NUTR 240 Exam #2

What is the economic impact of alcoholism estimated at per year?

$58 billion/year (lost wages and healthcare costs)

Glutathione peroxidases

(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) antioxidants

Thioredoxin reductases

(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) antioxidants

Iodothyronine deiodinases

(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) used to produce biologically active thyroid hormone

What is steatosis?

(fatty change), is the process describing the abnormal retention of lipids within the cells of the liver.

Mild Dehydration

(loss of 1-2% of body weight) can impair physical and cognitive performance

Fats in breast milk

(mother's diet-dependent) - palmitic and oleic acids, phospholipids, choline, DHA.

In the body Copper (Cu) exists in

+1 and +2 oxidation states (Cu^I, Cu^II)

Parathyroid Hormone

- Stimulates release of Ca from bone by activating osteoclasts - Reduces Ca excretion by the kidney - Increases enzyme responsible for the last hydroxylation step to produce active vitamin D

____ out 5 students drink alcohol

4

What is considered binge drinking for women?

4 drinks

Thyroxine (T4) has

4 iodine and two tyrosine

Extracellular fluids

4 lbs

Maternal fat

4-11 lbs

Hemoglobin structure: there are ____ protein subunits (chains), which is the ______ part

4; globin part

Human milk fully matures by

5 days - 2 weeks post partum

What is considered binge drinking for men?

5 drinks

Maternal blood volume increases by

50%

Fetus

7-8lbs

Ethanol is how many kcal/gram

7.1kCal / gram

Most reactions in the body occur in slightly basic solutions - around pH of

7.4

Blood Alcohol Concentration (Legal limit) =

80 mg% = 0.08 blood alcohol level

It is estimated that as much as ___% of the world's population may be iron deficient and ___% suffer from iron deficiency anemia.

80% ; 30%

About ______ % of the iron in the body is conserved and reused

90%

The need for folate, vitamin B12, iron, and zinc increases to support the

formation of new maternal and fetal cells.

Compact bone

forms the shaft of long bones

Iodized salt is salt

fortified will iodine

The iron in the heme binds the

four Nitrogen of the porphyrin ring, a histidine residue of the globin chain and one 02.

Iron in the heme is coordinated to the

four nitrogen atoms of the porphyrin and also to a nitrogen atom from a histidine residue of the hemoglobin protein

Thyroid hormones work by affecting

gene expression in target cells (similar to vitamin A and D)

Reactive oxygen molecules are also

generated during cellular respiration

Vitamin B6 is needed for the metabolism of

glycogen

NAD functions in

glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by accepting released electrons and passing them on to the ETC where ATP is formed

The name Pantothenic Acid (B5) comes from the

greek word pantothen-which means everywhere * Because deficiency is RARE

Zinc is essential in the diet for

growth and development

Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin C are needed to provide for the

growth and development of bone and connective tissue.

The heart, lungs, and kidneys work

harder to deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove wastes

Early Symptoms of mild dehydration

headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dry eyes and mouth, dark-colored urine

Riboflavin (B2) is easily destroyed by

heat and exposure to light

Each protein subunit contains a

heme molecule

There is evidence that there is a

heme-iron receptor/transporter in the enterocyte

The most common form of iron overload is

hemochromatosis

Most of the iron in the body is part of

hemoglobin

When iron is deficient, ______ cannot be produced.

hemoglobin

Hemoproteins

hemoglobin and myoglobin and cytochromes

Vitamin B6 is needed for the synthesis of __________, the oxygen carrier protein in _______ ____ cells.

hemoglobin, red blood

Calcitonin release is stimulated by

high Ca levels

Inhibitors of copper absorption include

high intakes of iron, manganese, molybdenum, vitamin C, antacids * This is because other elements with the same charge will compete for absorption

Increases synthesis of metallothionein occurs when zinc levels are

high.

Men achieve a _______ peak bone mass than women.

higher

The need for nutrients is _______ during lactation than during pregnancy.

higher

Soil near the ocean or sea is

higher in iodine than soil inland

Heme iron is ______ bioavailable

highly

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and Folate convert

homocysteine to methionine

Folate and Vitamin B12 are BOTH needed to convert

homocysteine to methionine. When either is deficient, homocysteine levels rise.

Vitamin C is only a vitamin for

humans, higher primates, guinea pigs, capybaras, some birds and fruit-eating bats

Bone consists of an inorganic or mineral phase composed primarily of ________ ________ deposited within an organic phase of cross-linked collagen fibers

hydroxyapatite crystals

Vitamin C is an important coenzyme for the reaction that adds a

hydroxyl group to proline making hydroxyproline and adds a hydroxyl group to lysine creating hydroxylysine.

What is catalase able to do in regards to ethanol metabolism?

It is capable of converting ethanol to acetaldehyde

How does the MEOS differ from the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway?

It uses NADPH instead of NAD+ *(NADPH-->NADP+)

Is a pregnant woman supposed to be eating for two?

No; she is not eating for two-just an extra sandwich, apple, and glass of milk a day.

Which B vitamin is part of the CoA molecule?

Pantothenic Acid

Which B vitamin is needed to produce the carrier protein required for the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids?

Pantothenic acid

Low Calcium levels, stimulates the release of

Parathyroid hormone

What are the numbers of alcoholic drinks that can be beneficial to women and men daily?

Moderate (one drink/day women; two drinks/day men) may be beneficial

Composition of Human Breast Milk

Protein: .8-.9% Fat: 3-5% Carbohydrate: 6.9-7.2% Minerals: .2%

What is a concern for trace elements?

Rate of bioavailability

Condensation (Dehydration) Reaction

Removes water and leads to disaccharide formation

What is another name for B2?

Riboflavin

Which B vitamin assists the body with the absorption of other vitamins?

Riboflavin

Which B vitamin forms FAD and FMN?

Riboflavin

Which B vitamin is easily destroyed by heat and light?

Riboflavin

Which B vitamin functions as electron carriers in ETC?

Riboflavin (FAD and FMN)

Which B vitamin is involved in the breakdown of fatty acids?

Riboflavin (FAD)

Which B vitamin converts other vitamins to their active forms?

Riboflavin (folate, niacin, Vitamin B6, and Vitamin K)

Thiamin (B1) functions: RNCE * RN's Can Eat

Ribose production Nervous Sytem Health Energy production Carbohydrate metabolism

Zinc is involved in the functioning of over 300 different enzymes, including _________ _________.

Superoxide dismutase

Which 3 B vitamins are used in one of the citric acid cycle reactions?

Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin (NAD)

Which 2 B vitamins are used to synthesize neurotransmitters?

Thiamin and Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

Goiter

Thyroid enlargement is a classic sign of iodine deficiency ** Too little iodine, not enough T3 and T4 made

Vitamin C is ____- soluble

Water soluble

B vitamins are _____-soluble vitamins

Water-soluble

Which essential amino acid is Niacin synthesized from?

