be reported, and only a handful of supporting quotes may be inlcuded
phenomological studies
__________________: focus on experience; lived experience; meaning; essence
grounded theory
__________________: focus on processes; social structures; social interactions
Proposed solution
__________________: how will the new study contribute to the solution of the problem?
statistical information
__________________: in quantitative reports, numbers and symbols may intimidate readers who do not have statistical training
Disciplined research
__________________: the best method of acquiring reliable knowledge; using scientific methods.
bibliographic databases
___________________ are accessed by computer; most _______________ can be accessed through user-friendly software with menu-driven systems and on-screen support so that minimal instruction is needed to retrieve articles
quality improvement projects
___________________ are designed to improve practices in a specific organization; they often use a model called plan-do-study-act; or plan-do-check-act 225 qi
randomly assigned groups
___________________ are expected to be comparable, on average, with respect to an infinite number of biologic, psychological, and social traits at the outset of the study
data/ datum
___________________ are the pieces of information gathered in a study; in quantitative studies, researchers identify and define their variables and then collect relevant _______________ from subjects
multivariate statistics
___________________ are used in nursing research to untangle complex relationships among three or more variables 258
methodoligc themes
___________________ ask, what methods have been used to address the question
critical theory
___________________ calls for inquriies that foster enlightened self-knowledge and sociopolical action; _________________ often triangulate methods and emphasize multiple perspectives on problems; _________________ typically interact with participants in ways that emphasize their expertise 191
external validity
___________________ concerns inferences about whether relationships found for study participants might hold true for different people and settings; _____________ is critical to EBP because it is important to generalize evidence from controlled research settings to real-world practice settings
internal validity
___________________ concerns inferences that the outcomes were caused by the independent variable, rather than by extraneous factors
internal consistency reliability
___________________ concerns the extent to which the various compoents of a multicomponent measure (e.g. items on a psychoscial scale) are consistnetly measuring the same attribute; if a psychosocial scale includes several subscales, a coefficient is computed for each subscale separately 250
statistical conclusion validity
___________________ concerns the strength of evidence that a relationship exists between two variables; a threat is low statiscal power (the ability to detect true relationships among variables)
correlational studies
___________________ examine relationships among variables but involve no intervention
fit
___________________ has to do with how closely concepts fit with incidents they represent, which is related to how thoroughly constant comparison was done 292 f
code of ethics
___________________ have been developed in response to human right violations; most disciplines, such as medicine and nuring have established their own ________________
theoretical codes
___________________ in which the relationships among the substantive codes are conteptualized 292 tc
four concepts central to nursing models
___________________ include: human beings, environment, health, and nursing
effect size
___________________ indexes summarize hte strength of the effect on an independent variable on an outcome variable 258
longitudinally
___________________ involve collecting data multiple times over an extended period; such designs are useful for studying changes over time and for establishing the sequencing of phenomena, which is a criterion for inferring causality
longitudinal designs
___________________ involve data collection at two or more times over an extended period; in nursing, _______________ are often follow-up studies of clinical populations
self report/ patient repored outcome
___________________ involve directly questioning study participants and are the most widely used method of collecting data for nursing studies
probability sampling
___________________ involves random selection of elements from a population; with _______________, each element in the population has an equal, independent chance of being selected
criterion sampling
___________________ involves studying cases who meet a predetermined criterion of importance 200
critique
___________________ is a critical appraisal of the strengths and limitations of a study, often to assess the worth of the evidence for nursign practice
google scholar
___________________ is a popular bibliographic search engine; _____________ includes articles in journals from scholarly publishes in all disciplines and also includes books, technical reports, and other documents
credibility
___________________ is achieved to the extent that the methods engender confidence in the truth of the data and in the researchers' interpretation
qualitative research
___________________ is almost always nonexperimental; the goal is to develop a rich understanding of a phenomenon as it exists and as it is constructed by individuals within their own context 184
maturation threat
___________________ is changes due to the passage of time
Phenomenological research
___________________ is concerned with the lived experiences of humans; ___________________ is an approach to thinking about what life experiences of people are like and what they mean
metasynthesis
___________________ is distinct from a quantative meta-analysis; a _________________ is used in qualitative studies and is less about reducing information and more about interpreting it
construct validity
___________________ is evaluated using hypothesis testing procedures, so statistical tests such as those described (e.g. person's r, t-tests) are appropriate 259
selection threat
___________________ is if a preexisting group causes differences
randomization
___________________ is the most effective way to control participants' characteristics; a critical advantage of _______________, compared with other control strategies, is that it controls all possible sources of extraneous variation, without any conscious decision about which variables should be controlled
temporal amiguity
___________________ is uncertantity about whether the presumed cause preceded the outcome
quantitative data/ studies
___________________ researchers collect primarily __________________, information in numeric form, and analyzed statistically
economic/cost analysis
___________________ seek to determine whether the monetary costs of a program are outweighed by benefits 225 e/c
hermeneutic circle
___________________ signifies a methological process in which, to reach understanding, there is continual movement between the parts nad the whole of the text being analyzed; to interpret a text, researchers cannnot separate themselves from the meanings of the text and must strive to understand possibilities that the text can reveal 284 hc
directional hypotheses
___________________ specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables
hypotheses
___________________ state researchers' expectations about relationships between study variables; ______________________ are predictions of the relationships researchers expect to observe in the study data
intuiting
___________________ the second step in descriptive phenomenology, occurs when researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the phenomenon by those who have experienced it 188
holistic approach
___________________ views text as a whole 292 ha
Middle-range theories
___________________, compared to grand theories, are more specific and more amenable to empirical testing
feminist research
___________________, like critical research, aims at being transformative, but the focus is on how gender domination and discrimination shape women's lives 196
Ethnographic research
___________________, the primary research tradition in anthropology, provides a framework for studying the patterns and life ways of a defined cultural group in a holistic fashion
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
___________________, which combines features of ANOVA and multiple regression, is used to control confounding variables statistically, that is, to equalize groups being compared 248
null hypotheses
___________________- express the absence of a relationship, this type of hypotheses is subject to statistical testing
types of pre-appraised evidence
___________________: systematic reviews clinical practice guidelines
explication
___________________: qualitative data are sometimes used to explicate the meaning of quantitative descriptions or relationships; quantitative methods demonstrate that variables are systematically related but fail to explain why they are related 215 e
objectivity
___________________: quantitative researchers tend to avoid any impression of subjectivity, so they tell their research stories in a way that makes them sound impersonal; most quantative research articles are written in the passive voice, making them less lively
questionnaire/interview advantages
___________________: questionnaires are less costly than interviews and offer the possibility of anonymity, but interviews yield higher response rates and are suitable for a wider variety of people
standard deviation
___________________: the most widely used variability index is the _______________________, like the mean, the ______________ is calculated based on every value in a distribution; the ________________ summarizes the average amount of deviation of values from the mean 233
systematic review
____________________ are at the pinnacle of all evidence hierarchies
mortality threat
____________________ are effects attributable to attrition
generalizability/transferability themes
____________________ ask, to what population does the evidence apply?
evaluation research
____________________ assesses the effectiveness of a program, policy, or procedure to assist decision makers in choosing a course of action; ______________ answer a variety of questions 225 er
componential analysis
____________________ compares and contrasts terms in a domain 292 ca
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
____________________ controls confounding variables (called covariates) before testing whether group mean differences are statistically significant 258
justice
____________________ includes the right to fair treatment and the right to privacy; in the US, privacy has become a major issue because of the Privacy Rule regulations that resulted from HIPAA
interpretivie phenomenology/ hermeneutics
____________________ interprets and understands- not just describes- human experiences; _________________ is a basic characteristic of human experience; ______________ refers to the art and philosophy of interpreting the meaning of an object, such as a text or work of art 188
cross-sectional designs
____________________ involve the collection of data at one time period
secondary analysis
____________________ involve the use of existing data from a previous or ongoing study to test new hypothese or answer questions that were not initally envisioned; __________________ are often based on quantitaive data from a larger data set, but ________________ of data from qualitative studies have also been undertaken 221 sa
health service sresearch
____________________ is the broad interdisciplinary field that studies how organizational structures and processes, health technologies, social factors, and personal behaviors affect access to health car,e the cost and quality of health care, and, ultimately, people's health and well-being 219 hsr
Linkert scale
____________________ present respondents with a series of items; each item is scored and then summed into a composite score
participatory action research (PAR)
____________________ produces knowledge through close collaboration with groups that are vulnerable to control or oppression by a dominant culture; in _____________, a goal is to develop processes that can motivate people and generate community solidarity 196
computer-assisted qualitative data analysis softwar
____________________ removes the work of cutting and pasting pages of narrative material; these programs permit an entire data set to be entered onto the computer and coded; text corresponding to specified codes can then be retrieved 280 caq
grounded theory
____________________ researchers generate conceptual categories and integrate them into a substantive theory, grounded in data 189
taxonomic analysis
____________________ selects key domains and constructs taxonomies 292 ta
inferential statistics
____________________, based on laws of probability, allow researchers to make inferences about population parameters based on a sample 257
purposive sampling
____________________, participants are handpicked to be included in the sample based on the researcher's knowledge about the population
concealment
____________________, the collection of information without participant's knowledge
ancestry approach
____________________, where citations from relevant studies are used to track down earlier research on which the studies are based
deception
____________________, withholding information or providing false information
severely ill/ physically disabled people
____________________: for patients who are very ill or undergoing certain treatments (e.g. mechanical ventilation), it might be necessary to assess their ability to make reasoned decisions about study participation
randomized control trials (RCT)
_____________________ are the best possible designs for illuminating causal relationships
Middle-range theories
_____________________ do not describe large segments of the human experience; rather they are specific to certain phenomena
qualitative analysis
_____________________ is a challenging, labor intensitive activity with few fixed rules 292 qa
basic social process
_____________________ is a core category that evolves over time in two or more phases; all ____________ are core categories, but not all core categories are _________________ 286 bsp
multiple regression analysis
_____________________ is a method for understanding the effect of two or more predictor variables on a continuous dependent variables 258
participant observation
_____________________ is characterized by prolonged periods of social interaction between researchers and participants 206
critical theory
_____________________ is concenred with a critique of sciet and with envisioning new possibilities; ________________ science is action oriented; its aim is to make people aware of contradictions and disparities in socia lpractices become inspired to change them 191
theory
_____________________ is often defined as an abstract generalization that explains how phenomena are interrelated; as classically defined, theories consist of two or more concepts and a set of propositions that form a logically interrelated system, providing a mechanism for deducing hypotheses
specificity
_____________________ is the insturment's ability to identify noncases correctly (i.e. rate of true negatives) 259
specificity
_____________________ is the measure's ability to correctly identify noncases, that is, to screen out those without the condition; _________________ is an instrument's rate of yielding true negatives 250
respect for human dignity
_____________________ is the second ethical principle in the Belmont report; this includes the right to self-determination and right to full disclosure
sequential
_____________________ means one strand occurign prior to and informing the second strand 225
institutionalized people
_____________________ nurses often conduct studies with hospitalized or __________________ (prisoners) who might feel their care would be jepordized by failure to cooperate
Complex hypothesis
______________________ Predicts relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables
narrative materials
______________________ are usually not linear; for example, paragraphs from transcribed interviews may contain elements relating to three or four different categories 279 nm
grand theories/ macrotheories
______________________ attempt to describe large segments of the human experience
ethnography
______________________ is the description and interpretation of a culture and cultural behavior 185
criterion validity
______________________ is the extent to which the scores on a measure are a good reflection of a gold standard, i.e. a criterion considered an ideal measure of the construct
retrieved references
______________________ must be screened for relevance, and then pertinent information can be abstracted and encoded for subsequent analysis; studies must also be critiqued to assess the strength of evidence in existing research
extreme deviant case sampling
______________________ provides opportuniteis for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants (outstanding successes and notable failures) 200
qualitative studies
______________________ typically rely on small nonprobability samples; _______________ avoid random samples because they are not the best method of selecting people who are knowledgeable, articulate, reflective, and willing to talk at length with researchers 198
prospective/ cohort designs
______________________, researchers begin with a possible cause and then subsequently collect data about outcomes
sysbolic interaction
______________________- focuses on hte manner in which people make sense of socia linteractions 189
ethnographic studies
______________________: focus on culture; roles; lifeways; cultural behavior
systematic review
