NUTR 240 Exam #2
What is the economic impact of alcoholism estimated at per year?
$58 billion/year (lost wages and healthcare costs)
Glutathione peroxidases
(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) antioxidants
Thioredoxin reductases
(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) antioxidants
Iodothyronine deiodinases
(25 Se-cysteine containing protein) used to produce biologically active thyroid hormone
What is steatosis?
(fatty change), is the process describing the abnormal retention of lipids within the cells of the liver.
Mild Dehydration
(loss of 1-2% of body weight) can impair physical and cognitive performance
Fats in breast milk
(mother's diet-dependent) - palmitic and oleic acids, phospholipids, choline, DHA.
In the body Copper (Cu) exists in
+1 and +2 oxidation states (Cu^I, Cu^II)
Parathyroid Hormone
- Stimulates release of Ca from bone by activating osteoclasts - Reduces Ca excretion by the kidney - Increases enzyme responsible for the last hydroxylation step to produce active vitamin D
____ out 5 students drink alcohol
4
What is considered binge drinking for women?
4 drinks
Thyroxine (T4) has
4 iodine and two tyrosine
Extracellular fluids
4 lbs
Maternal fat
4-11 lbs
Hemoglobin structure: there are ____ protein subunits (chains), which is the ______ part
4; globin part
Human milk fully matures by
5 days - 2 weeks post partum
What is considered binge drinking for men?
5 drinks
Maternal blood volume increases by
50%
Fetus
7-8lbs
Ethanol is how many kcal/gram
7.1kCal / gram
Most reactions in the body occur in slightly basic solutions - around pH of
7.4
Blood Alcohol Concentration (Legal limit) =
80 mg% = 0.08 blood alcohol level
It is estimated that as much as ___% of the world's population may be iron deficient and ___% suffer from iron deficiency anemia.
80% ; 30%
About ______ % of the iron in the body is conserved and reused
90%
The need for folate, vitamin B12, iron, and zinc increases to support the
formation of new maternal and fetal cells.
Compact bone
forms the shaft of long bones
Iodized salt is salt
fortified will iodine
The iron in the heme binds the
four Nitrogen of the porphyrin ring, a histidine residue of the globin chain and one 02.
Iron in the heme is coordinated to the
four nitrogen atoms of the porphyrin and also to a nitrogen atom from a histidine residue of the hemoglobin protein
Thyroid hormones work by affecting
gene expression in target cells (similar to vitamin A and D)
Reactive oxygen molecules are also
generated during cellular respiration
Vitamin B6 is needed for the metabolism of
glycogen
NAD functions in
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by accepting released electrons and passing them on to the ETC where ATP is formed
The name Pantothenic Acid (B5) comes from the
greek word pantothen-which means everywhere * Because deficiency is RARE
Zinc is essential in the diet for
growth and development
Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin C are needed to provide for the
growth and development of bone and connective tissue.
The heart, lungs, and kidneys work
harder to deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove wastes
Early Symptoms of mild dehydration
headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dry eyes and mouth, dark-colored urine
Riboflavin (B2) is easily destroyed by
heat and exposure to light
Each protein subunit contains a
heme molecule
There is evidence that there is a
heme-iron receptor/transporter in the enterocyte
The most common form of iron overload is
hemochromatosis
Most of the iron in the body is part of
hemoglobin
When iron is deficient, ______ cannot be produced.
hemoglobin
Hemoproteins
hemoglobin and myoglobin and cytochromes
Vitamin B6 is needed for the synthesis of __________, the oxygen carrier protein in _______ ____ cells.
hemoglobin, red blood
Calcitonin release is stimulated by
high Ca levels
Inhibitors of copper absorption include
high intakes of iron, manganese, molybdenum, vitamin C, antacids * This is because other elements with the same charge will compete for absorption
Increases synthesis of metallothionein occurs when zinc levels are
high.
Men achieve a _______ peak bone mass than women.
higher
The need for nutrients is _______ during lactation than during pregnancy.
higher
Soil near the ocean or sea is
higher in iodine than soil inland
Heme iron is ______ bioavailable
highly
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and Folate convert
homocysteine to methionine
Folate and Vitamin B12 are BOTH needed to convert
homocysteine to methionine. When either is deficient, homocysteine levels rise.
Vitamin C is only a vitamin for
humans, higher primates, guinea pigs, capybaras, some birds and fruit-eating bats
Bone consists of an inorganic or mineral phase composed primarily of ________ ________ deposited within an organic phase of cross-linked collagen fibers
hydroxyapatite crystals
Vitamin C is an important coenzyme for the reaction that adds a
hydroxyl group to proline making hydroxyproline and adds a hydroxyl group to lysine creating hydroxylysine.
What is catalase able to do in regards to ethanol metabolism?
It is capable of converting ethanol to acetaldehyde
How does the MEOS differ from the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway?
It uses NADPH instead of NAD+ *(NADPH-->NADP+)
Is a pregnant woman supposed to be eating for two?
No; she is not eating for two-just an extra sandwich, apple, and glass of milk a day.
Which B vitamin is part of the CoA molecule?
Pantothenic Acid
Which B vitamin is needed to produce the carrier protein required for the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids?
Pantothenic acid
Low Calcium levels, stimulates the release of
Parathyroid hormone
What are the numbers of alcoholic drinks that can be beneficial to women and men daily?