Tryptophan

We don's see a lot of Se toxicity because our food is grown in lots of places. However this is a problem in places like

China- because this form of toxicity tends to happen in an area where we grow and consume locally

Pantothenic Acid (B5) is part of the

CoA molecule, which is part of acetyl-CoA.

Vitamin B12 =

Cobalamin

Cytochrome c Oxidase (CCO) is a

Copper-containing enzyme that is a key component of the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

How is copper involved in iron metabolism?

Copper-containing enzymes (Ex. ceruloplasmin) are used to convert Fell to Felll

Abnormalities of bone development related to copper deficiency are most common in

Cu-deficienct LBW infants and young children; most likely due to deficiency in the activity of Cu-dependent lysyl oxidase (LO).

The majority of the body's Cu is in the

Cu^II form

It takes longer to develop a deficiency of ______-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble *Because they are stored in the body (liver & adipose tissue)

During lactation, vitamin B12 may be deficient in the breast milk of vegan mothers. Therefore,

a supplement is recommended for infants.

Iodine deficiency has multiple

adverse effects on growth and development

What state is iron in when it has to bind O2?

Fe+2 state

Nonheme Iron is present in the diet as

Fell (Fe+2) or Felll (Fe+3)

What are some of the risk factors of osteoporosis?

Female gender, Caucasian or Asian race, thin and small body frames, and a family history of osteoporosis. Cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol and caffeine consumption, lack of exercise, and a diet low in calcium.

Which B vitamin deficiency is associated with neural tube defects?

Folate

Which B vitamin is involved in the reactions that transfer chemical groups containing a single carbon atom?

Folate

Which B vitamin is needed for DNA synthesis?

Folate

Which B vitamin is particularly important in tissues where cells divide rapidly?

Folate

Copper is transported to the liver bound to

albumin

Thiamin is enriched in the

aleurone cell layer, so polished rice is devoid of thiamin

Trabecular bone

also called cancellous or spongy bone, fills the ends of the shafts of the long bones and forms most of the structure of vertebrae

Some B vitamins play a role in

amino acid and protein metabolism

T3 and T4 are thyroid hormones that are made from the

amino acid tyrosine

Lactating women require approximately

an additional liter of fluid/water a day.

ACE converts

angiotensin I to angiotensin II

Liver releases

angiotensinogen

Renin converts

angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

Cobalamin (B12) is most readily absorbed from

animal products * It is NOT found in plants

Zinc from ____ sources is better absorbed________

animal sources; than plant sources because since can be bound to by plant phytates, affecting bioavailability.

Vitamin C functions as an

antioxidant in the body, helps maintain the immune system, is important in the production of collagen and aids in iron absorption.

You would treat gestational diabetes with

appropriate diet and physical activity and sometimes insulin

Neural tube defects

are birth defects of the brain, spine, or spinal cord

During lactation, calcium needs

are not increased because the additional calcium needed for milk production comes from maternal bones, and is restored after weaning.

Vitamins

are organic compounds essential in the diet to promote growth and health maintenance.

Vitamin C is also known as

ascorbic acid or ascorbate

Mucins

block infections by viruses and bacteria

In addition to calcium and phosphorous,

bone contains Mg, Na, Fl, and other trace minerals

Osteoblasts

bone forming cells. They secrete collagen to form the osteoid or unmineralized bone matrix.

During puberty,

bone mass increases rapidly, and sex differences in bone mass appear.

In the enterocyte, iron can be

bound to ferritin (in Felll/Fe+3) state for storage.

Iron is then transported out of the enterocyte and is

bound to transferrin for transport to tissues

The two active coenzyme forms of cobalamin (B12) function in the

breakdown of fatty acids with odd number of C (carbons) in chain to enter citric acid cycle and in reaction that synthesizes methionine and homocysteine.

Th early embryo gets its nourishment by

breaking down the lining of the uterus, and after 5 weeks the placenta takes over the role of nourishing the embryo

Removal of hull gives you

brown rice

Iron is important in

immune function, cognitive development, temperature regulation, and energy metabolism

Ascorbate (Vitamin C) appears to be the most

important luminal accessory for iron

We can get active folate from supplements or we can get active folate when

inactive folate uses vitamin B12 to form active folate.

Since initiation of folic acid fortification,

incidence of neural tube defects has been reduced by 25% in the USA and 50% in Canada.

Needs _______ during pregnancy to deposit and maintain the new and maternal tissues.

increase

At the bone, active vitamin D acts with PTH to

increase bone breakdown, releasing calcium into the blood.

At the kidney, active vitamin D acts with PTH

increase calcium retention so less is lost in the urine

During lactation, folate needs are

increased because it is secreted in milk.

Gestational Diabetes for baby

increased infant weight, LOW blood glucose, jaundice.

The requirements for zinc and vitamin B6 rise to meet the need for

increased protein synthesis.

If iron is LOW, the expression of the gene for transferrin receptors is ________, resulting in increased transferrin receptors. At the same time, the expression of the gene for ferritin is _________.

increased; reduced *Ferritin would be reduced because since we have low levels of iron, we won't have a lot of storage of iron.

At the intestine, active vitamin D

increases absorption of calcium from the diet

The need for B vitamins

increases as energy needs increase.

The amount of zinc cab be regulated by

increasing or decreasing the synthesis of proteins that transport Zinc IN versus those that transport zinc OUT of mucosal cells

At risk groups for iron deficiency

infants, children, adolescents, athlete, women of reproductive age, pregnant women

Disulfram (Antibuse) operates to

inhibit ALDH activity

Iron poisoning can damage the

intestinal lining and cause abnormalities in body pH, shock and liver failure.

Iron transport is controlled primarily at the

intestine

The remaining 1% of calcium is found in

intracellular fluid, blood and ECF.

Manganese-requiring enzymes are

involved in amino acid, carbohydrate, and cholesterol metabolism, cartilage formation, urea synthesis and antioxidant protection.

Lactation

involves the synthesis of milk components, including protein, lactose and lipids, and the movement of the milk through the milk ducts to the nipple.

Most of the iodine in the diet comes from

iodized salt

Cobalamin (B12) is necessary for the proper absorption of _____ in the body.

iron

When you see "ferr" in a word, you should think of

iron

The trace elements include

iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, iodine, fluoride, chromium and molybdenum

Gestational diabetes

is a condition in which women not previously diagnosed with diabetes exhibit high blood glucose levels during pregnancy (especially during their 3rd trimester)

Lysyl Oxidase (LO)

is a copper-containing enzyme that is required for the cross-linking of collagen which are essential for the formation of strong and flexible connective tissue

What is bioavailability?

is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation

Oxytocin

is also released from the pituitary to stimulate movement of milk from milk-producing glands into the storage sinuses.

Hemochromatosis

is an inherited condition that allows increased iron absorption. Iron accumulated in tissues over time and can lead to heart, liver, and pancreas damage.

Hemosiderin

is an insoluble iron storage compound produced by the body when iron exceeds the storage capacity of ferritin.