_______________________ are at the pinnacle of the hierarchy because the strongest evidence comes from careful syntheses of multiple studies
descriptive statistics
_______________________ are used to summarize and describe quantative data 257
secondary sources
_______________________ documents are descriptions of studies prepared by someone else; literature reviews are _____________________; recent reviews are a good place to start because they offer overviews and valuable bibliographies
substantive codes
_______________________ in which the empirical substance of the topic is conceptualized 292 sc
respect for human dignity
_______________________ involves the participants' right to self-determination, which includes participants' right to participate in a study voluntarily
domain analysis
_______________________ is done to identify domains or units of culutrla knowledge 292 da
feminist research
_______________________ seek to understand how gender and a gendered social order have shaped women's lives; the aim is to facilitate change in ways relevant to ending women's unequal social position 192
Roy's adaptation model
_______________________, in this model, humans are viewed as biopsychosocial adaptive systems who cope with environmental change through the process of adaptation
nondirectional hypothesis
________________________ predict the existence of relationships not their direction between two variables
social desirability response set bias
________________________, a tendency to misrepresent attitudes or traits by giving answers consistent with prevailing social views
schematic models/ conceptual maps
________________________- are graphic representations of phenomena and their interrelationships using symbols or diagrams and a minimal use of words
mentially/ emotionally disabled people
________________________: individuals whose diability makes it impossible for them to make informed decisions also cannot legally provide informed consent; in such cases, researchers should obtain consent of the legal guardian
statistical models
_________________________ are equations that mathematically express relationships among a set of variables and that are tested statistically
log/ field diary
a ____________ is a daily record of events and comparisons 207
problem statement
a _____________ articulates a problem and an argument that explains the need for a study
p value
a _____________ in hypothesis testing offers information that is importnat, i.e. whether the null hypothesis is probably false, but is incomplete 266
interview schedule
a _____________ is the name for the collection instrument when questions are asked orally face-to-face or by telephone
detailed approach
a ______________ analyzes every sentence 292 da
relationship
a ______________ is a connection between phenomena; for example, researchers repeatedly have found that there is a ________________ between frequency of turning bedridden patients and incidence of pressure ulcers
placebo
a ______________ or pseudointervention presumed to have no therapeutic value is given to control groups in RCT
category system
a ______________ represents a method of recording in a systematic way the behaviors and events of interest that transpire within a setting; is used in structured observation
discussion section
a ______________ that presents the researcher's grasp of study limitations demonstrates to readers that the authors were aware of limitations and took them into account when interpreting the findings 64
Likert scale
a _______________ consists of several declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic; respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with the statements
nondirectional hypothesis
a _______________ does not stipulate the directions of the relationship, e.g. older vs younger
research problem
a _______________ is a perplexing or troubling situation that a researcher wants to address through disciplined inquiry
larger sample
a _______________ is likely to be needed with maximum variation sampling than with typical case sampling
control group
a _______________ is not given the intervention in RCTs
population
a _______________ is the entire group of interest; a _____________ is an entire aggregation of elements
site
a _______________ is the specific location for the research--it could be an entire community or an institution
type 2 error
a _______________ occurs when a null hypothesis is wrongly accepted; false negative 258
relationship
a ________________ is a connection between variables; quantitative researchers study the _______________ between independent variables and outcome variables
scale
a ________________ is a device that assigns a numeric score to people along a continuum, like a scale for measuring weight; social psychological _______________ differentiate people with different attitudes, perceptions, and psychological traits
bias
a ________________ is a distortion or influence that results in an error in inference; ______________ can be caused by various actors, including participants' lack of candor, researchers' preconceptions, or faulty methods of collecting data
paradigms
a ________________ is a worldview , a general perspective on the world's complexities; disciplined inquiry in nursing has two broad _____________, the positivist and the constructivist
population
a ________________ is all the individuals or objects with common defining characteristics; the __________ to be studied must be identified
theme
a ________________ is an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to a current experience and its variant manifestations; as such, a theme captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole 281 t
research problem
a ________________ is an enigmatic or troubling condition; the solution of a _____________ is the goal by gathering relevant data
theory
a ________________ is an explanation of some aspect of reality; in a _______________, concepts are knitted together into a coherent system to describe or explain some aspect of the world
bias
a ________________ is an influence that produces a distortion in the study results; in quantiative studies, research control is an approach to addressing bias
systematic review
a ________________ is not just a literature review; a __________________ is in itself a methodical, scholarly inquiry that follows many of the same steps as those for other studies
questionaire
a ________________ is the name for the collection instrument when respondents complete the instrumetn themselves
nonsignificant result
a ________________ means that any observed difference or relationship could have been the result of chance 242
hypothesis
a ________________ states predicted relationships between two or more variables--that is, the anticipated association between independent and dependent variables
framework
a ________________- is the conceptual underpinning of a study; not every study is based on a theory or model, but every study has a ______________
conceptual definition
a _________________ describes the abstract meaning of a concept being studied
unimodial distribution
a _________________ has one peak 231
operational definition
a _________________ indicates what the researchers specifically must do to measure the concept and collect needed information
crossover design
a _________________ involves exposing people to more than one treatment; such studies are true experiments only if people are randomly assigned to different orderings of treatment
secondary sources
a _________________ is a description of a study by another person; literature reviews should rely mostly on primary source material
sample
a _________________ is a subset of population elements, in research elements are usually humans; researchers work with _______________ rather than populations for practical reasons
metaphor
a _________________ is a symbolic comparison, using figurative language to evoke a visual analogy; ______________ can be expressive tools for qualitative analysts, but then they can run the risk of supplanting creative insight with hackneyed cliche masquerading as profundity 281 m
crosstabs table
a _________________ is a two-dimensional freqeuncy distribution in which the frequency of two variables are crosstabulated 234
theory
a _________________ is an abstract generalization that systematically explains relationships among phenomena
correlation
a _________________ is an association between two variables, that is, a tendency for variation in one variable to be related to variation in another
cautious outlook
a _________________ is appropriate in drawing conclusions about the credibility and meaning of study results 275
normal distribution/ bell shaped curve
a _________________ is symmetric, unimodial, and not too peaked 257
type 1 error
a _________________ occurs if a null hypothesis is wrongly rejected; false positive 258
knowledge-focused trigger
a _________________, is akin to RU; the _____________ might be a new clinical guideline or a research article discussed in a journal club; with ______________, the clinical relevance of the research might need to be addressed
reinforcement theory
a _________________, posits that behavior that is reinforced tends ot be repeated and learned; the proposition lends itself to hypothesis generation r
process analysis
a _________________- is often undertaken to obtain descriptive information about the process by which a program gets implemented and how it actually functions 218 pa
consent form
a __________________ documents voluntary and informed participation in a study
conceptual definition
a __________________ is the theoretical meaning of a concept; researchers need to conceptually define even seemingly straightforward terms
counterfactual
a __________________ is what would happen to people if they were exposed to a causal influence and were simultaneously not exposed to it
statement of purpose
a __________________, which summarizes the overall study goal, identifies the key concepts (variables) and the study group or population; _________________ often communicate through choice of verbs and other key terms, aspects of the study design or research tradition
multimodial distribution
a ___________________ has two or more peaks, two or more values of high frequency 231
frequency distribution
a ___________________ is an arrangement of values from loewst to highest and a count or percentage of how many times each value occurred 229
primary sources
a ___________________ is the original description of a study prepared by the researcher who conducted
visual analogue scale
a ___________________ is used to measure subjective experiences along a 100 mm line designated a bipolar continuum
nonequivalent control group
a ___________________ pretest-posttest design involves comparing two or more groups of people before and after implementing an intervention
conceptual model
a ____________________ deals with abstractions (concepts) that are assembled because of their relevance to a common theme; ______________ provide a perspective on interrelated phenomena, but they are more loosely structured than theories and do not link concepts in a logical deductive system
representative sample
a _____________________ is one whose characteristics closely approximate those of the population
crosstabs table
a ______________________ is a two-dimensional frequency distribution in which the frequencies of two nonimal or oridnal level variables are crosstabulated 257
framework
a ______________________ is the conceptual underpinning of a study, including an overall rationale and conceptual defintiions of key concepts; in qualitative studies, the ______________ often springs from distinct research traditions
descriptive theory
a _______________________ accounts for and thoroughly describes a phenomenon; __________________ are inductive, observation-based abstractions that describe or classify characteristics of individuals, groups, or situations by summarizing their commonalities
intervention
a basic study design issue is whether or not researchers will introduce an ___________________ and test its effects; this is the distinction between experimental and nonexperimetnal research
conceptual description
a controversey in grounded theory concerns whether to follow the original Glasser and Strauss procedures or to use procedures by Strauss and Corbin; Glauser argued that the latter approach does not result in grounded theories but rather in _________________ 196
positive relationship
a correlation between 0-1; greater values in one variable tend to be associated with greater values in another variable 235
small
a d of .2 or less is considered _________________
moderate
a d of .5 is considered ____________________
large
a d of .8 or greater is considered _________________
statistic
a descriptive index from a sample is called a ______________ 229
bimodal
a distribution with two peakes is _____________________ 231
multimodial
a distribution's shape can be _________________ with more htan one peak 257
unimodial
a distribution's shape can be _________________ with one peak/ one high value of frequency 257
skewed
a distribution's shape can be symmetric or _________________, with one tail longer than the other 257
coding scheme
a first step in analzing qualitative data is to organize and index the mateirals for easy retrieval, typically by coding the content of the data according to a ___________________ that involves devising descriptive or abstract categories 292 cs
d statistic
a frequently used effect size index is the ______________, which summarizes the magnitude of differences in two means, such as the difference between intervention and control group means on an outcome 246
phase 3 clinical trial
a full experimental test of the intervention- an RCT with random assignment to treatment conditions; the objective is to develop evidence about the treatment's efficacy-i.e. whether hte intervention is more effcacious than usual care or another alterenative 218 p3
stipend
a generous money incentive or _________ could encourage the participation of groups may be considered coercive because incentives can be seen as a form of pressure
study limitations
a good discussion section should point out ____________________; reserachers are in the best position to detect and assess sampling deficiences, practical contraints, data quality problems, and so on, and it is a professional responsiblity to alert readers to these difficulties 272
consensus panel
a group of health care experts is sometimes called a __________________ that are used to obtain a benchmark for health outcomes 271
mixed methods research
a growing tend in nursing research is planned collection and integration of quantitaitve and qualitative data within a single study or coordinated clusters of studies 213
representativeness
a key criterion in assessing a sample in a quantitative study is its __________________, the extent to which the sample is similar to the population and avoids bias
nonexperimental research
a key distinction in quantitative studies is between experimental research, in which researchers actively intervene to test an intervention or therapy, and _______________ in which researchers collect data about existing phenomenon without intervening
experimental research
a key distinction in quantitative studies is between ________________, in which researchers actively intervene to test an intervention or therapy, and nonexperimental research in which researchers collect data about existing phenomenon without intervening
validity
a measure's _______________ is not proved or established but rather is supported to a greater or lesser extent by evidence
observations
a method of collecting data by watching and recording people's behavior
matching
a method of controlling variables is ________________, which involves consciously forming comparable groups; ________________ has some drawbacks, however; to ______________ effectively, researchers must know what the relevant confounders are; also, after 2-3 variables it becomes difficult to match
t-test
a parametric test for testing differences in two groups means is called a _________________ 242
independent variable
a presumed cause of a scenario is the ________________
cause
a pretest posttest design allows researchers to see if changes in pain were ______________ by the massage because only some people received it, providing an important comparison
basic social process
a prominent type of core variable is called a ________________ that explains the process of resolving the problem 196
confidentiality
a promise of ________________ is a pledge that any information participants provide will not be publicly reported in a manner that identifies them and will not be made accessible to others
critique
a research ________________ is an objecive assessment of a study's strengths and limitation; ______________ usually conclude with the reviewer's summary of the study's merits, recommendations regarding the value of the evidence, and suggestions about improving the study or report
literature review
a research ______________________ is a written summary of the state of evidence on a researc hproblem
biases
a researcher's job concerns efforts to eliminate, reduce, or control _______________ or detect and understand them; as a reader of research reports, look out for _________________ and consider them into your assessment about the credibility of the results 264
descriptive research
a second broad class of nonexperimental studies is __________________; the purpose of _____________________ is to observe, describe, and docuemnt aspects of a situation
normal distribution/ bell-shaped curve
a special distribution called the ________________ is symmetric, unimodal , and not very peaked, many human attributes (e.g. height, intelligence) approximate a ____________________ 231
operationalizing clinical significance