Moderate (one drink/day women; two drinks/day men) may be beneficial
Composition of Human Breast Milk
Protein: .8-.9% Fat: 3-5% Carbohydrate: 6.9-7.2% Minerals: .2%
What is a concern for trace elements?
Rate of bioavailability
Condensation (Dehydration) Reaction
Removes water and leads to disaccharide formation
What is another name for B2?
Riboflavin
Which B vitamin assists the body with the absorption of other vitamins?
Riboflavin
Which B vitamin forms FAD and FMN?
Riboflavin
Which B vitamin is easily destroyed by heat and light?
Riboflavin
Which B vitamin functions as electron carriers in ETC?
Riboflavin (FAD and FMN)
Which B vitamin is involved in the breakdown of fatty acids?
Riboflavin (FAD)
Which B vitamin converts other vitamins to their active forms?
Riboflavin (folate, niacin, Vitamin B6, and Vitamin K)
Thiamin (B1) functions: RNCE * RN's Can Eat
Ribose production Nervous Sytem Health Energy production Carbohydrate metabolism
Zinc is involved in the functioning of over 300 different enzymes, including _________ _________.
Superoxide dismutase
Which 3 B vitamins are used in one of the citric acid cycle reactions?
Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin (NAD)
Which 2 B vitamins are used to synthesize neurotransmitters?
Thiamin and Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Goiter
Thyroid enlargement is a classic sign of iodine deficiency ** Too little iodine, not enough T3 and T4 made
Vitamin C is ____- soluble
Water soluble
B vitamins are _____-soluble vitamins
Water-soluble
Which essential amino acid is Niacin synthesized from?
Tryptophan
We don's see a lot of Se toxicity because our food is grown in lots of places. However this is a problem in places like
China- because this form of toxicity tends to happen in an area where we grow and consume locally
Pantothenic Acid (B5) is part of the
CoA molecule, which is part of acetyl-CoA.
Vitamin B12 =
Cobalamin
Cytochrome c Oxidase (CCO) is a
Copper-containing enzyme that is a key component of the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
How is copper involved in iron metabolism?
Copper-containing enzymes (Ex. ceruloplasmin) are used to convert Fell to Felll
Abnormalities of bone development related to copper deficiency are most common in
Cu-deficienct LBW infants and young children; most likely due to deficiency in the activity of Cu-dependent lysyl oxidase (LO).
The majority of the body's Cu is in the
Cu^II form
It takes longer to develop a deficiency of ______-soluble vitamins.
Fat-soluble *Because they are stored in the body (liver & adipose tissue)
During lactation, vitamin B12 may be deficient in the breast milk of vegan mothers. Therefore,
a supplement is recommended for infants.
Iodine deficiency has multiple
adverse effects on growth and development
What state is iron in when it has to bind O2?
Fe+2 state
Nonheme Iron is present in the diet as
Fell (Fe+2) or Felll (Fe+3)
What are some of the risk factors of osteoporosis?
Female gender, Caucasian or Asian race, thin and small body frames, and a family history of osteoporosis. Cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol and caffeine consumption, lack of exercise, and a diet low in calcium.
Which B vitamin deficiency is associated with neural tube defects?
Folate
Which B vitamin is involved in the reactions that transfer chemical groups containing a single carbon atom?
Folate
Which B vitamin is needed for DNA synthesis?
Folate
Which B vitamin is particularly important in tissues where cells divide rapidly?
Folate
Copper is transported to the liver bound to
albumin
Thiamin is enriched in the
aleurone cell layer, so polished rice is devoid of thiamin
Trabecular bone
also called cancellous or spongy bone, fills the ends of the shafts of the long bones and forms most of the structure of vertebrae
Some B vitamins play a role in
amino acid and protein metabolism
T3 and T4 are thyroid hormones that are made from the
amino acid tyrosine
Lactating women require approximately
an additional liter of fluid/water a day.
ACE converts
angiotensin I to angiotensin II
Liver releases
angiotensinogen
Renin converts
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
Cobalamin (B12) is most readily absorbed from
animal products * It is NOT found in plants
Zinc from ____ sources is better absorbed________
animal sources; than plant sources because since can be bound to by plant phytates, affecting bioavailability.
Vitamin C functions as an
antioxidant in the body, helps maintain the immune system, is important in the production of collagen and aids in iron absorption.
You would treat gestational diabetes with
appropriate diet and physical activity and sometimes insulin
Neural tube defects
are birth defects of the brain, spine, or spinal cord
During lactation, calcium needs
are not increased because the additional calcium needed for milk production comes from maternal bones, and is restored after weaning.
Vitamins
are organic compounds essential in the diet to promote growth and health maintenance.
Vitamin C is also known as
ascorbic acid or ascorbate
Mucins
block infections by viruses and bacteria
In addition to calcium and phosphorous,
bone contains Mg, Na, Fl, and other trace minerals
Osteoblasts
bone forming cells. They secrete collagen to form the osteoid or unmineralized bone matrix.
During puberty,
bone mass increases rapidly, and sex differences in bone mass appear.
In the enterocyte, iron can be
bound to ferritin (in Felll/Fe+3) state for storage.
Iron is then transported out of the enterocyte and is
bound to transferrin for transport to tissues
The two active coenzyme forms of cobalamin (B12) function in the
breakdown of fatty acids with odd number of C (carbons) in chain to enter citric acid cycle and in reaction that synthesizes methionine and homocysteine.