Transferrin

is an iron transport protein in the blood

Colostrum

is immature milk, secreted during the first days after delivery. Colostrum is rich in protein and immune factors.

During the 1st trimester, EER

is not increased.

Ferritin

is the major iron storage protein within cells

Too much Ca from supplements can promote

kidney stones

If we can't make the zinc fingers, then binding is

much weaker

Osteoclasts

multi-nucleated giant cells capable of absorbing bone mineral and matrix. Activity stimulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D and inhibited by calcitonin and estrogens.

Symptoms of selenium deficiency include

muscular discomfort and weakness, and in some cases, Keshan disease

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is necessary for maintenance of

myeline-coating on nerves

Loss of 5% body weight as water can cause

nausea and difficulty concentrating

Selenium Toxicity symptoms

nausea, diarrhea, fingernail and hair changes, fatigue, irritability

Cl- is the principal

negatively charged extracellular ion

Low folate intake in early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of

neural tube defects

Copper-containing enzymes are important for production of some

neurotransmitters

Vitamin C is also a coenzyme in reactions that include production of some

neurotransmitters, hormones, bile acid and carnitine.

Vitamin B6 is needed for the synthesis of _________ and for ______ that are part of the myelin coating in nerves.

neurotransmitters, lipids

The diet provides food sources of both

niacin and tryptophan

Heme is the

o2 carrying part.

B vitamins were originally thought to be

one chemical substance but are actually many different substances. *That is the reason for B1, B2, B12, etc.

Water moves by

osmosis in response to solute concentration

Bone resorption

osteoclasts break down the tissue in bones and release the minerals

ADH release increases with

plasma osmolarity * Interestingly, thirst kicks in later

Removal of bran layers and aleurone cell layer gives you

polished rice, which is basically the endosperm.

Heme is a _____ that is coordinated with Fe in the ____ state

porphyrin; +2 state

K is the principal

positively charged ion inside cells (30X more concentrated inside than outside)

Sodium, potassium and chloride are the

principal electrolytes in body fluids

Heterozygotes for the switch from glutamate to lysine at position 487 of ALDH2 gene show

prominent facial flushing and intolerance of alcohol (Approximately 40% of East Asian population possesses this single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP))

Placental hormones

promote uterine goth, relax muscles and ligaments to accommodate growing fetus, promotes breast development, and increases fat deposition.

Superoxide Dismutase is important for

protecting cells from fee radical damage

T3 and T4 increases BMR, _____, and _____ _______.

protein synthesis and sympathetic tone

Thyroid hormones promote

protein synthesis, and regulate BMR, growth, and development.

Dietary tryptophan must first meet the need for ______ _______ before it can be converted to _______ in the body.

protein synthesis; niacin

Once homocysteine is converted to methionine, methionine is used to synthesize

proteins

Niacin is required for the biosynthesis of

pyridine nucleotides: 1) NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) 2) NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) * through which the vitamin has key roles in virtually all aspects of metabolism

All three forms of vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal, Pyridoxine, Pyridoxamine) can be converted into

pyridoxal phosphate

Vitamin B6 is also called

pyridoxine

Vitamin C can neutralize

radicals before they can damage cell structures

Iodine in the body is absorbed

rapidly and completely from GI tract in the form of iodide ions

Phosphorus toxicity is

rare but can lead to bone resorption

Ca toxicity is

rare, and is most often caused by elevated PTH secretion

ADH signals the kidneys to

reabsorb water

Phosphorus is more

readily absorbed than Calcium

This is where vitamin C becomes important because it can

reduce iron from +3 to +2 state

During lactation, iron needs are

reduced because little iron is lost in milk, and in most lactating women menstruation has not resumed.

Thiamin (B1) is needed for the metabolism of other

sugars, certain amino acids, synthesis of ACh (NT), and production of ribose

Selenium can replace

sulfur in sulfur-containing amino acids (Cysteine and Methionine)

Manganese, like copper and zinc, is needed for the activity of a form the the antioxidant enzyme

superoxide dismutase

Copper is an essential component of

superoxide dismutase (SOD), an enemy that provide antioxidant protection for cells *So is zinc

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) can be converted into either of

two active coenzyme forms

There is an increased risk of developing

type 2 diabetes for mother after have gestational diabetes.

Deficiency of biotin in the body is

uncommon *However, it can be observed in people with malabsorption or protein-energy malnutrition.

Atrophic gastritis may lead do deficiencies in which B vitamin?

vitamin B12

Water-soluble vitamins are excreted in urine and are not stored to a great extent, with the EXCEPTION of

vitamin B12

Vegan diets need to be supplemented with readily-absorbable forms of

vitamin B12 (cobalamin)

Atrophic gastritis may lead to

vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiencies

The form of active folate need for the synthesis of DNA cannot be made if

vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is deficient

All vitamins, except for __________ _______ is found in nutritionally significant concentrations in human breast milk.

vitamin K

Deficiency of ________ causes symptoms more rapidly than any other nutrient deficiency

water

Hyponatremia causes

water to move out of the blood vessels by osmosis, causing tissues to swell, including the brain

Zinc fingers

zinc binds to allow protein to have finger like projection that make it easier to bind to DNA

Zinc can be

toxic if taken in excess.

What are the direct effects of ethanol?

- Alters cellular membranes - Induces microsomal cytochrome p450 - Suppresses immune cell function - Destroys intestinal barrier - inhibits ADH - Replaces food intake - Alters blood pressure (chronic ethanol increases BP) - Depresses sensory and emotional sensors

ADH action

- As you heat up, you begin to sweat - You're losing water as you sweat - This increase the osmolarity of the plasma - ADH is released - Water is reabsorbed - Urine is concentrated

Vitamin C in the body

- Donates electrons in biochemical reactions - Used for synthesis and maintenance of connective tissue - Serves as an antioxidant

Non-heme iron

- Free or in complexes - Affected by food components (Ex. Spinach)

What are the major classes of iron proteins

- Hemoproteins - Iron-sulfur enzymes - Iron storage and transport proteins - Iron- containing enzymes that are non-iron sulfur, non-heme enzymes: some oxidases

Iodine Deficiency can cause neurocognitive impairments such as

- Increase stillbirths, abortions, congenital malformations - Most critical period is 2nd trimester to 3rd year of life - Most serve form causes gross mental retardation, short stature, deafness and spasticity - Severe form rare now, but mild-to moderate deficiency affects up to 30% of the global population, impairing cognitive development and school performance.

Heme Iron

- Iron absorbed into the porphyrin complex of heme - Not affected by other food components

What happens when there is high blood calcium?

- It causes the release of calcitonin from the thyroid gland - Calcitonin inhibits calcium release from bone

When blood pressure decreases:

- Kidney releases renin - Liver releases angiotensinogen - Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I - The lungs release ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme) - ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II - Angiotensin II action: 1) stimulates release of aldosterone (from adrenal gland) and ADH 2) constricts arterioles 3) increase sympathetic nerve activity - Actions of aldosterone: increase Na/K pumps in kidney tubules

What happens when there is low blood calcium?