a third approach to _________________- is based on distributional characteristics of a measure; most often, the MIC using this approach is set to a threshold of .5 sd, one half a standard deviation on a distribution of baseline scores 271
experiment
a true _____________ is characterized by: interventions control and randomization
repeated measures ANOVA
a type of ANOVA, called the _______________, can be used when the means being compared are means at different points in time 244
autoethnography/insider research
a type of ethnography that involves self-scrutiny (including scrutiny of groups or cultures to which researchers themselves belong) is called _______________________; ________________ has several advantages, including ease of recruitment and the ability to get candid data based on preestablished trust; the drawback is that an insider may haev biases about certain issues or may be so sntrenched in culture that valuable data get overlooked 187
visual analog scale
a type of scale that can be used to measure subjective experiences such as pain or fatigue is the ____________; the ______________ is a straight line, and the ends are the extreme limits of the sensation being measured; traditionally 100 mm in length
transtheoetical model
according to the _______________, the five stages of change are precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance t
Roy's adaptation model
according to the _________________, within the human system, there are four subsystems: physiologic/ physical; self concept/ group identity; role function; and interdependence; these subsystems capture adaptive modes that provide mechanisms for coping with environmental stimuli and change
theory of planned behavior
according to the ___________________, behavior that is volitional is determined by people's intention to perform that behavior; intentions, in turn are affected by attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control tpi
qualitative self report methods
advantages: allows them to gather a lot of detailed information targeted on research topic negative: takes a lot of time, resources, and skills to gather and analyze the information 206
coding scheme
after a _____________ has been developed, data are read in their entirety nad corded for correspondence to the categories- a task that is seldom easy; researchers may have difficulty deciding the most appropriate code; it sometimes takes several readings of the material to grasp nuances 279 cs
inference
an _______________ involves drawing conclusions based on limited information, using logical reasoning; interpreting research findings entails making multiple ________________ 260
emic perspective
an _______________ refers to the way members of the culture regard the world-the insider's view; the ______________ is the local concepts or means of expression used by members of the group under study to characterize experiences 186
effect
an _______________ represents the difference between what actually did happen with the exposure and what would have happened without it
operational definition
an _______________ specifies how the variable will be measured
inference
an _________________ is a conclusion drawn from the study evidence, taking into account the methods used to generate that evidence
appraisal
an _________________ of the evidence involves such considerations as the validity of study findings, their clinical importance, the magnitude and precision of effects, associated costs and risks, and utility in a particular clinical situation
element
an __________________ is the basic unit of a population, usually humans in research
associative/ functional relationship
an __________________ variables are related in a noncausal way
intervention protocol
an _____________________ for the study must be developed, specifying exactly what the intervention will entail and what the alternative condition will be
operationalizing clinical significance
an approach to _________________ is to underake a study to determine what patients themselves think is a minimally important change on a focal measure; developers of multi-item scales use this approach to estimate MIC as part of psychometric of the instrument 271
study credibility
an assessment of ___________ can involve various approaches, one of which involves an evaluation of hte degree of congruence between abstrant constructs or idealized methods on the one hand and the proxies actually used on the other 275
grand theories/ macrotheories
an example of a _______________ is Parse's Humanbecoming Paradigm
Roy's adaptation model
an example of a model of nursing used by researchers is ________________________-
Belmont report
an important code of ethics was adopted by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral research; called the __________________; this document also provided a guideline for many guidelines adopted by disciplines in the US
replication
an important concept of external validity is ______________; multisite studies are powerful because generalizability of the results can be enhanced if the results are _____________ in several sites
ethnography
an underlying assumption of ___________________ is that every human group eventually evolves a culture that guides the member's view of hte world and the way they structure their experiences 186
themes
analysis of qualitative research typically involves a search for critical _______________ or categories
rating scale
another approach to structured observations is a _________________, an instrument that requires observers to rate phenomena along a descriptive continuum; ______________ can be used as an extension of checklists, in which the observer records not only the occurrence of some behavior, but also some qualitative aspect of it
blinding
another bias-reducing strategy is called ______________, which is used in some quantitative studies to prevent biases from stemming people's awareness; ____________ involves concealing information from participants, data collectors, or care providers to enhance objectivity
sampling confirming/disconfirming cases
another important strategy is _______________- involves selecting cases that enrich and challenge the resarcher's conceptualizations 211
relative risk
another risk index is known as _______________; the _____________ is the estimated proportion of the original risk of an adverse outcome that persists when people are exposed to the intervention 236
IMRAD
article organization format stands for: introduction method results and discussion
level II codes
as researchers constantly compare new level I codes with previously identified ones, they condence them into broader __________________ 285 L2
ethical dilemmas
because research has not always been conducted ethically and because of genuine _______________-- that researchers face in designing studies that are both ethical and rigorous, codes of ethics have been developed to guide researchers
code of ethics
because research has not always been conducted ethically and because of genuine ethical dilemmas that researchers face in designing studies that are both ethical and rigorous, ___________________ have been developed to guide researchers
implementation potential
before an EBP-based guideline or protocol an be tested, there should be an assessment of its ________________, which includes the issues of transferability, feasibility, and the cost-benefit ratio of implementing a new practice in a clinical setting
conceptual files
before the advent of software for qualitative data management, analysts used _______________ to organize their data; this approach involves creating a physical file for each category and then cutting out and inserting all the materials relating to that category into the file; researchers then retrieve the content on a particular topic by reviewing the applicable file folder 280 cf
journal articles
both quantitative and qualitative researchers disseminate their findings, most often by publishing reports of their research as _________________, which concisely describe what researchers did and what they found
professional journals
both quantitative and qualitative researchers disseminate their findings, most often by publishing their research reports in _____________________
clinical significance
broadly speaking, ______________ is defined as the practical importance of research results in terms of whether they have genuine, palpable effects on the daily lives of patients or on the heath decisions made on their behalf 269
clinical significance
broadly speaking, _____________________ refers to the importance of reserach results-i.e., whether the effects are genuine and palpable in the daily lives of patients or in the management of their health; ___________________ has not received great attention in nursing research 276
data alanysis
by contrast, qualitative ________________ is constructionist: it involves putting segments together into meaningful conceptual patterns; various approaches to ________________ exist 280 da
intervention
by introducing an __________________, experimenters consciously vary the independent variable and observe its effect on the outcome
intervention fidelity
careful researchers pay attention to _____________, that is, they monitor whether an intervention is faithfully delivered in accordance with its plan and that the intended treatment was actually received
intervention fidelity
careful reserachers attend to ___________________, whether the intervention was properly implemented and actually received
checklist
category systems are the basis for constructing a _________________, the instrument observers use to record observations; the ________________ is usually formatted with a lsit of behaviors from the category system and space for tallying the frequency or duration
hermeneutic circle
central to analyzing data in a hermeneutic study is the notion of the ________________________, which signifies a process in which there is continual movement between the parts and the whole of the text under analysis 292 hc
PICOT (C)
comparative/alternative intervention, comparative/alternative tool or procedure
mutual shaping
concept that states everything influences everything else, in the here and now 185
conceptual model
concepts are also the basic elements of __________________, but concepts are not linked in a logically ordered, deductive system
theories
concepts are the building blocks of _______________, which are systematic explanations of some aspect of hte real world
qualitative research
constructivist researchers emphasize understnading human experience as it is lived through the collection and analysis of subjective, narrative materials using flexible procedures; this paradigm is associated with ______________
qualitative research
constructivist studies are heavily focused on understanding the human experience as it is lived, through the careful collection and analysis of ______________ materials that are narrative nad subjective
confounding/ extraneous variables
contamining factors, often called __________________; when undertaking a study, the ______________ must be held constant; it must somehow be handled so that in the context of the study, it is not related to the independent variable or the outcome
content validity index
content validation relies on expert ratings of each item, an the ratings are used to compute an index called the _________________ 250
correlation matrix
correlation coefficients are often reported in tables displaying a __________________, in which every variable is diaplayed in both a row and column, and coefficients are displayed at the intersections 235
negative/inverse relationship
correlation coefficients between 0 and -1 express a ________________; when two variables are ___________________, higher values on one variable are associated with lower values in the second 235
self-selection
correlational studies are susceptible to faulty interpretation because groups being compared have formed through ____________________; a researcher doing a correlational study cannot assume that groups being compared were similar before the occurrence of the independent variable
conceptual files
creating ___________________ is cumbersome, labor-intensive, particularly when segments of hte narratives have multiple codes; resarchers must also provide enough context that the cut-up material can be understood, and so it is often necessary to include material preeceding or following the relevant material 280 cf
inferring causality
criteria for _____________ include: 1. cause must precede an effect 2. there must be a detectable relationship between a cause and effect 3. the relationship between the two does not reflect the influence of a third/ confounding variable
correlation
critical research precept is that _____________ does not prove causation; the finding that two variables are related offers no evidence suggesting which of the two variables, if either, caused the other 267
historical research
data for ____________________ are usually in the form of written records: diaries, letters, newspaper, medical docuements, etc; ________________ is usually interpretative; ______________ try to describe what happened and also how and why it happened 190
biophysiologic measures
data may be derived from ___________________, which include in vivo measurements, in vitro measurements; _______________ have the advantage of being objective, accurate, and precise
cross-sectionally
data sometimes are collected from participants at a single point in time, called _______________________
benchmark
definitions and operationalizations of clinical significance for individuals typically involve a _______________ or thresthold to designate a meaningful amount of change; this ___________________ is often called a minimal important change (MIC), which is a value for the amount of change score points on a measure that an individual patient must achieve to be classified as having a clinically important change 276
observation
direct _____________ of people's behaviors and characteristics can be used for certain questions in studies
paradigms
disciplined inquiry in nursing is conducted mainly within two broad ____________, worldviews with underlying assumptions about reality: the positivist _____________ and the constructivist ________________
ratio measurement
distinguished from interval measurement by having a rational zero point 257
operationalizations
do measures of the research variables are good operationalization of constructs
generalizability
during the interpretive process, a research must ask to what, groups, environments, and conditions can the results be applied; in intepreting a study's _________________, it is useful to cosider proxies 269
saturation
early analysis in qualitative research leads to refinements in sampling and data collection until ______________ (redundancy of information) is achieved
randomized controlled trial
early in the EBP movement, there was a strong bias favoring evidence from a type of study called a _________________; ______________ are well-suited for drawing conclusions about hte effects of health care interventions
systematic reviews
emphases of nursing research include EBP projects, replications of research, research integration through _______________, expanded dissemination efforts, and a focus on clinical significance of research results
patterns
ethnographers are continually looking for ___________- in the behavior and thoughts of participants, comparing one pattern agaisnt another, and analyzing manny pattenrs simultaneously 282 p
key informants
ethnographers enlist the help of _________________ to help them understand and interpret the events and activities being observed 186
descriptive questions
ethnographers generally ask ________________________ about cultures when conducting research
key informants
ethnographers often begin with a big net approach; howeever, they usually rely heavily on a smaller number of ________________, who are knowledgeable about the culture and serve as the researcher's main link to the inside 201
focused ethnography
ethnographers sometimes focus on more nanrrowly defined cultures in a _________________; ___________________ are studies of small units in a group or culture 186
tacit knowledge
ethnographers strive to acqurie an emic perspective of a culture to reveal ____________________-- information about the culture that is so deeply embedded in cultural experiences that members do not talk about it or may not even be consciously aware of it 186
participant observation
ethnographers typically use a strategy called ___________________ in which they make observations of the culture under study while participating in its activities 186
participant observation
ethnographhy focuses on the culture of a group of people and relies on extensive fieldwork that usually includes ______________ and in-depth interviews with key informants; ethnographers strive to acquire an emic perspective of culture rather than an etic perspective 195
macroethnography
ethnographic research sometimes concerns broadly defined cultures in what is called a _____________________ 186
key informants
ethnographres make numberous sampling decisions, including not only whom to sample but what to sample; decision making is aided by _____________ who serve as guides and interpreters of culture 211
fieldwork
ethnograpphies typically involve extensive __________________, which is the process by which the ethnographer comes to understand a culture 185
economic/cost analysis
evaluations may include a ________________ to assess whether program benefits outweigh monetary costs 218 e/c
peripheral effects
even if the evidence is judged to be valid and the magnitude of _______________ is sizable, benefits and costs may be important in guiding decisions
clinical practice guidelines
evidence-based __________________ combine an appraisal of research evidence with specific recommendations for clinical decisions
raw data