Th early embryo gets its nourishment by
breaking down the lining of the uterus, and after 5 weeks the placenta takes over the role of nourishing the embryo
Removal of hull gives you
brown rice
Iron is important in
immune function, cognitive development, temperature regulation, and energy metabolism
Ascorbate (Vitamin C) appears to be the most
important luminal accessory for iron
We can get active folate from supplements or we can get active folate when
inactive folate uses vitamin B12 to form active folate.
Since initiation of folic acid fortification,
incidence of neural tube defects has been reduced by 25% in the USA and 50% in Canada.
Needs _______ during pregnancy to deposit and maintain the new and maternal tissues.
increase
At the bone, active vitamin D acts with PTH to
increase bone breakdown, releasing calcium into the blood.
At the kidney, active vitamin D acts with PTH
increase calcium retention so less is lost in the urine
During lactation, folate needs are
increased because it is secreted in milk.
Gestational Diabetes for baby
increased infant weight, LOW blood glucose, jaundice.
The requirements for zinc and vitamin B6 rise to meet the need for
increased protein synthesis.
If iron is LOW, the expression of the gene for transferrin receptors is ________, resulting in increased transferrin receptors. At the same time, the expression of the gene for ferritin is _________.
increased; reduced *Ferritin would be reduced because since we have low levels of iron, we won't have a lot of storage of iron.
At the intestine, active vitamin D
increases absorption of calcium from the diet
The need for B vitamins
increases as energy needs increase.
The amount of zinc cab be regulated by
increasing or decreasing the synthesis of proteins that transport Zinc IN versus those that transport zinc OUT of mucosal cells
At risk groups for iron deficiency
infants, children, adolescents, athlete, women of reproductive age, pregnant women
Disulfram (Antibuse) operates to
inhibit ALDH activity
Iron poisoning can damage the
intestinal lining and cause abnormalities in body pH, shock and liver failure.
Iron transport is controlled primarily at the
intestine
The remaining 1% of calcium is found in
intracellular fluid, blood and ECF.
Manganese-requiring enzymes are
involved in amino acid, carbohydrate, and cholesterol metabolism, cartilage formation, urea synthesis and antioxidant protection.
Lactation
involves the synthesis of milk components, including protein, lactose and lipids, and the movement of the milk through the milk ducts to the nipple.
Most of the iodine in the diet comes from
iodized salt
Cobalamin (B12) is necessary for the proper absorption of _____ in the body.
iron
When you see "ferr" in a word, you should think of
iron
The trace elements include
iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, iodine, fluoride, chromium and molybdenum
Gestational diabetes
is a condition in which women not previously diagnosed with diabetes exhibit high blood glucose levels during pregnancy (especially during their 3rd trimester)
Lysyl Oxidase (LO)
is a copper-containing enzyme that is required for the cross-linking of collagen which are essential for the formation of strong and flexible connective tissue
What is bioavailability?
is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation
Oxytocin
is also released from the pituitary to stimulate movement of milk from milk-producing glands into the storage sinuses.
Hemochromatosis
is an inherited condition that allows increased iron absorption. Iron accumulated in tissues over time and can lead to heart, liver, and pancreas damage.
Hemosiderin
is an insoluble iron storage compound produced by the body when iron exceeds the storage capacity of ferritin.
Transferrin
is an iron transport protein in the blood
Colostrum
is immature milk, secreted during the first days after delivery. Colostrum is rich in protein and immune factors.
During the 1st trimester, EER
is not increased.
Ferritin
is the major iron storage protein within cells
Too much Ca from supplements can promote
kidney stones
If we can't make the zinc fingers, then binding is
much weaker
Osteoclasts
multi-nucleated giant cells capable of absorbing bone mineral and matrix. Activity stimulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D and inhibited by calcitonin and estrogens.
Symptoms of selenium deficiency include
muscular discomfort and weakness, and in some cases, Keshan disease
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is necessary for maintenance of
myeline-coating on nerves
Loss of 5% body weight as water can cause
nausea and difficulty concentrating
Selenium Toxicity symptoms
nausea, diarrhea, fingernail and hair changes, fatigue, irritability
Cl- is the principal
negatively charged extracellular ion
Low folate intake in early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of
neural tube defects
Copper-containing enzymes are important for production of some
neurotransmitters
Vitamin C is also a coenzyme in reactions that include production of some
neurotransmitters, hormones, bile acid and carnitine.
Vitamin B6 is needed for the synthesis of _________ and for ______ that are part of the myelin coating in nerves.
neurotransmitters, lipids
The diet provides food sources of both
niacin and tryptophan
Heme is the
o2 carrying part.
B vitamins were originally thought to be
one chemical substance but are actually many different substances. *That is the reason for B1, B2, B12, etc.
Water moves by
osmosis in response to solute concentration
Bone resorption
osteoclasts break down the tissue in bones and release the minerals
ADH release increases with
plasma osmolarity * Interestingly, thirst kicks in later
Removal of bran layers and aleurone cell layer gives you
polished rice, which is basically the endosperm.
Heme is a _____ that is coordinated with Fe in the ____ state
porphyrin; +2 state
K is the principal
positively charged ion inside cells (30X more concentrated inside than outside)
Sodium, potassium and chloride are the
principal electrolytes in body fluids
Heterozygotes for the switch from glutamate to lysine at position 487 of ALDH2 gene show
prominent facial flushing and intolerance of alcohol (Approximately 40% of East Asian population possesses this single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP))
Placental hormones
promote uterine goth, relax muscles and ligaments to accommodate growing fetus, promotes breast development, and increases fat deposition.