- Low blood calcium causes the release of PTH from the parathyroid gland - PTH promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidney - PTH stimulates the activation of vitamin D by the kidney - Active vitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption - PTH stimulates calcium release from bone.

What are the benefits of alcohol consumption?

- Lower risk of heart disease - Lower risk of stroke - Increases HDL - Decreases platelet aggregation

Sodium-Potassium-ATPase Pump

- Maintains the concentration gradient by pumping Na+ out of the cell and K into the cell - Concentration gradients important for nerve conduction and muscle contraction - Also linked to nutrient transport (Which ones) - Does require energy

Chemical Contaminants found in breast milk:

- Organochlorine pesticides and insecticides - Dioxins and furans - Semivolatile organohalogens (polybrominated biphenyls) - DDT - Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium)

Regulation of Calcium levels in the digestive tract

- Passive diffusion and active transport - Active transport accounts for most Ca absorption when intake are low or moderate - Active vitamin D is required for active transport by increasing the numbers of transport proteins (calbindins) needed for transporting Ca across the enterocyte

Symptoms of zinc deficiency

- Poor growth and development - Skin rashes - Hair loss - Diarrhea - Neurological changes - Reduced reproduction - Reduced immune function - Skeletal abnormalities

Beyond Bones: Calcium in the Body

- Regulate enzyme activity* - Necessary for blood clotting - Chemical and electrical signals in nerves and muscles - Cell cycle and proliferation* - Cell differentiation* - Muscle contraction: actin and myosin interaction - Neuronal function: especially NTs - Glandualr secretion - especially hormone release - Glycogen synthesis pathway and others*

What are the functions of bones and bone tissue?

- Support and protection - Reservoir or store of minerals, especially Ca ions - Buffering of excess acid loads - Calcium regulation or homeostasis - Source of new red blood cells and immune cells (marrow) - Source of stem cells (marrow) for fat, muscle, bone, etc.

Thiamin (B1)

- The first B vitamin to be identified (B1) - Thiamin assists in energy production, carbohydrate metabolism, the production of ribose, and the health of the nervous system. (ECRN)

Zinc Functions in the Body

- involved in the function of superoxide dismutase - Used in enzymes that function in the synthesis of DNA and RNA - Used in enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and acid-base balance - Plays a role in the storage and release of insulin, mobilization of Vitamin A from the liver and stabilization of cell membranes. - Influences hormonal regulation of cell division - Important for immune system function

When there is insufficient hemoglobin, red blood cells are ____ and ______ and unable to deliver sufficient oxygen to the tissues. This is known as _______ _______ _______.

- microcytic and hypochromic - Iron deficiency anemia

Globin

- protects the heme (no globin, Fe+2 (Fell) is oxidized to Fe+3 (Felll) and no 02 binding) - provides another co-ordination site for Fe

Each heme molecule can carry one

02, therefore each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 O2.

Each hemoglobin is made up of

1 protein group (globin) and 4 heme groups

Fluoridation of water at ___ to ___ ppm continues to be recommended by the Council on Dental Therapeutics of the American Dental Association to prevent dental caries.

1 to 2 ppm

Phosphorus makes up about __% of an adult's body.

1%

What are the three potential mechanisms of ethanol metabolism?

1) Alcohol dehydrogenase 2) Microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) 3) Catalase * These all get converted to acetaldehyde, then ALDH, then Acetate (used to form acetyl CoA), and then CO2 and H2O.

What are the eight B vitamins?

1) Thiamin (B1) 2) Riboflavin (B2) 3) Niacin (B3) 4) Biotin 5) Pantothenic acid (B5) 6) Pyridoxine (B6) 7) Folate (B9) 8) Cobalamin (B12)

Alcohol Metabolism

1) Alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into acetaldehyde (this transfers an electron to NAD+ = NAD+ --> NADH) 2) Acetaldehyde is toxic and is degraded to produce acetyl-CoA. (Acetaldehyde gives an electron to NADH (NADH + H+) in oder to form Acetyl-CoA by action of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) 3) The break of alcohol and acetaldehyde releases electrons that can be used to produce ATP, but also results in changes that inhibit the citric acid cycle, limiting breakdown of acetyl-CoA 4) Acetal-CoA that cannot enter the citric acid cycle is used to synthesize fatty acid, which accumulate in the liver. 5) When larger amounts of alcohol are consumed, MEOS activity increases. It converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, which is then broken down to form acetyl-CoA.

Within bone, 2 types of structures are intermixed

1) Compact bone 2) Trabecular bone

What are the impacts of Acetaldehyde production?

1) Cross-links cellular proteins (enzymes, cytoskeleton) 2) Oxidation of lipids 3) Inhibition of DNA repair 4) Sedative effects 5) Acute peripheral vasodilation (Ex. Flushing)

What are the consequences of NAD+ consumption?

1) Decreased pyruvate and increased lactate production. - Decreased glycolysis and gluconeogenesis 2) Decreased lipid metabolism

What are the combination of effects of ethanol that contribute to Alcohol Liver Disease?

1) Disrupted intestinal barrier function 2) Increased oxidant stress within the liver 3) Activation of intrahepatic immune cell populations.

Physiological Consequences of Ethanol, its Metabolism and its Metabolites

1) Ethanol 2) NAD+ consumption 3) Acetaldehyde production

What active coenzymes does riboflavin (B2) form?

1) Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) 2) Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)

Selenium is an essential component of 25 Se-cysteine containing proteins. Examples include:

1) Glutathione peroxidases 2)Thioredoxin reductases 3) Iodothyronine deiodinases 4) Other selenoproteins have antioxidant or unknown functions

Forms of Dietary Iron: Can be divided into two types

1) Heme iron 2) Non-heme iron

Iron Absorption

1) Heme iron is absorbed as part of the heme group. Once inside the cell, the iron is released. 2) Nonheme iron is absorbed in the ferrous form (Fe2+). Dietary factors may enhance or inhibit absorption. 3) Once inside the mucosal cells, some iron may be bound to ferritin for storage. 4) When the mucosal cells die, iron bound to ferritin is excreted in the feces. More iron is lost when body stores are high than when stores are low or the need for iron increases. 5) Iron that enters the blood is converted to a ferric iron (Fe+3) by copper-containing protein (ceruloplasmin) in the cell membrane. The Fe+3 binds to transferrin for transport 6) Transferrin transports iron to liver, bone, and other body cells. More iron is transported when body stores are low or needs increase than when stores are high. 7) Most iron loss (1-2 mg/day) is due to blood loss

Zinc and Copper

1) High levels of dietary zinc stimulate the synthesis of metallothionein 2) The copper bound to metallothionein is lost when the mucosal cell dies 3) Metallothionein preferentially binds copper, limiting its absorption

Bioactive Compounds Found in Human Milk

1) Immune mediators 2) Mucins 3) Hormones

The two forms of niacin are

1) Nicotinic acid 2) Nicotinamide

Pyridoxine (B6) compromises a group of compounds including

1) Pyridoxal 2) Pyridoxine 3) Pyridoxamine

Osteoclasts and Osteoblast Activity on the Bone

1) Resting bone surface (there are resting osteoblasts) 2) Active osteoclasts attach to bone surfaces 3) Osteoclasts break down (resorb) bone. 4) Pre-osteoblasts move into begin rebuilding bone. 5) Active osteoblasts engage in bone formation.