excerpts from the _____________ (the actual words of participants) are presented to support and provide a rich description of thematic analysis 63
institutional review board
external review of the ethical aspects of a study by human subjects comittee or _______________________ is highly desirable and is often required by universities and organizations form which participants are recruited
statistically significant
findings that are __________________ have a high probability of being real
internal consistency
for ________________, replication involves people's responses to multiple items during a single administration; asking a question in several different ways to see if they get the same answer
mean
for continuous variables, the ____________ is usually reported; of the three indexes, the ____________ is most stable: if repeated samples were drawn from a population, the means would fluctuate less than the modes or medians; because of its stability, the ______________ usually is the best estimate of a population central tendency 232
Spearman's rho
for correlations between variables measured on an ordinal scale, researchers use an index called ____________________ 235
mixed methods research
for many research purpooses, ________________ are adventagous; ________________ involves the collection, analysis, and integration of both quantitative and qualitative data within a study or series of studies, often with an overarching goal of achieving both discovery and verification 225
randomness
for quantitative researchers, _______________________, having certain features of the study established by chance, is a powerful tool to eliminate bias
randomness
for quantitative researchers, a powerful tool for eliminating bias involves ____________________, having certain features of the study established by chance rather than by researcher preference; this allows there are no systemic biases in the makeup of the sample
intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)
for test-retest reliability, the preferred index is the __________________ 258
frequency polygon
frequency data can be displayed graphically in a _________________; in such a graph, scoress typically are on the horizontal line, and counts or percentrages are on the vertical line; distributions can be described by thier shapes 230
practicality
given the complexity of phenomena, it is practical to use whatever methodological tools are best suited to addressing pressing research questions 214
process questions
grounded theory researchers are likely to ask ______________ when conducing research
core variable
grounded theory researchers seek to identify a main concern or problem and then understand the behavior designed to resolve it- the ______________________ 189
theoretical sampling
grounded theory researchers typically use _________________ in which sampling decisions are guided in an ongoing fashion by the emerging theory; samples of 20-30 people are typical 211
constant comparison
grounded theory uses ____________________, a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source (e.g. one interview) with those in another 285 cc
constant comparison
grounded theory uses _____________________: categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier 196
constant comparison
grounded theory uses teh _____________________ method of data analysis, a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source with those in another 292 cc
CONSORT guidelines
guidelines called the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials or ___________________ have been adopted by medical nad nursing journals to help readers track study participants; ____________________ flow charts, when avabilable, should be scrutinized in interpreting study results 263
conceptual integration
high-quality research requires ___________________, one aspect of which is having a defensible theoretical rationale for the study
conceptual integration
high-quality studies typically achieve a high level of ____________________; this happens when the research questions fit the chosen methods, when the questions are consistent with existing evidence, and when there is a plausible conceptual rationale for expected outcomes-including a rationale for any hypotheses or interventions
proven/disproven
hypotheses are never ________________; rather they are supported or rejected
proven/disproven
hypotheses are never ________________; they are accepted or rejected, supported or not supported by the data
statistical tests
hypothesis testing helps researchers make objective decisions about whether results are likely to reflect differences or hypothesized effects; researchers use _______________________ in the hopes of rejecting the null hypothesis 240
assent
if a child is at least 7 years of age, the child's __________________- or affirmative agreement to participate should be acquired in addition to parental consent
mobile positioning
if a researcher follows a person around to observe behaviors, it is called ________________ 207
multiple positioning
if a researcher moves around to observe behaviors in different locations, it is called _________________ 207
stistically significant
if a researcher reports that results are ________________, it means the findings are probably true and replicable with a new sample 62
single positioning
if a researcher stays in one area to observe activities in a location, it is called _________________ 207
negative skew
if hte longer tail points to hte left it has a _________________; age at death is _________________ 231
control group
in RCT the experimenter introduces controls into the study, including devising an approximation of a counterfactual-usually a ______________ group that does not receive the intervention
randomization
in RCT, the experimenter assigns participants to a control or experimental condition on a random basis
intervention
in RCT, the experimenter does something to participants by manipulating the independent variable
temporal ambiguity
in RCTs researchers create the independent variable and then observe the outcome, so establishing a ______________ sequence is not a problem; in correlational studies it may be unclear whether the independent variable is preceded by the dependent variable
crossover design
in ______________, people are exposed to more than one experimental condition in random order and serve as their own controls; __________________ are inappropriate if there is a risk of carryover effects
delayed treatment
in _______________ a control group members are wait-listed and exposed to the intervention at a later point
open coding
in _______________, data are broken down into parts and concepts idnetified for interpreted meaning of the raw data 288 oc
poster session
in _______________, many researchers simultaneously present visual displays summarizing their studies, and conference attendees walk around the room looking at displays
axial coding
in _______________, the analyst codes for context; here, the analyst is locating and linking action-interaction within a framework of subconcepts that give it meaning and enable it to explain what interactions are occurring, and why and what consequences, real or anticipated, are happening 288 ax
phase 4 clinical trial
in _______________, the researcher forucses on generalized effectiveness and evidence about cost and benefits 225 p4
qualitative data/ studies
in ________________, research collect primarily __________________, that is, narrative descriptions; narrative data can be obtained by conversing with participants, by making notes about their behavior in naturalistic settings, or by obtaining narrative records, such as diaries
quota sampling
in ________________, researchers identify population strata and figure out how many people are needed from each stratum; by using information about the population, researchers can ensure that diverse segments are represented in the sample
stratified random sampling
in ________________, the population is first divided into two or more strata, from which elements are randomly selected
phenological studies
in ________________, there are very small groups of participants, often 10 or fewer 202
theme analysis
in _________________, cultural themes are uncovered; domains are connected in cultural ___________________ which help to provide a holsitc view of the culture being studied; the discovery of cultural meaning is the outcome 282 ta
phenomenology
in _________________-, the main data source is in depth conversations; ______________ usually inolve a small number of participants, often 10 or fewer; ____________ share insights in rich, vivid reports that describe key themes 187
test-retest reliability
in __________________, replication takes the form of administering a measure to the same people on two occasions
experimental research
in __________________, researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment--most often, to address therapy questions Called clinical trials in medical research
focused coding
in __________________, the analysis is directed torward identifying the most significant initial codes, which are then theoretically coded 289 fc
nonexperimental research
in ___________________, researchers are bystanders-they collect data without introducing treatments Called observational research in medical research
taxonomic analysis
in ____________________, ethnographers decide how many domains the analysis will encompass; after making this decision, a ____________________- a system of classifying and organizing terms- is developed to illustrate the internal organization of a domain 282 ta
frequency distribution
in ____________________, numberic values are ordered from lowest to highest, together with a count of the number of times each value was obtained 257
selective coding
in ____________________, researchers code only those data that are related to the core category 286 sc
cross-sectional designs
in _____________________, data are collected at one point in time; _____________________ are economical, but they pose problems for inferring changes over time; the amount of social and technology change that characterizes our society makes it questionable to assume differences in behaviors or characteristics of different age groups are through time rather than cohort differences
componential analysis
in _____________________, multiple relationshisp among terms in the domains are examined; the ethnographer analyzes data for similarities and differences among cultural terms in a domain 282 ca
nonprobability sampling
in _____________________, researchers select elements by nonrandom methods in which every element does not have a chance to be included
inital coding
in _____________________, the pieces of data are studied so the researcher can learn what hte participants view as problematic 289 ic
van Manen's approach
in ______________________, which involves efforts to grasp the essential meaning of the experience being studied, researchers search for themes using a holstic approach, a selective approach, or a detailed approach 292 vma
ethographic analysis
in _______________________, analysis begins as the researcher enters the field; one analytic approach is Spradely's method, which involves four levels of analsis: domain analysis; taxonomic analysis; componential analysis; and a theme unalysis 292 ea
charmaz's constructivist grounded theorey
in _______________________, coding can be word by word, line by line, or indicent by incident; initial coding leads to focused coding, which is then followed by theoretical coding 293 ccgt
mechanisms
in a MM study, researchers can examine causal effects in a quantitative component but can shed light on causal _________________ in a qualitative component 214
attention control condition
in a ________________, the control group gets attention but no the intervention's active ingredients
time-series design
in a _________________, outcome data are collected over a period of time before and after the intervention, usually for a single group
risk/benefit assessment
in a _________________, the potential benefits of the study to individual participants and to society are weighted against the costs to individuals
2 standard deviations
in a normal distribution, 95% of values fall within ______________________ above and below the mean 257
study participants/ informants
in a qualitative study, the people cooperating in the study are called ______________________
subjects/ study participants
in a quantitative study, the people being studied are called __________________
theoretical framework
in a study based on a theory, the framework is called a _________________
conceptual framework
in a study that has its roots in a conceptual model, the framework may be called the __________________
assymetric/ skewed distribution
in an _______________, the peak is off center, an one tail is longer than the other 230
oral presentation
in an __________________, researchers are typically allotted 10-20 minutes to describe key features of their study to an audience
covariates
in analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), the confounding variables being controlled are called __________________; ANCOVA tests the significance of differences between group means on an outcome after removing the effect of ____________________ 248
qualitative research
in attempting to describe phenomena, _________________ undertaking in-depth studies reveal patterns and process suggesting causal interpretations 185
retrospective design
in correlational studies with a ________________, an effect (outcome) observed in the present is linked to a potential cause that occurred in the past
thick description (qualitative sampling)
in critiquing a report, you should assess whehter the resercher provided a _______________ of the sample and the study context so that someone interested in transferring the findings could make an informed decision 203
test statistic
in hypothesis testing, researchers use study data to compute a ________________; for every _________________, there is a theoretical sampling distribution, similar to the sampling distribution of means; hypothesis testing uses theoretical distributions to establish probable and improbable values for the _______________, which are used to accept or reject the null hypothesis 241
plausible
in interpreting a study, readers must consider how ______________ it is that the actual sample reflects the recuited sample, the accessible population, the target population, and the population construct 262
clinical trials
in medical and epidemiological research experimental studies are usually called _________________
observational studies
in medical and epidemiological research nonexperimental inquiries are called _________________
predictor variables
in multiple regression, outcome variables are coninuous variables; independent variables, often called _____________, are either continuous variables or dichotomous nominal level variables, such as male/ female 248
follow-up studies
in nursing resarch, __________________ are often follow-up studies of clinical populations, undertake to assess subsequent status of people with a specified condition or who never received an intervention
longitudinal designs
in nursing, _______________ are often follow-up studies of clinical populations
written review
in preparing a _________________, it is important to organize materials coherently; preparation of an outline is recommended; the reviewers role is to point out what has been studied, how adequate and dependable the studies are, and what gaps exist in the body of research
self-reports
in qualitative research, _______________ are often supplemented by direct observation in naturalistic settings. one type of unstructured observation is participant observation, in which the researcher gains entree into a social group and participates to varying degrees in its functioning while making in-depth observations of studies and events; maintaining logs of daily events and field notes of the experiences and interpretations are the major data collection methods for observational research 211
results section
in qualitative studies researchers organize the ________________ according to major themes, processes, or categories that were identified in the data. excerpts from the raw data are presented to support and provide a rich description of the thematic analysis 63
confidence intervals
in quantative studies, statistical results are in the form of p values, effect sizes, and CIs, to which researchers and consumers must attach meaning; questions about meaning of statistical results reflect a desire to interpret causal connections 266
significant
in quantitaive studies, results that support hte researcher's hypothesis are described as _______________; a careful analysis of study results involves evaluating whether, in addition to being statistically ____________, the effects are large and clinically important 266
organizing framework or interpretive tool
in quantitative and qualitative studies, researchers use a theory or model as an _________________________
confounding variables
in quantitative research, efforts are made to control factors extraneous to research questions called ________________
variables
in quantitative studies, concepts are called _______________; a ______________ is a characteristic or quality that takes on different values (i.e. varies from one person or object to another)
variables
in quantitative studies, concepts are usually called ________________; a _____________ is something that varies; weight, anxiety, and fatigue are all _____________, they vary from one person to another
power analysis
in quantitative studies, researchers can use a ___________________ to estimate sample size needs; large samples are preferable because they enhance statistical conclusion validity and tend to be more representative, but even large samples do not guarantee representitiveness
results section
in quantitative studies, the _____________ includes: the names of statistical tests used the value of the calculated statistic statistical significance 62