Superoxide Dismutase is important for
protecting cells from fee radical damage
T3 and T4 increases BMR, _____, and _____ _______.
protein synthesis and sympathetic tone
Thyroid hormones promote
protein synthesis, and regulate BMR, growth, and development.
Dietary tryptophan must first meet the need for ______ _______ before it can be converted to _______ in the body.
protein synthesis; niacin
Once homocysteine is converted to methionine, methionine is used to synthesize
proteins
Niacin is required for the biosynthesis of
pyridine nucleotides: 1) NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) 2) NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) * through which the vitamin has key roles in virtually all aspects of metabolism
All three forms of vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal, Pyridoxine, Pyridoxamine) can be converted into
pyridoxal phosphate
Vitamin B6 is also called
pyridoxine
Vitamin C can neutralize
radicals before they can damage cell structures
Iodine in the body is absorbed
rapidly and completely from GI tract in the form of iodide ions
Phosphorus toxicity is
rare but can lead to bone resorption
Ca toxicity is
rare, and is most often caused by elevated PTH secretion
ADH signals the kidneys to
reabsorb water
Phosphorus is more
readily absorbed than Calcium
This is where vitamin C becomes important because it can
reduce iron from +3 to +2 state
During lactation, iron needs are
reduced because little iron is lost in milk, and in most lactating women menstruation has not resumed.
Thiamin (B1) is needed for the metabolism of other
sugars, certain amino acids, synthesis of ACh (NT), and production of ribose
Selenium can replace
sulfur in sulfur-containing amino acids (Cysteine and Methionine)
Manganese, like copper and zinc, is needed for the activity of a form the the antioxidant enzyme
superoxide dismutase
Copper is an essential component of
superoxide dismutase (SOD), an enemy that provide antioxidant protection for cells *So is zinc
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) can be converted into either of
two active coenzyme forms
There is an increased risk of developing
type 2 diabetes for mother after have gestational diabetes.
Deficiency of biotin in the body is
uncommon *However, it can be observed in people with malabsorption or protein-energy malnutrition.
Atrophic gastritis may lead do deficiencies in which B vitamin?
vitamin B12
Water-soluble vitamins are excreted in urine and are not stored to a great extent, with the EXCEPTION of
vitamin B12
Vegan diets need to be supplemented with readily-absorbable forms of
vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
Atrophic gastritis may lead to
vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiencies
The form of active folate need for the synthesis of DNA cannot be made if
vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is deficient
All vitamins, except for __________ _______ is found in nutritionally significant concentrations in human breast milk.
vitamin K
Deficiency of ________ causes symptoms more rapidly than any other nutrient deficiency
water
Hyponatremia causes
water to move out of the blood vessels by osmosis, causing tissues to swell, including the brain
Zinc fingers
zinc binds to allow protein to have finger like projection that make it easier to bind to DNA
Zinc can be
toxic if taken in excess.
What are the direct effects of ethanol?
- Alters cellular membranes - Induces microsomal cytochrome p450 - Suppresses immune cell function - Destroys intestinal barrier - inhibits ADH - Replaces food intake - Alters blood pressure (chronic ethanol increases BP) - Depresses sensory and emotional sensors
ADH action
- As you heat up, you begin to sweat - You're losing water as you sweat - This increase the osmolarity of the plasma - ADH is released - Water is reabsorbed - Urine is concentrated
Vitamin C in the body
- Donates electrons in biochemical reactions - Used for synthesis and maintenance of connective tissue - Serves as an antioxidant
Non-heme iron
- Free or in complexes - Affected by food components (Ex. Spinach)
What are the major classes of iron proteins
- Hemoproteins - Iron-sulfur enzymes - Iron storage and transport proteins - Iron- containing enzymes that are non-iron sulfur, non-heme enzymes: some oxidases
Iodine Deficiency can cause neurocognitive impairments such as
- Increase stillbirths, abortions, congenital malformations - Most critical period is 2nd trimester to 3rd year of life - Most serve form causes gross mental retardation, short stature, deafness and spasticity - Severe form rare now, but mild-to moderate deficiency affects up to 30% of the global population, impairing cognitive development and school performance.
Heme Iron
- Iron absorbed into the porphyrin complex of heme - Not affected by other food components
What happens when there is high blood calcium?
- It causes the release of calcitonin from the thyroid gland - Calcitonin inhibits calcium release from bone
When blood pressure decreases:
- Kidney releases renin - Liver releases angiotensinogen - Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I - The lungs release ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme) - ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II - Angiotensin II action: 1) stimulates release of aldosterone (from adrenal gland) and ADH 2) constricts arterioles 3) increase sympathetic nerve activity - Actions of aldosterone: increase Na/K pumps in kidney tubules
What happens when there is low blood calcium?
- Low blood calcium causes the release of PTH from the parathyroid gland - PTH promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidney - PTH stimulates the activation of vitamin D by the kidney - Active vitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption - PTH stimulates calcium release from bone.
What are the benefits of alcohol consumption?