Angiotensin II Action

1) Stimulates release of aldosterone (from adrenal gland) 2) Constricts arterioles 3) Increases sympathetic nerve activity

Breastfeeding

1) Suckling signals the hypothalamus (prevents dopamine from being released because dopamine inhibits prolactin release. 2) The hypothalamus signals the release of both prolactin and oxytocin. 3) Prolactin acts on the milk-producing glands to stimulate milk synthesis. 4) Oxytocin promises milk letdown.

What are three things unique to the catalase and ethanol metabolism?

1) There is no consumption of NAD+ 2) High levels of catalase in liver 3) Its contribution to ethanol metabolism is negligible (insignificant)

T4 ---> T3 Conversion

1) Thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) circulate in the blood bound to plasma proteins 2) T4 and T3 enter the cell, where a selenium-containing enzyme (iodothyronine deiodinase) converts T4 to T3 3) T3 enters the nucleus and binds to a nuclear receptor protein. 4) The T3-receptor protein complex binds to a regulatory region of a target gene 5) Transcription of the gene is turned on, increasing the amount of mRNA made. 6) mRNA directs translation, increasing the synthesis of the protein coded by this gene. 7) The cellular functions and body processes affected by this protein are increased. * Receptor protein has zinc fingers and binds to DNA and regulates gene transcription

Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones

1) Thyroxine (T4) 2) Triiodothyronine (T3)

Absorption of Cobalamin (vitamin B12)

1) Vitamin B12 in food is bound to protein. 2) In the stomach, acid and pepsin help release vitamin B12 from food proteins. 3) Cells in the stomach lining release intrinsic factor (IF) 4) In the upper portion of the small intestine (duodenum), intrinsic factor binds to vitamin B12. 5) In the lower part of the small intestine (ileum), the vitamin B12-intrinsic factor complex binds to receptors on cells, allowing absorption. 6) In the colon, vitamin B12 is synthesized by microorganisms but cannot be absorbed.

Placenta

1-2 lbs

Pyridoxal phosphate (B6) is needed for the activity of more than

100 enzymes involved in the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein.

What is the clinical impact of alcoholism estimated at per year?

100,000 deaths per year

What is the average clearance of ethanol per hour (g/hr)?

10g/hr

Peak bone mass is between ages

16 and 30

Human milk contains about ____ kcal per cup

160

Amniotic fluid

2 lbs

Breast tissue

2 lbs

Uterus

2 lbs

To leave the enterocyte and enter the bloodstream, iron in the

2+ (Fell) state needs to be converted to the +3 state by a copper containing enzyme: ceruloplasmin

The Na/K pump is estimated to account for ______ to _____% of resting energy expenditure in an adult.

20-40%

Selenium is the _____ amino acid

21st

Total weight gain for a mother during pregnancy

25-35 lbs

Triiodothyronine (T3) has

3 iodine and two tyrosine

Maternal blood

3-4 lbs

Enterocytes have a lifespan of

3-7 days

___ - ____ % of the population of mothers gets gestational diabetes

3-9%

1 pint of beer equals how many grams of ethanol?

30 grams EtOH

Copper absorption is about ____-___%

30-40%

Where is calcium in the body?

99% of calcium in the body is found in solid mineral deposits in the bones and teeth.

Beginning at the _____th week of development until birth, the developing offspring is known as a fetus

9th week

What percent of of EtOH is metabolized through alcohol dehydrogenase pathway?

>90% of ethanol

What is Alcoholism?

A disorder characterized by excessive consumption of and dependence on alcoholic beverages which disrupts psychological, social, and vocational function

Chicago State University in 2005

A fraternity hazing in which pledges were required to keep drinking water results in a death of a pledge and felony convictions for the fraternity brothers involved

Calcitonin

Acts on osteoclasts to inhibit their activity , so release of Ca from bone decreases

The lungs release

ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme)

Which neurotransmitter does Thiamin help synthesize?

ACh

When solute concentration is low in the blood,

ADH level decreases, and more water is excreted into the urine

Thiamin (B1) is essential to the production of

ATP from glucose

What does the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway require?

Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADH)

Phosphorylate ADP + Pantothenic Acid (B5) + acetyl group =

Acetyl CoA

Long-term energy

After about two to three minutes, oxygen delivery to the muscles has increased enough to support aerobic metabolism, which uses fatty acids and glucose to produce ATP.

What is the minimum BAC that is considered a binge drinking level for men and women?

BAC of 0.08/g/dL (.08%)

Short-term energy

Anaerobic metabolism of glucose, obtained either from the blood or from muscle glycogen, becomes the predominant source of ATP when creatine phosphate stores have been depleted. Thirty seconds into the activity, anaerobic pathways are operating at full capacity. (Short term sprint)

Symptoms of Copper Deficiency

Anemia that results from defective iron mobilization; unresponsive iron therapy but corrected by copper supplementation

Which B vitamin is needed for energy metabolism?

Biotin

Which B vitamin is specifically involved with the metabolism of fatty acids?

Biotin

Symptoms of Vitamin C Deficiency

Bleeding gums, poor wound healing, weakened connective tissue, decreased iron absorption (vitamin C aids iron absorption), depression, mental problems

Transport proteins thats numbers are increased by vitamin D in order to actively transport Ca into the enterocyte

Calbindins

Energy distribution of infants obtain from human milk

Carbohydrate: 40% Fat: 54% Protein: 6%

Recommended energy distribution for adults

Carbohydrates: 45-65% Fat: 20-35% Protein: 10-35%

Phosphorylate ADP + Pantothenic Acid (B5)

Coenzyme A (CoA)

A rare genetic disorder (copper toxicity), Wilson's disease, results in

Copper overload, due to inability to excrete copper in bile. * Sees rings of copper around eyes w/ copper toxicity

Phosphorus is a major constituent of

DNA and RNA

What is a polymorphism?

DNA sequence variation that is common in the population. In this case no single allele is regarded as the standard sequence. Instead there are two or more equally acceptable alternatives

Folate coenzymes are needed for

DNA synthesis and the metabolism of some amino acids

Active folate is needed for the synthesis of

DNA.

Dietary risks for iron deficiency

Diets that are low in red meat, which contains the most readily absorbable form of iron (heme iron), and high in phytates and fiber, which reduce iron absorption, increase the risk of deficiency

Instant energy

During the first few seconds, the muscles get energy from stored ATP. Then for the next 10 seconds or so, creatine phosphate stored in the muscles is broken down to form more ATP

Where is the Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System (MEOS) present?