equivalent
in quasi-experimental studies, it cannot be assumed that the experimental and comparison groups are equivalent at the outset
comparison group
in quasi-experiments, the term ________________ is used in lieu of control group to refer to the group against which outcomes in the treatment group are evaluated
goals of models/ theories
in research, the ____________________ are how to make findings meaningful, to integrate knowledge into coherent systems, to stimulate new research, and to explain phenomena and relationships among them
keyword
in searching a bibliographic database, users can do a _______________ search that looks for terms in text fields of a database record or can search according to the subject heading codes themselves
no change
in some cases, ________________ over tiem could be clinically significant if it means that a group with a progressive disease has not deteriorated 269
gain entree
in some cases, when conducing a qualitative study, researchers may have access to the selected site; but in others, they need to ______________ it; ________________ typically involves negotiations with gatekeepers who have the authority to permit entry
substantive theories
in some qualitative research traditions, the researcher strivces to suspend previously held _____________________ of the specific phenomena under study, but each tradition has rich theoretical underpinnings
content validity index
in terms of content validity, expert ratings of scale items are used to compute a ____________________258
test statistic
in testing hypotheses, researchers compute a ______________ and then see if the statistic falls beyond a critical region on the theoretical distribution; the value of any ___________________ indicates whether the null hypothesis is improbable 258
institutional review board
in the US, the comittee that reviews research plans before conducing human research is called the ______________________; before undertaking the study, researchers must submit research plans to the _______________ and must also undergo formal _________ training
constructivist paradigm/ naturalistic paradigm
in the _____________, it is assumed that reality is not a fixed entity but is rather a construction of human minds--and thus, truth is a composite of multiple constructions of reality
discussion section
in the _____________, the researcher presents conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings, i.e., what the results mean, why things turned out the way they did, how findings fit with other evidence, and how results can be used in practice 63
holistic approach
in the ________________, researchers view the text as a whole and try to capture its meanings 284 ha
positivist paradigm
in the ___________________, it is assumed that there is an objective reality and that natural phenomena are regular and orderly
glaserian method
in the ___________________, open codes begin with level I codes, which are collapsed into a higher level of abstraction i nlevel II codes; level II codes are then used to formulate level III codes, which are thoretical constructs; through constant comparison the researcher compares concepts emerging from the data with similar concepts from existing theory or research to see which parts have emergent fit with the theory being generalized 292 gm
detailed approach
in the ____________________, researchers analyze every sentence; once themes have been identified, they become the objects of interpretation through follow-up interviews with participants 284 da
selective approach
in the ______________________, researchers pull out statements that seem essential to the experience under study 284 sa
theory-based interventions
in the classical use of theory, researchers test hypotheses deduced from an existing theory; an emerging trend is testing _________________________
cocharne collaboration
in the evidence based practice movement the ________________ was developed throughout the world to help providers make good decisions by preparing and disseminating systematic reviews of effects of health care interventions
study limitations
in their discussions of study results, researchers should themselves point out known __________________, but readers should draw their own conclusions about the rigor of the study and about the plausibility of alternative explanations for the results 276
constancy of conditions
in well-controlled quantitative research, steps are taken to achieve ________________ so that researchers can be confident that outcomes reflect the effect of the independent variable and not the study context
central tendency
indexees of _______________ represent average or typical value of a set of scores 257
variability
indexes of ______________, how spread out the data are includ ethe range and standard deviation 257
central tendency
indexes of _________________ indicate what is typical; there are three indexes of ____________: the mode, median, and mean 231
interval measurement
indicating not only people's rank order but also the distance between them 257
validity
inference and _________________ in inextricably linked; to be careful interpreters, readers must search for evidence that the desired inferences are in fact ________________; part of this process involves considering alternative competing hypotheses about the credibility and meaning of results 264
nonresearch references
information in ________________ (e.g. opinion articles, case reports) may broaden understnading of a problem but has limited utility in summarizing evidence
quantitative research
information that is numeric information that results from some type of formal measurement and that is analyzed statistically
coefficient alpha/ cornbach's alpha
internal consistnecy, a widely reported aspect of reliability, is estimated by an index called ____________________; is a psychosocial scale includes several subscales, a _____________________ is calculated for each subscale separately 250
clinical significance
interpretation of a study involves coming to conclusions about the ________________ of the evidence and its applicability
positive results
interpreting statistical results is easiest when hypotheses are supported, i.e. when there are _____________ 266
continuous
interval and ratio level measures are often called ___________________ 257
PICOT (I)
intervention, influence, or exposure
PIO (I)
intervention/ influence/ exposure- what are the interventions or therapies of interest; or what are the potentially hamful influences/ exposures of concern
topic guide
interviewers may use a written ______________ to ensure that all question areas are addressed 204
perspective
issues sometimes concern whose ________________ on clinical significance is relevvant; sometimes, clnicians' perspecive is key because of implications for health management (e.g. regarding choelsterol levels); for other outcomes, the patient's view is what matters (e.g. quality of life) 269
clinical relevance
it is important to appraise evidence in terms of its ______________ for the clinical situation at hand--that is, for your patient in a specific clinical setting
qualitative data
it is often difficult to critique the decisions that researchers make in collecting _________________ because details about those decisions are seldom spelled out; in particular, there is scant information about participant observation 208
mixed methods research
key decisions in designing an ______________ study involve how to sequence the components and which strand will be given priority 225
bibliographic databases
key resources for a research literature search are the __________________ that can be searched electronically; for nurses, CINAHL and MEDLINE databases are especially useful
blinding
lack of __________________ can be a threat to validity; is it an intervention or awareness of an intervention that resulted in benefits
children
legally and ethically, ___________________ do not have the competence to give informed consent, and so the consent of children's parents or guardians should be obtained
ethnography
length of time for data collection: typically long, many months or yearse 204
eligibility criteria
like quantitative reseracher,s qualitative researchers identify _______________ for their studies; although they do not specify an explicit population to who results could be generalized, they do establish the kinds of people who are eligible to participate in their research 199
meaning units
literature on content analysis often refers to __________________; _______________ is the smallest segment of text that contains a recognizable piece of information 282 mu
attrition
longitudnial studies are typically expensive, time consuming, and subject to risk of ______________________ (loss of participants over time), but yield valuable information about time-related phenomena
log/ field diary
maintaining _____________ of daily events and _______________ of the experiences and interpretations are the major data collection methods for observational research 211
correlation does not prove causation
making casual inferences in correlational studies is risky; a basic research dictum is that _____________________
measurement error
many factors contribute to _______________, including personal states, response set biases, and situational factors (e.g. temperature, lighting)
diagnosis
many nursing studies concern the rigorous development and testing of formal instruments to screen, ______________, and assess patients and to measure clinical outcomes
saturation
many qualitative researchers use the principle of ________________, which occurs when participants' accounts about their experiences become redundant, such that no new information can be gleaned by further data collection
purposive sampling
many qualitative studies evole to a _________________ strategy in which researchers deliberately choose the cases or types of cases that will best contribute to the study 200
statement of purpose
many researchers articulate their research goals as a ________________; the _________________ establishes the general direction of the inquiry and captures the study's substance
organizing structure
many researchers who cite a theory or model as their framework are not directly testing the theory, but may use the theory to provide an ____________________
abstract coding schemes
many studies, such as those designed to develop a theory, are more likely to involve the development of _________________________; in creating ____________________, researchers break data into segments, clisely examine them, and compare them to other segments to uncover the meaning of phenomena; important concepts that emerge from existing data are then given a label 278 acs
minimal important change (MIC)
measurement experts use the term ______________ because the focus is on individual change scores, not differences between groups 270
95% CI
most often the ________________ is reported, which indicates that there is a 95% probability that the true ppulation value lies between the upepr nad lower confidence limits 258
multivariate statistics
most quantitative nursing studies rely on _____________ that involve the analysis of three or more variables simultaneously; the use of sophisticated analysis of analytic methods has resulted in greater rigor in nursing studies, but it can be challenging for those without statistical training to understand research reports 247
inferential statistics
most research questions are about parameters; resarchers calculate statistics to estimate parameteres and use _________________ to make inferences about the population 229
fallibility
no single study can ever definitively answer a research question; the _____________ of any single study makes it important to understand and critique researchers' methods when evaluating evidence
shared theories
nonnursing models used by nurse researchers are referred to as _______________________
mixed methods research
notation for ________________ often designates priority- all capital letters for the dominant strand and all lowercase letters for the nondominant strand-and sequence; an arrow is used for sequential designs and a + is used for concurrent designs 225
accepted or rejected
null hypothesis are ________________ based on sample data 240
anthropormoic measures
nurse researchers also use ___________, such as BMI and waste circumference
methodologic studies
nurse researchers have undertaken many ___________________, which focus on the development, validation, and assessment of methodologic tools or strategies 222 222 ms
evidence-base practice (EBP)
nurses in various settings are adopting a ________________ that incorporates research findings into their decisions and interactions with clients
ethnonursing research
nurses refer to their ethnographic studies as ____________________ 195
observation
observational methods are techniques for acquiring data through the direct ______________ of phenomena
cohort design
observational studies with a _________________ or prospective design, start with a presumed cause and then go forward to the presumed effect
meta-analysis
of __________________ integrate evidence form multiple experimetnal studies and are at the pinnacle of evidence hierarchies for questions relating to causes
pilot test
once an evidence-based protocol or guideline has been developed and deemed worthy of implementation, the EBP team can move forward with a _______________ of the innovation and an assessment of the outcomes prior to widespread adoption
pilot test
once the EBP product has been developed, the next step is to ______________ it, give it a trial run, and evaluate the outcome to determine if it is effective
inmplications of results
once you have reached cnoclusions about credibility, percisision, importance, meaning, and generalizability of the results; the researcher should think about ________________, future research or how should results be used in nursing practice; if results have limited credibility or importance, they may be of little utility to practice 269
pretest-posttest design
one experiential design to help identify outcomes is a _____________, which involves observing the outcome (pain levels) before and after the intervention
Glaser nad Strauss method
one grounded theory approach is the _____________________, in which there are two broad types of codes: substantive codes and theortical codes 292 GS
risk/benefit assessment
one strategy that researchers use to protect participants is to conduct a _________________; such a ___________ is designed to evaluate whether the benefits of participating in a study are in line with the cost
participant observation
one type of unstructured observation is _______________________, in which the researcher gains entree into a social group and participates to varying degrees in its functioning while making in-depth observations of studies and events 211
known-group validity
one widely used hypothesis testing approach to construct validity is sometimes called _____________________, which tests hypotheses about a measure's ability to discriminate between two or more groups known to differ with regard to the construct of interest
PICOT (O)
outcome
PIO (O)
outcomes- what are the outcomes or consequences in which we are interested
phenomena/concepts
pain, fatigue, and obesity are abstractions of human characteristics; these abstractions are called ____________________ or _________________
exemplars
paradigm cases and thematic analysis can be enhanced by _________________ that illuminate aspects of a paradigm case or theme 285 e
ethical dilemmas
participant's rights and study quality are put in direct conflict with research questions, posing ____________ for researchers
stakeholders
people who have a stake in the intervention, including potential beneficiaries of hte intervention and families, advoates, community leaders, healthcare staff 219 s
essence
phenomenoligists assume there is a n_______________, an essential structure that can be undestood, much as ethnographers assume cultures exist; ________________ is what makes a phenomenon what it is, and without which, it would not be what it is 187
reflexive journal
phenomeonological researchers often maintain a _________________- in their efforts to bracket findings 188
meaning questions
phenomonologists tend to ask ________________ when conducting research
PIO
population intervention outcomes
PICOT (P)
population or patients
PIO (P)
population/ patients- what are the characteristics of the patients or people
strata
populations consist of subpopulations, or ____________; _______________ are mutually exclusive segments of a population based on specific characteristics
probalistic evidence
postpositivists also appreciate the barriers to knowing reality with certainty and therefore seek _______________, i.e. learning what the true state of a phenomeon probably is
anonymity
privacy can be maintained through _________________, wherein not even researchers know participants' identities)
confidentiality procedures
privacy can be maintained through __________________ that safeguard participant data
particular examplars
purposive sampling implies an intent to choose _____________ or types of people who can best enhance the researcher's understanding of the phenomenon 200
comparisons
qualitaitve researchers typically do not plan to make group _____________________ because the intent is to thoroughly describe or explain a phenomenon; yet, patterns emerging in the data sometimes suggest illuminating comparisons 184
research settings
qualitaitve researchesr usually collect their data in naturalistic settings; they may deliberately study phenomena in a various natrural contexts, especially in ethnographic research 184
emergent design
qualitative research involves an __________________ that develops in the field as the study unfolds; qualitative studies can either be cross-sectional or longitudinal 195
latent content