- Lower risk of heart disease - Lower risk of stroke - Increases HDL - Decreases platelet aggregation
Sodium-Potassium-ATPase Pump
- Maintains the concentration gradient by pumping Na+ out of the cell and K into the cell - Concentration gradients important for nerve conduction and muscle contraction - Also linked to nutrient transport (Which ones) - Does require energy
Chemical Contaminants found in breast milk:
- Organochlorine pesticides and insecticides - Dioxins and furans - Semivolatile organohalogens (polybrominated biphenyls) - DDT - Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium)
Regulation of Calcium levels in the digestive tract
- Passive diffusion and active transport - Active transport accounts for most Ca absorption when intake are low or moderate - Active vitamin D is required for active transport by increasing the numbers of transport proteins (calbindins) needed for transporting Ca across the enterocyte
Symptoms of zinc deficiency
- Poor growth and development - Skin rashes - Hair loss - Diarrhea - Neurological changes - Reduced reproduction - Reduced immune function - Skeletal abnormalities
Beyond Bones: Calcium in the Body
- Regulate enzyme activity* - Necessary for blood clotting - Chemical and electrical signals in nerves and muscles - Cell cycle and proliferation* - Cell differentiation* - Muscle contraction: actin and myosin interaction - Neuronal function: especially NTs - Glandualr secretion - especially hormone release - Glycogen synthesis pathway and others*
What are the functions of bones and bone tissue?
- Support and protection - Reservoir or store of minerals, especially Ca ions - Buffering of excess acid loads - Calcium regulation or homeostasis - Source of new red blood cells and immune cells (marrow) - Source of stem cells (marrow) for fat, muscle, bone, etc.
Thiamin (B1)
- The first B vitamin to be identified (B1) - Thiamin assists in energy production, carbohydrate metabolism, the production of ribose, and the health of the nervous system. (ECRN)
Zinc Functions in the Body
- involved in the function of superoxide dismutase - Used in enzymes that function in the synthesis of DNA and RNA - Used in enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and acid-base balance - Plays a role in the storage and release of insulin, mobilization of Vitamin A from the liver and stabilization of cell membranes. - Influences hormonal regulation of cell division - Important for immune system function
When there is insufficient hemoglobin, red blood cells are ____ and ______ and unable to deliver sufficient oxygen to the tissues. This is known as _______ _______ _______.
- microcytic and hypochromic - Iron deficiency anemia
Globin
- protects the heme (no globin, Fe+2 (Fell) is oxidized to Fe+3 (Felll) and no 02 binding) - provides another co-ordination site for Fe
Each heme molecule can carry one
02, therefore each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 O2.
Each hemoglobin is made up of
1 protein group (globin) and 4 heme groups
Fluoridation of water at ___ to ___ ppm continues to be recommended by the Council on Dental Therapeutics of the American Dental Association to prevent dental caries.
1 to 2 ppm
Phosphorus makes up about __% of an adult's body.
1%
What are the three potential mechanisms of ethanol metabolism?
1) Alcohol dehydrogenase 2) Microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) 3) Catalase * These all get converted to acetaldehyde, then ALDH, then Acetate (used to form acetyl CoA), and then CO2 and H2O.
What are the eight B vitamins?
1) Thiamin (B1) 2) Riboflavin (B2) 3) Niacin (B3) 4) Biotin 5) Pantothenic acid (B5) 6) Pyridoxine (B6) 7) Folate (B9) 8) Cobalamin (B12)
Alcohol Metabolism
1) Alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into acetaldehyde (this transfers an electron to NAD+ = NAD+ --> NADH) 2) Acetaldehyde is toxic and is degraded to produce acetyl-CoA. (Acetaldehyde gives an electron to NADH (NADH + H+) in oder to form Acetyl-CoA by action of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) 3) The break of alcohol and acetaldehyde releases electrons that can be used to produce ATP, but also results in changes that inhibit the citric acid cycle, limiting breakdown of acetyl-CoA 4) Acetal-CoA that cannot enter the citric acid cycle is used to synthesize fatty acid, which accumulate in the liver. 5) When larger amounts of alcohol are consumed, MEOS activity increases. It converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, which is then broken down to form acetyl-CoA.
Within bone, 2 types of structures are intermixed
1) Compact bone 2) Trabecular bone
What are the impacts of Acetaldehyde production?
1) Cross-links cellular proteins (enzymes, cytoskeleton) 2) Oxidation of lipids 3) Inhibition of DNA repair 4) Sedative effects 5) Acute peripheral vasodilation (Ex. Flushing)
What are the consequences of NAD+ consumption?
1) Decreased pyruvate and increased lactate production. - Decreased glycolysis and gluconeogenesis 2) Decreased lipid metabolism
What are the combination of effects of ethanol that contribute to Alcohol Liver Disease?
1) Disrupted intestinal barrier function 2) Increased oxidant stress within the liver 3) Activation of intrahepatic immune cell populations.
Physiological Consequences of Ethanol, its Metabolism and its Metabolites
1) Ethanol 2) NAD+ consumption 3) Acetaldehyde production
What active coenzymes does riboflavin (B2) form?
1) Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) 2) Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
Selenium is an essential component of 25 Se-cysteine containing proteins. Examples include:
1) Glutathione peroxidases 2)Thioredoxin reductases 3) Iodothyronine deiodinases 4) Other selenoproteins have antioxidant or unknown functions
Forms of Dietary Iron: Can be divided into two types
1) Heme iron 2) Non-heme iron
Iron Absorption
1) Heme iron is absorbed as part of the heme group. Once inside the cell, the iron is released. 2) Nonheme iron is absorbed in the ferrous form (Fe2+). Dietary factors may enhance or inhibit absorption. 3) Once inside the mucosal cells, some iron may be bound to ferritin for storage. 4) When the mucosal cells die, iron bound to ferritin is excreted in the feces. More iron is lost when body stores are high than when stores are low or the need for iron increases. 5) Iron that enters the blood is converted to a ferric iron (Fe+3) by copper-containing protein (ceruloplasmin) in the cell membrane. The Fe+3 binds to transferrin for transport 6) Transferrin transports iron to liver, bone, and other body cells. More iron is transported when body stores are low or needs increase than when stores are high. 7) Most iron loss (1-2 mg/day) is due to blood loss
Zinc and Copper
1) High levels of dietary zinc stimulate the synthesis of metallothionein 2) The copper bound to metallothionein is lost when the mucosal cell dies 3) Metallothionein preferentially binds copper, limiting its absorption
Bioactive Compounds Found in Human Milk
1) Immune mediators 2) Mucins 3) Hormones
The two forms of niacin are
1) Nicotinic acid 2) Nicotinamide
Pyridoxine (B6) compromises a group of compounds including
1) Pyridoxal 2) Pyridoxine 3) Pyridoxamine
Osteoclasts and Osteoblast Activity on the Bone
1) Resting bone surface (there are resting osteoblasts) 2) Active osteoclasts attach to bone surfaces 3) Osteoclasts break down (resorb) bone. 4) Pre-osteoblasts move into begin rebuilding bone. 5) Active osteoblasts engage in bone formation.
Angiotensin II Action
1) Stimulates release of aldosterone (from adrenal gland) 2) Constricts arterioles 3) Increases sympathetic nerve activity
Breastfeeding
1) Suckling signals the hypothalamus (prevents dopamine from being released because dopamine inhibits prolactin release. 2) The hypothalamus signals the release of both prolactin and oxytocin. 3) Prolactin acts on the milk-producing glands to stimulate milk synthesis. 4) Oxytocin promises milk letdown.
What are three things unique to the catalase and ethanol metabolism?
1) There is no consumption of NAD+ 2) High levels of catalase in liver 3) Its contribution to ethanol metabolism is negligible (insignificant)
T4 ---> T3 Conversion
1) Thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) circulate in the blood bound to plasma proteins 2) T4 and T3 enter the cell, where a selenium-containing enzyme (iodothyronine deiodinase) converts T4 to T3 3) T3 enters the nucleus and binds to a nuclear receptor protein. 4) The T3-receptor protein complex binds to a regulatory region of a target gene 5) Transcription of the gene is turned on, increasing the amount of mRNA made. 6) mRNA directs translation, increasing the synthesis of the protein coded by this gene. 7) The cellular functions and body processes affected by this protein are increased. * Receptor protein has zinc fingers and binds to DNA and regulates gene transcription
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones
1) Thyroxine (T4) 2) Triiodothyronine (T3)
Absorption of Cobalamin (vitamin B12)
1) Vitamin B12 in food is bound to protein. 2) In the stomach, acid and pepsin help release vitamin B12 from food proteins. 3) Cells in the stomach lining release intrinsic factor (IF) 4) In the upper portion of the small intestine (duodenum), intrinsic factor binds to vitamin B12. 5) In the lower part of the small intestine (ileum), the vitamin B12-intrinsic factor complex binds to receptors on cells, allowing absorption. 6) In the colon, vitamin B12 is synthesized by microorganisms but cannot be absorbed.
Placenta
1-2 lbs
Pyridoxal phosphate (B6) is needed for the activity of more than
100 enzymes involved in the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein.
What is the clinical impact of alcoholism estimated at per year?
100,000 deaths per year
What is the average clearance of ethanol per hour (g/hr)?
10g/hr
Peak bone mass is between ages
16 and 30
Human milk contains about ____ kcal per cup
160
Amniotic fluid
2 lbs
Breast tissue
2 lbs
Uterus
2 lbs
To leave the enterocyte and enter the bloodstream, iron in the
2+ (Fell) state needs to be converted to the +3 state by a copper containing enzyme: ceruloplasmin
The Na/K pump is estimated to account for ______ to _____% of resting energy expenditure in an adult.
20-40%
Selenium is the _____ amino acid
21st
Total weight gain for a mother during pregnancy
25-35 lbs
Triiodothyronine (T3) has
3 iodine and two tyrosine
Maternal blood
3-4 lbs
Enterocytes have a lifespan of
3-7 days
___ - ____ % of the population of mothers gets gestational diabetes
3-9%
1 pint of beer equals how many grams of ethanol?
30 grams EtOH
Copper absorption is about ____-___%
30-40%
Where is calcium in the body?
99% of calcium in the body is found in solid mineral deposits in the bones and teeth.
Beginning at the _____th week of development until birth, the developing offspring is known as a fetus
9th week
What percent of of EtOH is metabolized through alcohol dehydrogenase pathway?
>90% of ethanol
What is Alcoholism?
A disorder characterized by excessive consumption of and dependence on alcoholic beverages which disrupts psychological, social, and vocational function
Chicago State University in 2005
A fraternity hazing in which pledges were required to keep drinking water results in a death of a pledge and felony convictions for the fraternity brothers involved
Calcitonin
Acts on osteoclasts to inhibit their activity , so release of Ca from bone decreases
The lungs release
ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme)
Which neurotransmitter does Thiamin help synthesize?