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Niacin (B3) is added to ______ ______ in North America.

Enriched flours

________ fluid has the highest concentration of sodium and chloride and a lower concentration of potassium.

Extracellular

Acute Iodine Poisoning causes what symptoms?

GI irritation, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiovascular symptoms, coma, cyanosis.

Symptoms of Zinc Toxicity

Gi irritation, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headaches

What is an example discussed in class of an ALDH polymorphism?

Glutamate to lysine switch at position 487 of ALDH2 gene (referred to as ALDH2^2)

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) converts

Homocysteine to cysteine

What are the two complications of pregnancy?

Hypertensive disorders and gestational diabetes

In severe copper deficiency, an individual might have ________ or _________.

Hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia

Immune mediators

Immunoglobulins, macrophages, cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-10, IGF, erythropoietin, etc.)

Where is Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) present?

In the cytosol and mitochondria

Actions of aldosterone:

Increase Na/K pumps in the kidneys

Gestational diabetes for Mom:

Increased pre-eclampsia, need C-section risk, early labor.

Social and medical risks for iron deficiency

Individuals living in poverty are less likely than others to consume adequate iron. Intestinal parasites cause blood loss, which increase iron losses.

Who is at risk for copper deficiency?

Infants with chronic diarrhea, patients undergoing chronic peritoneal or renal dialysis, severe burn patients or individuals with inherited mutation of genes regulating copper homeostasis.

______ fluid has the lowest concentration of protein.

Interstitial fluid

_______ fluid has the highest concentration of protein and ECF has less.

Intracellular fluid

Fat-soluble vitamins include

K, A, D, E

Selenium deficiency can lead to

Keshan disease, affecting the heart muscle

Proteins in breast milk

Lactoferrin, casein, immunoglobulin A, lysozyme, serum albumin.

_____ weight gain is recommended in the first semester

Little weight gain

What is Alcohol Liver Disease?

Liver injury associated with prolonged heavy exposure to ethanol

Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy

May signal serious condition: preeclampsia dangerous to baby because it reduces blood flow to placenta. May lead to eclampsia - life threatening to the mother and may require early delivery of the baby.

A rare genetic disorder, called _______ disease, results in copper deficiency due to a defect in intestinal copper _______.

Menkes Disease; absorption

Sulfur-containing amino acids

Methionine and Cysteine

Which B vitamin acts as an electron carrier in reactions that synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol?

NADP

When NaCl is added to water,

Na+ is attracted to the negative pole and Cl- is attracted to the positive pole

Inracellular fluid has the lowest concentrations of ____ and the highest concentrations of _____.

Na+; K+

Minerals in breast milk

Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Cl and trace elements

What is another name for B3?

Niacin

Which B vitamin can be synthesized in the body from an essential amino acid?

Niacin

Which B vitamin has been added to enrich flours in North America?

Niacin

Which B vitamin is important for reactions that synthesize other molecules?

Niacin

Which B vitamin is involved in general metabolism?

Niacin

Which B vitamin accepts released electrons and passes them onto ETC?

Niacin (NAD)

The sixth position (coordination site) around the iron of the heme is occupied by

O2 when the hemoglobin protein is oxygenated

Only about __________ of additional water is needed per day.

One cup

What exists that can alter ALDH's catalytic activity?

Polymorphisms exist limiting or inhibiting ALDH's catalytic activity and mitochondrial location.

Keshan Disease

Selenium deficiency and viral infection causes heart disease

Physiological function of selenium

Selenoproteins

What are the consequences of alcohol liver disease?

Steatosis Inflammation Fibrosis Cirrhosis

____ is predominant in the blood and converted to the active form ______.

T4 ; T3

TSH wil also be released if

TH levels are LOW

Large excess of iodine inhibits

TH production, leading to increased TSH stimulation for thyroid growth and goiter.

In response to cold or stress, the hypothalamus releases ________, which stimulates the pituitary to release _____.

TRH ; TSH

What reaction requires thiamin pyrophosphate?

The reaction that forms acetyl-CoA from pyruvate and one of the citric cid cycle reactions.

What is another name for B1?

Thiamin

Which B vitamin is involved in the production of ATP from glucose?

Thiamin

Which B vitamin is required for the production of ribose for RNA?

Thiamin

Which B vitamin is used in the reaction that forms acetyl CoA from pyruvate?

Thiamin

Which B vitamins helps maintain the health of the nervous system?

Thiamin

Which B vitamins are involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids?

Thiamin Biotin Folate

Which B vitamins are needed for energy production?

Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Biotin

Which 2 B vitamins are used in carbohydrate metabolism?

Thiamin Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

Active folate needed for the synthesis of DNA cannot be made if this B vitamin is deficient

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin is a cobalt-containing compound?

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin is most readily absorbed from animal products?

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin is necessary for the proper absorption of iron in the body?

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin is required for the maintenance of myelin-coating on nerves?

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin must vegan diets be supplemented with?

Vitamin B12

Which B vitamin's coenzymes function in the breakdown of fatty acids with odd number of C in chain to enter the citric acid cycle?

Vitamin B12

Which 2 B vitamin are rare to see deficiencies for?

Vitamin B12 and Biotin

Which 2 B vitamins are used in reactions that synthesize methionine from homocysteine?

Vitamin B12 and Folate *Both are need for this conversion. When either B vitamin is deficient, homocysteine levels rise.

Nonessential amino acids require ______ for synthesis.

Vitamin B6

Which B vitamin is needed for deamination, decarboxylation, and transamination reactions?

Vitamin B6

This B vitamins is needed for lipids that are part of the myelin coating on nerves?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is needed for the metabolism of glycogen?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is required for the conversion of tryptophan to niacin?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is required for the synthesis of Hemoglobin?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is used for the metabolism of all three macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and protein?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is used for the synthesis of nonessential amino acids?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Which B vitamin is used in a reaction that converts homocysteine to cysteine?

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

______ is needed for the conversion of tryptophan to _____.

Vitamin B6; niacin

Folate or Folic Acid =

Vitamin B9

During bone formation, osteoblast activity

exceeds osteoclasts activity

DHA can be low in

Western milk

What is the importance of maintaining Ca levels?

When Ca concentration in the ECF drops too low, the nervous system fires spontaneously, causing contractions of the muscles (tetany). Usually due to a hormonal abnormality, not a dietary Ca deficiency (low PTH, low vitamin D)

Where does ethanol metabolism primarily occur?

Within the liver

Demographic for iron deficiency

Women of childbearing age lose iron due to menstruation. Pregnant women, infants, children, and teens need additional iron for growth and development.

Too much water relative to the amount of sodium in the body results in

a drop of sodium levels: hyponatremia

Osteoporosis is caused by

a loss of both the protein matrix and the mineral deposits of bone, resulting in a decrease in the total amount of bone

Amount of zinc that passes from the mucosal cell into the blood is regulated by

a metal-binding protein called metallothionein.