qualitative researchers also analyze what the text talks about, which involves interpretation of the meaning of its _____________________; interpretations vary in depth and level of abstraction and are usually the basis for themes 282 lc
snowball sampling
qualitative researchers also use ___________________ asking early informants to make referrals; a weakness of this approach is that the eventual sample might be restricted to a small network of acquaintances 199
emergent design
qualitative researchers design as they do; qualitative stuides use an _______________________ that evolves as researchers make ongoing decisions about their data needs based on what they have already learned; an _________________ supports the researcher's desire to have the inquiry reflect the realities and viewpoints of those under study-realities and viewpoints that are not known at the outset 183
intervention, control, blinding
qualitative researchers do not conceputalize their studies as having independent and dependent variables and rarely control the people or enviornment under study; blinding is rarely used by qualitative researchers 184
snowball sampling
qualitative researchers may start with convenience or ____________ sampling but usually rely on purpose sampling to guide researchers in selecting data sources that maximize information richness 211
volunteer/convenience sample
qualitative researchers often begin with a ________________; _______________ are often used when researchers want participants to come forward and identify themselves 199
time frames
qualitiatve research, like quantitative research can be cross-sectional, with one data collection point, or longitudinal, with multiple data collection points designed to observe teh evolution of a phenomenon 185
appraising EBP
quality of evidence magnitude of effects precision of estimates of effects evidence of side effects cost relevance to clinical situation
complementarity
quantitative and qualitative approaches are complementary; by using mixed methods, researcherse can possibly avoid the limitations of a single approach 214
statistical analysees
quantitative data are analyzed through ________________ which include some simple procedures (e.g. computing an average) as well as more complex sophisticated methods
research questions
quantitative resarchers begin by identifying an interesting research problem and formulating ________________; they identify what hte study variables are; in developing _______________, nurse researchers must attend to substantive issues, theoretical issues, clinical issues, methodologic issues, and ethical issues
sampling plan
quantitative researchers develop a ____________________ that specifies in advance how participants will be selected and how many to include
emergent design
quantitative researchers do not collect data before finalizing their research design; qualitative researchers, by contrast, use an __________________ that materializes during data collection
empirical evidence
quantitative researchers gather ________________, evidence that is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses rather than through personal beliefs or hunches; ________________ for quantative study is gathered systematically, using formal instruments to collect needed information
comparisons
quantitative researchers make _______________ to provide an interpretive context; sometimes the same people are ____________ at different points in time, but often different people are compared
measurement
quantitative researchers must deal with problems of _____________; to study a phenomenon scientists must measure it, that is, attach numeric values that express quantity
generalizability
quantitative researchers strive to go beyond the specifics of a research situation; the ability to generalize research findings to individuals other than those who took part in the study is referred to as __________________
literature review
quantitative researchers typically strive to understand what is already known about a topic by undertaking a thorough __________________ before any data are collected
bias
quantitative researchers use objective methods designed to control the research situation with the goal of minimizing ___________ and maximizing validity
scientific merit
quantitative researchers use several criteria to assess the quality of a study, sometimes referred to as its _______________; two especially important criteria are reliability and validity
change scores
recent research focuses on clinical significance of __________________ for individual patients, e.g. a change from baseline measurement t oa follow-up measurement 269
historical research
relationships between events and ideas, between people and organizations, are explroed and interpreted within their historical context and within the context of new viewpoints about what is historically significant 190
correlation methods
relationships between two variables can be descsribed by ___________________; the ______________ question is: to what extent are two variables related to each other 235
type 1 error
resarchers make a _________________ by rejecting a null hypothesis that is true 240
ethical constraints
reseaerch with human beings is guided by _________-- that sometimes interfere with research goals; ____________ often confront researchers, regardless of paradigms or methods
settings
research can be undertaken in a variety of _____________ (the types of place where information is gathered), like in hospitals, homes, or other community settings
clinical significance
research findings increasingly must meet the test of being clinically significant, and patients have taken center stage in efforts to define ___________________
critical theory
research is sometimes conducted within an ideological perspective; _______________ is concerned with a critique of existing social structures; critical researchers conduct studies in collaboration with participants in an effort to foster self-knowledge and transformation 196
level of significance
research reports indicate the ___________________, which is an index of how probable it is that the findings are reliable 62
respone rates
research should ideally report the ______________ and possible nonresponse bias
focus
researchers begin a study with a ______________ that defines the broad boundaries of the inquiry, but the boundaries are not cast in stone; they are made sufficiently flexible that the question can be modified as new information makes it relevant to do so
constructs
researchers begin with _______________ and then devise ways to operationalize them; the __________________ are linked to actual research strategies in a series of approximations; the better the _________________, the more credible the results are likely to be 262
power analysis
researchers can estimate how large their samples should be for testing hypothesis through ______________
CONSORT guidelines
researchers can facilitate interpretations by carefully documenting methodologic decisions and the outcomes of those decisions, e.g. using ______________ to document participant flow 276
mutual regression
researchers can improve theiri prediction of an outcome by performing a ______________ in which several independent variables are included in the analysis 248
level of signifcange/ alpha level
researchers cnotrol the risk of making type 1 error by selecting a ______________________, which is hte probability that such an error will occur; the 0.05 level means that in only 5 out of 100 samples would the null hypothesis be rejected when it should have been accepted 258
sample
researchers collect data from a _______________, which is a subset of the population
study aim
researchers communicate their __________________ in research articles as problem statements, statements of purpose, research questions, or hypotheses
level of significance (alpha)
researchers control the risk for a type 1 error by selecting a ________________, which is the probability of making a type 1 error; the two most frequently used ____________________ are 0.05 and 0.01 241
protocols
researchers delineate the intervention in formal ____________ that stipulate exactly what the treatment is
photovoice
researchers have used the technique of asking participants to take photographs and interpret them, a method sometimes called ___________________ 205
topic
researchers identify a broad ___________ of study, narrow the scope of the problem, and then identify research questions consistent with a paradigm of choice
concepts/ phenomena
researchers investigate ________________ which are abstractions inferred from people's behavior or characteristics
type 2 error
researchers make a ________________ when they say that the intervention did not have an effect, a false-negative conclusion 240
readability
researchers may evaluate the ___________________ of written materials to see if participants if lower reading skills can comprehend them
blinding
researchers must decide if information about the study will be withheld from data collectors, study participants, or others through __________________ to minimize risk of expectation bias
implied consent
researchers often assume _____________________, i.e. the return of a completed questionnaire implise the person's consent to participate
minimally clinically importnat difference
researchers refer to conceptual threshold for clinical significance as a _____________________ 270
staistically significant
researchers reporting the results of hypothesis tests state whether their findings are ______________________; ______________ means that results are not likely to have been due to chance at some specified level of probabiltiy 241
confounding/ extraneous variables
researchers seek to control ___________________, variables that are outside the purpose of a specific study
multisite studies
researchers sometimes do ______________ because the use of _________________ offers a larger and often more diverse group of participants
debriefing
researchers sometimes offer ________________ sensations after data collection to provide participants with more information or an opportunity to air complaints
construct
researchers sometimes use the term ____________________, which also refers to an abstraction, but often one that is deliberately invented (or constructed)
eligibility criteria
researchers specify population characteristics through ___________________; researchers establish __________________ to determine whether a person qualifies as a member of hte population or should be excluded
statistical tests
researchers test their hypotheses and assess the probability that the results are using _______________; a ______________ helps to answer the question, Is the relationship between two items real and would it be likely to be observed from a new sample of the same population 62
unstructured interview
researchers use completely ______________ when they have no preconceived view of the information to be gathered; reserachers begin by asking a grand tour question and ask further questions based on guides to inital responses 204
consent form
researchers usually documed informed consent by having participants sign a ________________; this form includes information about the study purpose, specific expectations regarding participation, voluntary nature of participation, and costs and benefits
power analysis
researchers who conduct a ____________ to estimate how big a sample size they need to adequately test their hypotheses must estimate in advance how large the effect size will be- usually based on prior research or a pilot study 246
hypotheses
researchers who make specific predictions about answers to research questions pose ________________ that are then tested
reductionist
researchers who reject the traditional scientific method believe that a major limitation is that it is _______________; that is, it reduces human experience to only the few concepts under investigation, and those concepts are defined in advance by researchers rather than emerging from the experiences of those under study
qualitative content analysis
researchers whose goal is qualitative description often say they used ________________ as their analytic method; ________________ can vary in terms of emphasis on manifest or latent contet 292 qca
statistically signifigant
resutls form hypothesis tests are either significant or nonsigificant; ___________________ means that the obtained results are not likely to be due to chance fluctuations at a given probabiltiy (p value) 258
bilnd
reviews are usually _________, reviewers are not told researchers' names, and authors are not told reviewers' names
phenological studies
salient field issues: bracketing one's views, building rapport, encouraging candor, listening while preparing what to ask next, keeping on track, handling emotionallyp 204
grounded theory
salient field issues: building rapport, encouraing candor, listening while preparing what to ask next, keeping on track, handling emotionalityg 204
ethnography
salient field issues: gaining entree, determining role, learning how to participate, encouraging candor, loss of objectivature, premature exit, reflexivitye 204
sampling error
sample statistics fluctuate and are unequal to a parameter because of _____________________; reserachers need to assess whether sample statistics are good estimates of population parameters 238
data saturation
samples in qualitative studeis are typically small and based on information needs; a guiding principle is _____________, which involves sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved 211
mixed methods research
sampling in _____________ can involve the same or different people in the different components 225
response set biases
scales are susceptible to several common problems; however, many of which are referred to as _________________; the most important include: social desirability extreme acquiescence
response set biases
scales are versatile and powerful but are susceptible to __________________, the tendency of some people to respond to items in characteristics ways, indepdently of item content
phenomenological analysis
schools of phenomenology have developed different approaches to _____________________; the basi coutcome is the description of the essential nature of an experience, often through the identification of essential themes 283 pa
PICOS (S)
setting
conceptual model
several _________________- for nursing have been used in research; the concepts central to _______________ are human beings, environment, health, and nursing
scales
social physiological ______________ are self-report instruments for measuring characteristics like attiudes and psychological attributes
descriptive qualitative studies
soem qualitative studies do not have a formal name of fit into typology and are called _______________; __________________ tend to be eclectic in their designs and methods and are based on the general premises of constructivist inquiry 191
implementation potential/ environmental readiness
some EBP models involve a formal assessment of organizational "fit," often called ____________________; in assessing the implementation potential of an innovation, several issues should be considered, particularly the transferability of the innovation
Certificate of Confidentiality
some US researchers obtain a __________________ that protects them against the forced disclosure of confidential information through a court order
metaphors
some qualitative analysists use _______________ or figurative comparisons to evoke a visual and symbolic analogy; additionally, analysts try to weave the thematic strands together into an integrated picture of hte phenomenon under investigation 292 m
grounded theories
some qualitative researchers seek to develop _________________, data-driven explanations to account for phenomena under study through inductive processes
purposive sampling
some researchers call thier sample _____________ because they purposely selected people who experienced the phenomenon of interest 200
intraclass correlation coefficient
some researchers use Person's r to correlate the scores at different times, but hte preferred index for test-retest reliability is the __________________, which can range in value from 0-1 249
open-ended questions
some structured instruments include ______________, which allow participants to respond to questions in their own words; when _________________ are included in questionaires, respondents must write out their responses
longitudinally
some studies involve multiple points of data collection and are called ____________________
model
some writers use the term ___________ to designate a method of representing phenomena with a minimal use of words, which conveys different meanings to people; two types used in research contexts are schematic and statistical _________________
debriefing
sometimes ______________ are offered following data collection so that participants can ask questions or share concerns about the study
mixed methods research
specific __________ designs include the convergent design, explanatory design, and exploratory design 225
post hoc tests/ multiple comparison procedures
statistical analyses called __________________ are used to isolate the differences between group means that resulted in the rejection of the overall null hypothesis 244
odds ratio (OR)
statistical indexes that decribe the effects of exposure to risk factors or interventiosn provide useful information for clinical decisions; a widely reported risk index is the __________________, which is the ratio of the odds for an exposed versus unexposed group, with the odds reflecting the proportion of people with an adverse outcome relative to those without it 257
parameter estimation
statistical inference consists of two approaches: hypotehsis testing and _____________________, estimating a population value 257
level of measurement
statistical operations depend on a variable's ________________; there are four ________________, nomainal, ordinal, interval, and ratio 228