ACh
When solute concentration is low in the blood,
ADH level decreases, and more water is excreted into the urine
Thiamin (B1) is essential to the production of
ATP from glucose
What does the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway require?
Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ADH)
Phosphorylate ADP + Pantothenic Acid (B5) + acetyl group =
Acetyl CoA
Long-term energy
After about two to three minutes, oxygen delivery to the muscles has increased enough to support aerobic metabolism, which uses fatty acids and glucose to produce ATP.
What is the minimum BAC that is considered a binge drinking level for men and women?
BAC of 0.08/g/dL (.08%)
Short-term energy
Anaerobic metabolism of glucose, obtained either from the blood or from muscle glycogen, becomes the predominant source of ATP when creatine phosphate stores have been depleted. Thirty seconds into the activity, anaerobic pathways are operating at full capacity. (Short term sprint)
Symptoms of Copper Deficiency
Anemia that results from defective iron mobilization; unresponsive iron therapy but corrected by copper supplementation
Which B vitamin is needed for energy metabolism?
Biotin
Which B vitamin is specifically involved with the metabolism of fatty acids?
Biotin
Symptoms of Vitamin C Deficiency
Bleeding gums, poor wound healing, weakened connective tissue, decreased iron absorption (vitamin C aids iron absorption), depression, mental problems
Transport proteins thats numbers are increased by vitamin D in order to actively transport Ca into the enterocyte
Calbindins
Energy distribution of infants obtain from human milk
Carbohydrate: 40% Fat: 54% Protein: 6%
Recommended energy distribution for adults
Carbohydrates: 45-65% Fat: 20-35% Protein: 10-35%
Phosphorylate ADP + Pantothenic Acid (B5)
Coenzyme A (CoA)
A rare genetic disorder (copper toxicity), Wilson's disease, results in
Copper overload, due to inability to excrete copper in bile. * Sees rings of copper around eyes w/ copper toxicity
Phosphorus is a major constituent of
DNA and RNA
What is a polymorphism?
DNA sequence variation that is common in the population. In this case no single allele is regarded as the standard sequence. Instead there are two or more equally acceptable alternatives
Folate coenzymes are needed for
DNA synthesis and the metabolism of some amino acids
Active folate is needed for the synthesis of
DNA.
Dietary risks for iron deficiency
Diets that are low in red meat, which contains the most readily absorbable form of iron (heme iron), and high in phytates and fiber, which reduce iron absorption, increase the risk of deficiency
Instant energy
During the first few seconds, the muscles get energy from stored ATP. Then for the next 10 seconds or so, creatine phosphate stored in the muscles is broken down to form more ATP
Where is the Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System (MEOS) present?
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Niacin (B3) is added to ______ ______ in North America.
Enriched flours
________ fluid has the highest concentration of sodium and chloride and a lower concentration of potassium.
Extracellular
Acute Iodine Poisoning causes what symptoms?
GI irritation, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiovascular symptoms, coma, cyanosis.
Symptoms of Zinc Toxicity
Gi irritation, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headaches
What is an example discussed in class of an ALDH polymorphism?
Glutamate to lysine switch at position 487 of ALDH2 gene (referred to as ALDH2^2)
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) converts
Homocysteine to cysteine
What are the two complications of pregnancy?
Hypertensive disorders and gestational diabetes
In severe copper deficiency, an individual might have ________ or _________.
Hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia
Immune mediators
Immunoglobulins, macrophages, cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-10, IGF, erythropoietin, etc.)
Where is Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) present?
In the cytosol and mitochondria
Actions of aldosterone:
Increase Na/K pumps in the kidneys
Gestational diabetes for Mom:
Increased pre-eclampsia, need C-section risk, early labor.
Social and medical risks for iron deficiency
Individuals living in poverty are less likely than others to consume adequate iron. Intestinal parasites cause blood loss, which increase iron losses.
Who is at risk for copper deficiency?
Infants with chronic diarrhea, patients undergoing chronic peritoneal or renal dialysis, severe burn patients or individuals with inherited mutation of genes regulating copper homeostasis.
______ fluid has the lowest concentration of protein.
Interstitial fluid
_______ fluid has the highest concentration of protein and ECF has less.
Intracellular fluid
Fat-soluble vitamins include
K, A, D, E
Selenium deficiency can lead to
Keshan disease, affecting the heart muscle
Proteins in breast milk
Lactoferrin, casein, immunoglobulin A, lysozyme, serum albumin.
_____ weight gain is recommended in the first semester
Little weight gain
What is Alcohol Liver Disease?
Liver injury associated with prolonged heavy exposure to ethanol
Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
May signal serious condition: preeclampsia dangerous to baby because it reduces blood flow to placenta. May lead to eclampsia - life threatening to the mother and may require early delivery of the baby.
A rare genetic disorder, called _______ disease, results in copper deficiency due to a defect in intestinal copper _______.
Menkes Disease; absorption
Sulfur-containing amino acids
Methionine and Cysteine
Which B vitamin acts as an electron carrier in reactions that synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol?
NADP
When NaCl is added to water,
Na+ is attracted to the negative pole and Cl- is attracted to the positive pole
Inracellular fluid has the lowest concentrations of ____ and the highest concentrations of _____.
Na+; K+
Minerals in breast milk
Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Cl and trace elements
What is another name for B3?