Crosslinking will NOT occur in the

absence of vitamin C

Zinc is the most

abundant INtracellular trace element

Na+ is the most

abundant positively charged ion outside the cell

In women, bone loss is

accelerated for a span of 5 to 10 years surrounding menopause.

Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) converts

acetaldehyde to acetate

People with a defect in zinc absorption and metabolism develop a zinc-deficiency disease called

acrodermatitis enteropathica

Biotin is a coenzyme for a group of enzymes that

add the acid group COOH to molecules

The EER for lactation is estimated by

adding the total energy requirement of non lactating women and the energy in the milk and then subtracting the energy supplied by maternal fat sources.

One chicken breast provides the

additional 25g of protein recommended during the second and third trimesters.

During the 2nd and 3 trimesters,

additional 340-452 kcal/day is recommended

Two slices of whole-grain bread or an apple provides the

additional fiber recommended.

In the uterus, the

blastocyst imbeds in the uterine lining - implantation

Beginning at around age 35-45, amount of bone broken down

begins to exceed that at which it is formed

Bone is a living, dynamic tissue that is constantly

being remodeled - broken down and reformed

Hormones

calcitonin, lactoferrin, leptin, and ghrelin

Phosphorus deficiency

can lead to bone loss, weakness, and loss of appetite

If vitamin B6 is deficient, homocysteine

cannot be converted to cysteine, homocysteine levels rise.

If folate or vitamin B12 is deficient, homocysteine

cannot be converted to methionine, so homocysteine levels rise.

Acetyl CoA is formed during the breakdown of

carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids

Levels of thyroid hormones are

carefully controlled

Iron functions primarily as a

carrier for oxygen --> as a part of hemoglobin and myoglobin

Pantothenic acid (B5) is needed to produce the

carrier protein required for synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids.

Stimuli (touch, NT) change

cell membrane permeability to Na+, allowing it to rush into cell

Folate is particularly important in tissues where

cells divide rapidly: bone marrow, intestines, skin, embryo

The liver produces ________, which binds copper and transports it to other tissues.

ceruloplasmin

A number of different active coenzyme forms of folate are involved in reactions that transfer

chemical groups containing a single carbon atom

Riboflavin (B2) is an important component in the

citric acid cycle and for assisting the body with the absorption of other vitamins

FAD functions in the ________ ________ ________ and is important for breakdown of _______ _______.

citric acid cycle; fatty acids

Vitamin C is found in

citrus fruits, strawberries, broccoli, bok choc, green leafy vegetables, etc.

Hydrolysis Reaction

cleavage of maltose into 2 glucose molecules (by adding water)

Vitamin B12 and cobalamin refer to members of a group of

cobalt-containing compounds

All B vitamins are

coenzymes

In nature, phosphorus is most often found in

combination with oxygen as phosphate

Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) is necessary for

complete metabolism of alcohol by all three systems

Iodine is an essential

component of thyroid hormones, including thyroxine

Distribution of fluid among body compartments depends on the

concentrations of electrolytes and other solutes.

Pregnancy is from

conception to birth; last 40 weeks

Loss of 7% body weight as water can cause

confusion and disorientation

Severe elevations of Ca (Ca Toxicity) can cause

confusion, delirium, coma, death

Manganese is a _____ of some enzymes and an _____ of other enzymes.

constituent; activator

Zinc toxicity has occurred with

consumption of foods and beverages contaminated with zinc that has leached from galvanized containers

The selenium content of plant foods, such as grains and seeds, depends on the selenium

content of the soil in which they are grown.

Riboflavin (B2) is also involved directly or indirectly

converting other vitamins (folate, niacin, B6, and K) into their active forms

Main problems with chronic zinc toxicity is

copper deficiency --> Zinc excess increases metallothionein, which binds copper as well as zinc

Phosphorus is a component of

creatine phosphate, which provides energy to muscles

These hydroxyl groups are necessary for

cross-linking of collagen fibers.

What is the MEOS carried out by?

cytochrome p450 2E1 (cyp2E1)

Reactive oxygen molecules come from environmental sources (smoking, pollution, drugs, etc.) can cause

damage to proteins, lipids and nucleic acid

Zinc can ____ the bioavailability of ______.

decrease; copper

Iron is essential for the

delivery of oxygen to cells. Two oxygen-containing proteins, hemoglobin and myoglobin, contain iron.

Iodine deficiency causes ________ __________.

developmental disorders

Vitamin A is needed for cell

differentiation and development. Low intake can cause LBW and premature birth, but too much can increase the risk of birth defects.

Distribution of electrolytes affects the

distribution of water throughout the body

In spina bifida, the fetal spina cord column

does NOT close completely

Human milk is

dynamic, contains nutrients and bioactive factors needed for infant health/development.

Most bone is formed

early in life

Iron is an

essential mineral

Fluoride's major function are related to

effects on the mineralization bone and teeth

Nerve impulse travels as

electrical current

Depolarization occurs and an

electrical current is generated

The correct combination and amounts of

electrolytes (positively and negatively charged ions) are essential for life.

NADP acts as an

electron carrier in reactions that synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol

FMN and FAD both function as

electron carriers in the electron transport chain

In the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway, NAD+ acts as an ___________ ____________, and _________ is created as an intermediate.

electron receptor (NAD+ --> NADH); acetaldehyde

In the uterus, the developing offspring is known as an

embryo

Niacin (B3) plays an important role in the production of

energy and in general metabolism

Adequate riboflavin (B2) is crucial to provide

energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

Phosphorus is essential for

energy metabolism (ATP)

Supplemental folic acid can provide

enough active folate to prevent folate deficiency even when vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is deficient

The released ferrous iron is then likely to

enter into the molecular weight pool of iron in the enterocyte and exit the enterocyte via a common pathway along with iron absorbed as nonheme iron

Pyridoxal phosphate is required for many

enzyme reactions in the body

Phosphate regulates a number of

enzymes as activity can be turned on or off by phosphorylating or dephosphorylating

Copper is removed by

excretion in bile and subsequent elimination in the feces .

Membrane potential

exists across nerve cell membranes (negative ions inside cell is greater than outside cell)

Zygotes travel down the ______ _____ into the uterus - along the way it is dividing may times

fallopian tube

Neural tube defects happen in the

first month of pregnancy, often before a women even knows that she is pregnant.

The most common sources of fluoride are

fluoridated water, tea, marine fish eaten with their bones, such as canned salmon or sardines, and topical toothpaste.

Carbohydrates in breast milk

lactose, but many oligosaccharides as well: may promote growth of certain strains of lactobacilli in baby intestine.

Ca deficiency during years of bone formation results in

less bone density (rickets). During adult years, results in increases bone loss (osteomalacia)

Trace elements are required in amounts

less than 100 mg per day

The release of milk from glands through the ducts is referred to as

let-down

Iron poisoning can be

life-threatening.