continuous variables
statistical procedures suitable for interval data are also appropriate for ratio-level data; variables with interval and ratio measruements are called _________________ 228
statistical conclusion validity
statistical tests are used to support inferences about whether a relationship exists; their level of support is called the _________________
psychometric assessments
statistics are used in ______________________ to quantify a measure's reliability and validity 258
finding studies on a topic
strategies for __________________ not only include the use of bibliographic tools but also include the ancestry approach (tracking down earlier studies cited in a reference list of a report) and the descendancy approach
axial coding
strauss and Corbin's method is an alternative grounded theory method whose outcome is a full conceptual description; this approach to grounded theroy analysis involves two types of coding: open and axial coding 293 ax
rating scales
structered observation observers may also use ________________ to rate phenomena along a dimension of interest (e.g. lethargic/energetic)
checklist
structured observations dictate what the observer should oberse, they often involve __________________, instruments based on category systems for recording the appearance, frequency, or duration of behaviors or events
sampling plan
structured observations often involve a ________________- for selecting the behaviors, events, and conditions to be observed; observational techniques are often essential but observational biases can reduce quality
instrument
structured self-report data are collected with a formal, written document called an __________________
questionnaire/ interview schedule
structured-self reports for quantitative studies involve a formal instrument- a _______________________ that may contain open-ended questions and close-ended questions
case-control design
studies may use a _____________________, that is, cases with a certain condition such as lung cancer are compared to controls without it; in designing a _________________, researchers try to identify controls who are as similar as possible to cases with regard to confounding variables
prognosis
studies of ______________ examine the consequences of a disease or health problem, explore factors that can modify the prognosis, and examine when the consequences are most likely
therapy
studies with a ____________ purpose seek to identify effective treatments for improving or preventing health problems; such studies range from evaluations of highly specific treatments to complex multi component interventions designed to effect behavioral changes
validity
study _____________ concerns the extent to which appropriate inferences can be made
matching
techniques for controlling subject characteristics include _________________ deliberately making groups comparable on some extraneous variables
homogeneity
techniques for controlling subject characteristics include _________________ or restricting participants to reduce variability on confounding variables
stability/ reproducibility
test-retest reliability is sometimes called ______________, the extent to which scores can be reproduced on a repeated administration
standard error of the mean
the SD of the samplign distribution, called the _______________, can be estimaited using fromula that involves the SD and the sample size 238
pregnant women
the US govenrment has issued additional requirements governing research with ________________- and fetuses; these requirements reflect a desire to safeguard the _________________ and the fetus
method section
the _______ section describes what was done to answer the research questions; quantitative studies answer: research design, sampling plan, methods of measurement, study procedures, and data analysis methods; qualitative studies provide more info about research setting and context 61
effect
the __________ is the outcome from the cause
effect
the ___________ is the differenec between being exposed and not exposed to the causal factor
odds ratio
the ____________ is a widely reported risk index; the odds is the proportion of people with the adverse outcome relative to those without it 236
median
the ____________ is the point above which and below which 50% of the cases fall 257
structure
the ____________ of care refers to broad organizational and administrative features 219 s
problem statement
the ______________ articulates the nature, context, and significance of a problem to be studied; __________________ typically include several components: problem identiication; background, scope, and consequences of the problem; knowledge gaps; and possible solutions to the problem
Method
the ______________ includes: Research design Sampling plan Methods of measuring variables and collecting data Study procedures, including procedures to protect participants Analytic methods and procedures
research design
the ______________ is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the research questions; quantitative _____________, tend to be structured in controlled, with the goal of minimizing bias
chi-squared test
the ______________ is used to test hypothses about group differences in proprotions 258
introduction section
the _______________ acquaints readers with the resarch problem and its context; this section describes: the central phenomena, concepts, or variables under study the study purpose and research questions or hypothesis a review of related literature theoretical or conceptual framework signifiance and need for the study 61
Belmont report
the _______________ articulated three primary ethical principles on which standards of ethical research conduct are based: beneficence, respect for human dignity, and justice
constructivist paradigm/ naturalistic paradigm
the _______________ is a major alternative system for conducting nursing research; for _____________, reality is not a fixed entity but rather a construction of people participating in the research; reality exists within a context, and many constructions are possible
history threat
the _______________ is the occurrence of events concurrent with the independent variable that can affect the outcome; in RCTs, ______________ are not usually a problem because external evets are as likely to affect one RCT as another
mode
the _______________ is the vaue that occurs most frequently 257
chi-squared (x2) test
the _______________ is used to test hypotheses about differences in proportions, as in a cross tab 245
scientific method
the _______________- involves using a set of ordely procedures to gehter information; quantitative researchers move in a systematic fashion from the defintiion of a problem to a solution
range
the _______________- is the distance between the highest and lowest scores 257
mean
the ________________ equals the sum of all values divided by the number of participants, unlike hte median, the ____________ is affected by the value of every score; in research articles, the ______________ is often symbolized as M or X 232
observer/ participant
the ________________ first must gain entree into the social group under study; the second is to establish rapport and trust within that group 206
number needed to treat
the ________________ index estimates how many people would need to receive an intervention to prevent one undesirable outcome; ______________ is computed by dividing 1 by the ARR 236
central/ core category
the ________________ is a behavior or pattern that has relevance for participants, is sometimes a basic social process that involves an evolutionary process of coping or adaptation 292 cent
abstract section
the ________________ is a brief description of the study placed at the beginning of the article; readers can review an _____________ to judge whether to read the full report
abstract
the ________________ is a synopsis of the study
sampling plan
the ________________ is often one of the weakest aspects of quantitative studies
site
the ________________ is the location for the research; researchers sometimes engage in multi-_____________ studies
etic perspective
the ________________ is the outsider's interpretation of the cultures experiences-the words and concepts tehy use to refer to the same phenomena 186
research design
the ________________ is the overall plan for answering research questions; in quantitative studies, the resarch design designates whether there is an intervention, the nature of any comparisons, methods for controlling confounding variables, whether there will be blinding, and timing and location of data collection
null hypothesis
the _________________ in intepretation is that the results are wrong and evidence is flawed; the research hypothesis is that the evidence reflects teh truth 260
discussion section
the _________________ includes the following elements: an interpretation of the results clinical and research implications study limitations and ramifications for the believably of the results 63
median
the _________________ is the point in a distribution that divides scores in halff; the _______________ does not take into account individual values and is insensitive to extremes 232
ultimate goals
the _________________ of disciplined research, reardless of paradigm, is to answer questions and solve problems; both quantative and qualitative researchers seek to capture truth with regard to phenomena
selection threat (self-selection)
the _________________ reflects biases stemming from preexisting differences between groups; when people are not assigned randomly to groups, the groups being compared may not be equivalent; group differences in the outcome may be caused by extraneous factors rather than by the independnt variable
descendancy approach
the _________________, involves finding a pivotal early study and searching forward to find more recent studies that cited the key study
Health Promotion Model
the _________________, is a framework for explaining people's health-related behavior, such as compliance with a medical regimen; according to the model __________________ is influenced by a person's perception of a threat posed by a health problem as well as by the value associated with actions aimed at reducing the threat
transtheoetical model
the _________________, the core construct is stages of change, which conceptualizes a continuum of motivational readiness to change problem behavior t
minimally clinically importnat difference
the __________________ can be defined as the smallest difference in score domain of interest which patients perceive as beneficial and which would mandate in the absence of troublesome side effects and excessive cost, a change in the patient's management 270
Health Promotion Model
the __________________ focuses on explaining health-promoting behaviors, using a wellness orientation; according to hte model, health promotion entails activities toward developing resources that maintain or enhance a person's well-being
uncertainty in illness theory
the __________________ focuses on the concept of uncertainty- the inability of a person to determine the meaning of illness-related evidence; according to htis theory, people develop subjective appraisals to assist them in interpreting the experience of illness and treatment
hypotehsis testing process
the __________________ includes: 1. select a statistical test 2. specify the level of signifigance 3. compute a test statistic 4. determine the degrees of freedom 5. compare the test statistic to a theoretical value 242
statement of purpose
the __________________ is a summary of an overall goal; sometimes the words aim or objective are used in lieu of purpose
standard deviation
the __________________ is an index of how variable scores in a distribution are the _______________ represents the average of deviations from the mean an _______________ can be interpreted as the degree of error when we use a mean to describe a sample there are roughly three ______________ above and below the mean, and a fixed percentage of cases fall within certain distances from the mean 233
accessible population
the __________________ is hte portion of hte target population that is accessible to the researchers
mean
the __________________ is the arithmetic average of all scores; the _______________ is the most stable index of central tendency 257
dependent/outcome variable
the __________________ is the behavior, characteristic, or outcome the researcher is interested in explaining, predicting, or affecting
independent variable
the __________________ is the presumed cause of or influence on the dependent variable; the __________________ corresponds to the I and C components of PICO
null hypothesis
the __________________ states that there is no relationship between the independent variable/ intervention and the dependent variable 240
participatory action research (PAR)
the __________________ tradition has as its starting point a concern for the powerlessness of the group under study; in _______________, researchers and participants collaborate in defining the problem, selecting research methods, analyzing the data, and deciding how the findings will be used; the aim of _________________ is to produce not only knowledge but also action, empowerment, and consciousness raising; in _________________ the methods are designed to faciliate collaboration that can motivate and generate community solidarity 192
qualitative research traditions
the ___________________ include: ethnography phenography grounded theory 185
time-series design
the ___________________ involves collecting data over an extended period of time and introducing the treatment during that period
theory of planned behavior
the ___________________, which is an extension of another theory called the theory of reasoned action, offers a framework for understanding people's behavior and its psychological determinants tpi
three main qualitative traditions
the ____________________ are: ethnography phenomenological grounded theory 201
maturation threat
the ____________________ arises form processes occuring as a result of time (e.g. growth, fatigue) rather than the independent variable
standard error of the mean/ standard deviation
the ____________________ indicates the degree of average error of a sample mean; the smaller the ________________, the more accurate are estimates of a population value 257
null hypothesis
the ____________________ is that no relationship exists between variables; rejection of the __________________ lends support to the research hypotehesis 258
nonequivalent control-group
the ____________________ pretest-posttest design involves a comparison group that was not created through randomization and the collection of pretreatment data from both groups to assess initial group equivalence
MEDLINE
the ____________________, developed by the US library of medicine, is hte premier source for bibliographic coverage of biomedical literature; _______________ covers 5600 medical, nursing, and health journals
nonequivalent control group posttest only
the _____________________ design has a flaw, there is no information about initial equivalence
National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR)
the _____________________ established at the US National Institutes of Health in 1993, affirms the stature of nursing research in the US
problem identification approach
the _____________________ is likely to be clinically relevant and to have staff support if the problem is one that numerous nurses have encountered
grounded theory
the _____________________- tradition seeks to describe and understand key social psychological processes; the focus of most _______________ studies is on a developing social experience- the social and psychological phases that characterize a particular event or experience
sampling distribution of hte mean
the _______________________ is a theoretical distribution of the means of an infiinite number of same-sized samples drawn from a population; sampling distributions are the basis for inferential statistics 257
standard deviation
the ________________________ indicates how much on average, scores deviate from the mean 257
themes
the actual analysis of data begins with a search for patterns and ______________, which involves discovery not only of commonalities across participants but also of natural variation in the data 292 t
meaning
the aim of most qualitative studies is to discover __________________ and to uncover multiple realities, not to generalize a population 199
themes
the analysis of information from a literature search involves the identification of important _______________, regularities and patterns in the information
determinism
the assumption of ________________ refers to the positivist's beliefs that phenomena are not haphazard but rather have antecedent causes
intervention theory
the construct validity of the intervention is enhanced through efforts to develop an __________________ that clearly articulates what must be done to achieve desired outcomes; the intervention design, which emerges from the ________________ specifies what the clinical inputs should be 219 it
intervention theory
the construt validity of an emerging intervention is enhanced through efforts to develop an __________________ that articulates what must be done to achieve desired outcomes 225 it
placebo
the control group can undergo various conditions, including an alternative treatment, a ____________ or psudeo intervention, standard treatment, or wait-list (delayed treatment) condition
wait-list (delayed treatment)
the control group can undergo various conditiosn, including an alternative treatment, a placebo or psudeo intervention, standard treatment, or _______________ condition
history threat
the designs most likely to be affected by _________________ are one-group pretest-posttest designs and time-series designs
observer/ participant
the extent of the _______________ in a group is best thought as a continuum; at one extreme is complete immersion in the setting, with researchers assuming full participant status; at the other extreme is complete separation, with researchers as onlookers 206
statistical conclusion validity
the extent to which correct inferneces can be made about the existence of real group differences is affected by sampling decisions 264
prediction
the failure of data to support a _________________ forces researchers to analyze theory or previous research critically, to review study limitations, and to explore alternative explanations for the findings
central/ core category
the first step in integrating the findings is to decide on the ____________________, which is hte main construct in the research 288 cent
emergent design
the flow of activities in a qualitative study is more flexible and less linear than quantitative; qualitative studies typically involve an _________________- that evolves during data collection
case studies
the focus of ________________ is typically on understanding why an individual, thinks, behaves, or develops in a particular manner rather than what his status or actions are 190
interpretivie phenomenology/ hermeneutics
the goal of __________________ is to enter another's world and to discover teh understandings found there 188
competing explanations
the goal of a good quantiative research design is to rule out _________________
actual observations
the goal of grounded theory is to develop a conceptually dense understanding of a phenomenon that is grounded in ___________________
perfect relationship
the greatest of one variable correlates with the greatest of the other variable; the second greatest with the second greatest; and so on 235
case studies
the greatest strength of ______________ is the depth that is possible when a small number of entities is being invesitgated; ______________- researchers can gain an intimate knowledge of a person's feelings, actions, and intentions 190
absolute value
the higher the _______________________ of the coefficeint, the stronger the relationship 235
coefficeint alpha
the index used to estimate internal consistency is _________________; reliability coefficients of .8 or higher are desirable 258
results
the interpretation of quantitaitve research ________________, outcomes of statistical analyses, typically involves consideration of the credibility of the results, precision of estimates of effects, magnitude of effects, underlying meaning, generalizability, and implications for future research and nursing npractice 275
quantitative studies
the main design issue in _______________ is whether the research design provides the most valid, unbiased, and interpretable evidence possible; there is usually no other aspect of a __________________ that affects quality of evidence as much as research design
written research review
the major steps in preparing a _____________________ include formulating a question, devising a search strategy, searching and retrieving relevant sources, abstracting and encoding information, critiquing studies, analyzing and integrating the information, and preparing a written synthesis
Person's r
the most frequently used correlation coefficient is ______________________, used with continuous variables 257
Pearson's R
the most widely used correlation statistic is _________________, the product-moment correlation coefficient, which is computed with continuous measures 235
clinical signifiance at group level
the most widely used statistics for _______________ are effect size indecies, CI, and number needed to treat 269
pragmatism
the paradigm most often associated with MM research is _________________, which has as a major tenet, the dictatorship of the research question 225
methodologic decisions
the particulars of a study-especially the ____________________ made by researchers affect the inferences that can be made about the correspondence between study results and "truth in the real world" 275
researcher/investigator
the person who conducts the research is the ____________________
dependenet variable/ outcome variable
the presumed effect of a scenario is the _________________; the _________________- is the outcome that researchers want to understand, explain, or predict
power analysis
the probability of a type 2 error can be estimated through _____________________; _________________ is the ability of a statistical test to detect true relationships 241
power
the probability of comitting a type 2 error is related to ________________, the ability of a statical test to detect true relationships; the standard criterior for an acceptable level of power is 0.80 258
quality improvement
the purpose of __________________ is to improve practices and processes within a specific organization- not to generate new knowledge that can be generalized; ____________ does not typically involve translating best evidence into a protocol
quality improvement projects
the purpose of a _________________ is to improve practices and processes within a specific organization- not to generate knowledge that can be generalized beyond the specific context of the study 221 qi
convergent design/ triangulation design
the purpose of the ____________________ is to obtain different, but complementary, data about the central phenomenon under study- i.e. to triangulate data sources; the goal is to converge on the truth about a problem or phomenon by allowing the limitations of one approach be offset by the strengths of another cg/td
ordinal measurement
the ranking of people based on thier relative standing on an attribute 257
determinism
the related assumption of _______________ refers to the belief that phenomena result from prior causes and are not haphazard
sampling plan
the researcher's ______________ specifies how the sample will be selected and how many subjects there will be
vulnerable groups
the rights of __________________ need extra protections; _______________ may be incapable of giving fully informed consent or may be at high risk for unintended side effects
too small
the risk of getting it wrong increases when samples are ______________; researchers risk gathering data that will not support their hypotheses even when they are correct
multiple correlation coefficient
the squared _______________________ is an estimate of the proportion of variability in the outcome variable accounted for by the predictors 258
multiple correlation coefficient
the statistic used in multiple regression is the __________________, which is symbolized as R; ______________ does not have negative values, it ranges from 0-1, showing the strength of the relationship between several predictors and an outcome, but not direction 248
substantive codes
the stubstance of the topic under study is conceptualized through ____________________, there are two types: open and selective 285 sc
internal validity
the study's ______________________, the extent to which a causal inference can be made, is affected by sample comosition; any observed differences in outcomes could be caused by individual differences in the groups, e.g. differences in motivation to stay in the study, rather than by the intervention itself 264
control group
the term ________________ refers to a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the experimental group on the same outcome
double blind
the term __________________ is widely used when more than one group is blinded (e.g. participants and interventionists); however, this term is ambiguous and does not clearly specific who was/ wasn't blinded
experimental group
the term control group refers to a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the ________________, the group getting the intervention, on the same outcome
construct
the terms ______________ and concept are sometimes used interchangeably, but a ____________ often refers to a more complex abstraction than a concept
justice
the third principle articulated in the Belmont Report concerns ________________, which includes participants' right to fair treatment and their right to privacy
Belmont report
the three major ethical principles from the _______________ are incorporated into many guidelines: beneficence, respect for human dignity, and justice
coding scheme
the usual procedure for qualitative analysis is to create a ________________, based on a scrutiny of actual data, and then code data according to the categories in the ________________; developing a high quality _______________ involves a careful reading of hte data, with an eye to identify underlying concepts 278 cs
significant
the word _________________ does not mean important / meaningful; it means that results are not likely to have been due to chance at some specific level of probability 242
symbolic interaction/ interactionism
theoretical underpining of grounded theory is a melding of sociological formulations, the most prominent of which is ______________________; the three underlying premises include (1) humans act toward things based on meanings that the things have for them, (2) the meaning of things is derived from human interactions, and (3) meanings are handled in, and modified through, and interpretive process
Middle-range theories
theories of relevance to researchers are often less abstract than grand theories; ____________________ attempt to explain phenomena such as stress, comfort, and health promotion
created
theories, conceptual frameworks, and models are not discovered; they are __________________; ______________ depends not only on observable evidence, but also on a theorist's ingenuity in pulling evidence together and making sense of it
cause-probing
therapy, prognosis, and etiology questions are ______________, and there is a hierarchy of designs for yielding best evidence for these questions
phenological analysis
there are numerous approaches to ____________________, including the descriptive methods of Colaizzi, Giorgi, and van Kaam, in which the goal is to find common pattenrs of experiences shared by particular instances 292 pa
reflect the truth
there is no such thing as a study whose resutls came out wrong if they _________________268
internal validity
threats to ______________ include: temporal ambiguity (uncertantity about whether the presumed cause preceded the outcome), selection (if a preexisting group causes differences), history (external events that could affect outcomes), maturation (changes due to the passage of time), and mortality (effects attributable to attrition)
randomization/ random assignment
through ____________________ every participant has an equal chance of being included in any group; if people are randomly assigned, there is no systematic bias in the groups with regard to attributes that may affect the dependent variable
memos
through coding and analysis, grounded theory analysts document their ideas about data and emerging conceptual scheme in _____________; _____________ encourage researchers to reflect on and describe patterns in the data, relationships bewteen categories and emergent conceptualizations 296 m
themes
through inductive reasoning, researchers identify ________________ and categories, which are used to build a rich description or theory of the phenomenon
PICOT (T)
time frame; time it takes to achieve the outcomes
developing data collection plan
to __________________: researchers must decide who will collect the data, how the data collectors will be trained, and what the circumstances for data collection will be
conceptual files
traditionally, researchers have organized their data by developing _________________, which are physical files in which coded excerpts of data for specific categories are placed; now, however, computer software is widely used to perform basic indexing functions and to facilitate data analysis 292 cf
phenological studies
two principles guide selection of a sample for a __________________, 1. all participants must have experienced the phenomoenon and 2. they must be able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience 202
grounded theory
types of data: primarily individual interviews, sometimes group interviews, observation, diaries, documentsg 204
ethnography
types of data: primarily observation and interviews, plus artifacts, documents, photographs, social network diagramse 204
phenological studies
types of data: primarly in-depth interviews, sometimes diaries, other written materialsp 204
ethnography
unit of collection: cultural system data collection points: mainly longitudinale 204
grounded theory
unit of data collection: individuals data collection points: cross-sectional or longitudinal length of time for data collection: typically moderateg 204
phenological studies
unit of data collection: individuals data collection points: mainly cross-sectional lenght of time for data collection: typically moderatep 204
participant observation
unstructured observational data are often gathered through ______________; _______________ take part in the functioning of the group under study and strive to observe, ask questions, and record information within the contexts and structures that are relevant to group members 206
phenomenological analysis
van manen's approach to ______________ involves: 1. turning ot nature of lived experience 2. exploring hte experience as we live it 3. reflecting on essential themes 4. describing the phenomeon through the art of writing and rewriting 5. maintaing a strong relation to the phenomeon 6. balancing the research context by considering parts and whole 283 pa
cause and effect/ causal relationships
variables can be related to one another in different ways, including ___________________; within the positivist paradigm, natural phenomena are assumed to have antecedent causes that are discoverable
f ratio
variation between groups is contrasted with variation within groups to yield a __________________ statistic 244
Identify the problem
what is wrong with the current situation?
enhanced validity
when a hypothesis or model is supported by multiple and complementary types of data, researchers can be more confident about their inferences 214
positive skew
when a longre tail points to the right, the distribution has a _________________; personal income is ________________ 230
psychometric assessment
when a new measure is developed for psychology; researchers undertake a ________________, which involves an evaluation of the measure's measurement properties
concurrent
when data are collected at the same time they are ________________ 215 c
corroboration
when fingins from analyiss of qualitative data are consistent with results of statistical analyses, internal _________________ can be powerful and persuasive 265
parameters
when indexes such as averages and percentages are calculated with population data, they are __________________ 229
shared theories
when nonnursing models are appropriate to nursing inquiry, the theories are called ________________________
homogeneity
when randomization is not feasible, other methods of controlling extraneous characteristics can be used; one alternative is ________________, in which only people who are similar with respect to confounding variables are included in the study
Cohen's kappa
when ratings are dichotomyous classifications, the preferred index is __________________, whose values range from 0-1 250
study/ investigation
when researchers answer a question through disciplined research, they are doing a _______________
nonexperimental
when researchers do not intervene by controlling the independent variable, the study is _________________, or observational
correlational research
when researchers study the effect of a cause they cannot manipulate, they undertake _________________ to examine relationships between variables
estimate
when the evidence is quantative, another consideration regarding EBP is how precise the __________________ of the effect is; research results provide only an _____________ of effects, and it is useful to understand not only the exact ___________ but also the range within which the actual effect probably lies
receiver operating characteristic curve
when the foal measure is continuous and the gold standard is dichotomous, researchers often use a statistical tool called a ______________________; a ________________ involves plotting each score on the focal measure against its sensitivity and specificity for correct classification 251
cause and effect/ causal relationship
when the independent variable causes or affects the outcome, the relationship is a _________________________
sequential
when two types of data are collected in different phases; in well-conceived ________________ designs, the analysis and interpretation in one phase informs the collection of data in the second 215 s
confidence interval
with interval estimation, researchers construct a ________________ around the point estimate; the ____________ around a sample mean establishes a range of values for the population value and probability of being right; by convention researchers use either a 95-99% ______________ 239
hypothesis testing
with statistical ____________________, researchers use objective criteria to decide whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected 240
positivist paradigm
within the ________________, research activity is often aimed at understanding the underlying causes of natural phenomena
population data
without _______________, it cannot be asserted that the null hypothesis is or is not true; researchers must be content to say whether they are either probably true or probably false 240
Abstract
•Brief description of major features of a study at the beginning of a journal article Single paragraph, about 100 to 150 words More detailed, with specific headings
nursing research
•Systematic inquiry •Acquire knowledge •Focuses on important issues to the nursing profession •Guides nursing practice
research
•Systematic inquiry •Acquire knowledge •Uses disciplined methods
Quantitative research
•_______________ is verifiable by observation or experience/ experimentation