Excess iron is stored primarily in the ________, bound to ________.

liver, bound to ferritin.

Dietary sources of folate include

liver, yeast, asparagus, oranges, legumes, and fortified grain products.

MEOS is unregulated in the ________ by __________.

liver; ethanol

Both men and women

lose bone mass slowly after about age 35.

Elevated blood Ca levels can cause

loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and frequent urination.

"Natural" sea salt may be very

low in iodine

Zinc deficiency can also occur in diets

low in protein and high in phytates, individuals with kidney disease, alcoholism, and cancer.

Biotin functions in energy metabolism because it is needed to

make a 4-C molecule necessary in the citric acid cycle and in glucose synthesis

In bone marrow, iron is used to

make hemoglobin for red blood cell synthesis

In body cells, iron is used to

make myoglobin and other iron-containing proteins needed for energy metabolism

A copper enzyme is used to produce the pigment

melanin

Once nerve impulse passes, original

membrane potential is restored and Na and K distributions restored by the Na/K ATPase pump

Many B vitamins are coenzymes essential for the proper function of numerous enzymes involved in the

metabolism of energy-yielding nutrients

Biotin is also important in the

metabolism of fatty acids and amino acids

In the duodenum, the

metal porphyrin ring of heme iron is split off from the globin

Losing the ability to synthesize vitamin C is neutral only when

sufficient quantities of vitamin C are part of the diet

Iron overload can happen

over time and accumulates in tissues such as the heart and the liver

Water intoxication =

overhydration

Fertilization of the egg takes place in the

oviduct or fallopian tube, producing a single-celled zygote

Antioxidants protect against

oxidant damage

Vitamin C in foods can be destroyed by

oxygen, light and heat, as well as contact with copper or iron cookware.

The let-down of milk is triggered by the hormone

oxytocin

Phosphate is a part of the

phosphate buffer system that helps regulate pH in cytosol of cells, plasma and in urine pH regulation.

If iron is HIGH, the expression of the gene for transferrin receptors is _______, resulting in less iron getting into cell. At the same time, the gene for ferritin is ______, resulting in increased iron stored in the enterocyte.

reduced; increased

Na plays a critical role in

regulating extracellular blood volume (which can change blood pressure)

Prolactin

released from pituitary and stimulates milk production

Decarboxylation reaction (via vitamin B6)

remove the acid group (COOH) from amino acids so they can be used to synthesize neurotransmitters.

Deamination Reaction (via vitamin B6)

remove the amino groups from amino acid so they can be used to produce ATP or to synthesize glucose.

The kidneys release

renin

If Ca intake is inadequate, normal blood levels are maintained by

resorbing Ca from bone (this can lead to low bone mass)

Loss of 10-20% body weight as water can

result in death

Folic acid has a ____ structure and one _______.

ring; glutamate

Excess weight during pregnancy is considered a

risk factor for postpartum weight retention which is an obesity risk factor

Vitamin C Deficiency causes

scurvy

As iodine intake decreases,

secretion of TSH increases- TSH stimulates thyroid hypertrophy and hyperplasia

T4 is converted to T3 by the

selenoprotein iodothyronine deiodinase

For water molecules, the oxygen side is

slightly negative and the H side is slightly positive

Fluoride is present in

small amounts in almost all soil, water, plants, and animals.

The iodine content of food depends on the

soil where plants are grown or where animals graze.

The most common neural tube defect is

spina bifida.

Once inside the enterocyte, the heme may be

split further into ferrous iron (fell)

Composition of human breast milk varies by

stage of lactation (Colostrum is high in immunologic compounds, low in lactose); preterm milk (for premie babies) tends to be higher in protein and in fat.

Iodine and selenium are needed for the

synthesis of thyroid hormones.

Transamination reactions

synthesize nonessential amino acids by transferring an amino group to a carbon compound.

Niacin is important for other reactions that

synthesize other molecules

TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to

take up iodine and synthesize TH

Water-soluble vitamins include

the B vitamins and vitamin C.

The amount of water lost by the body is regulated by increasing or decreasing

the amount of water excreted by the kidneys

85% of phosphorous in the body is found in

the bones and teeth - Forms hydroxyapatite crystals with Ca (bones/teeth)

When concentrations of solutes in the blood increases,

the brain senses this and releases ADH. *The hypothalamus makes ADH, but it is stored in the posterior pituitary

Dehydration occurs when

the drop in body water reduces the blood volume, reducing the ability to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and to remove waste products

Blood pressure

the fluid pressure of blood against the blood vessels

When weakened by osteoporosis,

the front edge of the vertebrae collapses more than the back edge, so the spine bends forward.

What is an example of a polymorphism?

the gene for hair color

Humans used to have

the gene to make our own vitamin C (gulonolactone oxidase: final step in making vitamin C from glucose), but lost it over evolutionary time.

When red blood cells die,

the iron is released for reuse

Fat soluble vitamins are stored in

the liver and in adipose tissue and are not excreted in the urine

An osmole is

the molecular weight of a solute, in grams that contributes to the osmotic pressure of a solution

Human milk is dependent on

the mother's diet - although the macronutrient composition is similar across populations.

Iron is essential, but too much can be

toxic

Iron is highly

toxic --> iron is tightly regulated

High levels of homocysteine in the blood increase

the risk of cardiovascular disease.

What is fibrosis?

the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, as a result of injury to the liver from the alcohol.

Trace elements are difficult to study because

they are difficult to remove from the diet

What does it mean that all B vitamins are coenzymes?

they bind to other enzymes to promote their activity

What is the active form of thiamin (B1) in the body?

thiamin pyrophosphate

More than half of the iodine in the body is found in the

thyroid gland

When supply of iodine is adequate,

thyroid hormones can be made and their presence turn off synthesis of TSH. (Negative Feedback Loop)

Chemical Contaminants in human breast milk: chemicals accumulated in the mother's

tissues may be transferred to the infant during breastfeeding.

Most people are remarkably _______ to excess iodine.

tolerant

In growing children,

total bone mass increases as the bones grow larger.

The EER for pregnancy is calculated by

totaling energy needs of non-pregnant women with the increased need due to pregnancy and energy deposited in tissues.

There are several Copper-dependent

transcription factors that regulate specific genes

Iron storage and transport proteins:

transferrin, lactoferrin, uteroferrin, ferritin, hemosiderin

For iron to be taken up by cells in the body (e.g. liver, red blood cells), the

transferrin-iron complex must bind transferrin receptors

Some transport proteins for Zinc promote

transport of zinc from intestinal lumen into the cell

Zinc _____ _______ regulate the amount of zinc in mucosal cells

transport proteins

When zinc intake is low,

transporters move more zinc into the mucosal cell.

When zinc intake is high,

transporters push zinc out of mucosal cell into the lumen

And some transport proteins for Zinc reduce zinc by

transporting zinc back into the lumen or into storage vesicles

Niacin (B3) can be synthesized in the body from the essential amino acid

tryptophan if the diet is adequate in tryptophan.