Niacin
Which B vitamin can be synthesized in the body from an essential amino acid?
Niacin
Which B vitamin has been added to enrich flours in North America?
Niacin
Which B vitamin is important for reactions that synthesize other molecules?
Niacin
Which B vitamin is involved in general metabolism?
Niacin
Which B vitamin accepts released electrons and passes them onto ETC?
Niacin (NAD)
The sixth position (coordination site) around the iron of the heme is occupied by
O2 when the hemoglobin protein is oxygenated
Only about __________ of additional water is needed per day.
One cup
What exists that can alter ALDH's catalytic activity?
Polymorphisms exist limiting or inhibiting ALDH's catalytic activity and mitochondrial location.
Keshan Disease
Selenium deficiency and viral infection causes heart disease
Physiological function of selenium
Selenoproteins
What are the consequences of alcohol liver disease?
Steatosis Inflammation Fibrosis Cirrhosis
____ is predominant in the blood and converted to the active form ______.
T4 ; T3
TSH wil also be released if
TH levels are LOW
Large excess of iodine inhibits
TH production, leading to increased TSH stimulation for thyroid growth and goiter.
In response to cold or stress, the hypothalamus releases ________, which stimulates the pituitary to release _____.
TRH ; TSH
What reaction requires thiamin pyrophosphate?
The reaction that forms acetyl-CoA from pyruvate and one of the citric cid cycle reactions.
What is another name for B1?
Thiamin
Which B vitamin is involved in the production of ATP from glucose?
Thiamin
Which B vitamin is required for the production of ribose for RNA?
Thiamin
Which B vitamin is used in the reaction that forms acetyl CoA from pyruvate?
Thiamin
Which B vitamins helps maintain the health of the nervous system?
Thiamin
Which B vitamins are involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids?
Thiamin Biotin Folate
Which B vitamins are needed for energy production?
Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Biotin
Which 2 B vitamins are used in carbohydrate metabolism?
Thiamin Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Active folate needed for the synthesis of DNA cannot be made if this B vitamin is deficient
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin is a cobalt-containing compound?
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin is most readily absorbed from animal products?
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin is necessary for the proper absorption of iron in the body?
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin is required for the maintenance of myelin-coating on nerves?
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin must vegan diets be supplemented with?
Vitamin B12
Which B vitamin's coenzymes function in the breakdown of fatty acids with odd number of C in chain to enter the citric acid cycle?
Vitamin B12
Which 2 B vitamin are rare to see deficiencies for?
Vitamin B12 and Biotin
Which 2 B vitamins are used in reactions that synthesize methionine from homocysteine?
Vitamin B12 and Folate *Both are need for this conversion. When either B vitamin is deficient, homocysteine levels rise.
Nonessential amino acids require ______ for synthesis.
Vitamin B6
Which B vitamin is needed for deamination, decarboxylation, and transamination reactions?
Vitamin B6
This B vitamins is needed for lipids that are part of the myelin coating on nerves?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is needed for the metabolism of glycogen?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is required for the conversion of tryptophan to niacin?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is required for the synthesis of Hemoglobin?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is used for the metabolism of all three macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and protein?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is used for the synthesis of nonessential amino acids?
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Which B vitamin is used in a reaction that converts homocysteine to cysteine?
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
______ is needed for the conversion of tryptophan to _____.
Vitamin B6; niacin
Folate or Folic Acid =
Vitamin B9
During bone formation, osteoblast activity
exceeds osteoclasts activity
DHA can be low in
Western milk
What is the importance of maintaining Ca levels?
When Ca concentration in the ECF drops too low, the nervous system fires spontaneously, causing contractions of the muscles (tetany). Usually due to a hormonal abnormality, not a dietary Ca deficiency (low PTH, low vitamin D)
Where does ethanol metabolism primarily occur?
Within the liver
Demographic for iron deficiency
Women of childbearing age lose iron due to menstruation. Pregnant women, infants, children, and teens need additional iron for growth and development.
Too much water relative to the amount of sodium in the body results in
a drop of sodium levels: hyponatremia
Osteoporosis is caused by
a loss of both the protein matrix and the mineral deposits of bone, resulting in a decrease in the total amount of bone
Amount of zinc that passes from the mucosal cell into the blood is regulated by
a metal-binding protein called metallothionein.
Crosslinking will NOT occur in the
absence of vitamin C
Zinc is the most
abundant INtracellular trace element
Na+ is the most
abundant positively charged ion outside the cell
In women, bone loss is
accelerated for a span of 5 to 10 years surrounding menopause.
Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) converts
acetaldehyde to acetate
People with a defect in zinc absorption and metabolism develop a zinc-deficiency disease called
acrodermatitis enteropathica
Biotin is a coenzyme for a group of enzymes that
add the acid group COOH to molecules
The EER for lactation is estimated by
adding the total energy requirement of non lactating women and the energy in the milk and then subtracting the energy supplied by maternal fat sources.
One chicken breast provides the
additional 25g of protein recommended during the second and third trimesters.
During the 2nd and 3 trimesters,
additional 340-452 kcal/day is recommended
Two slices of whole-grain bread or an apple provides the
additional fiber recommended.
In the uterus, the
blastocyst imbeds in the uterine lining - implantation
Beginning at around age 35-45, amount of bone broken down
begins to exceed that at which it is formed
Bone is a living, dynamic tissue that is constantly
being remodeled - broken down and reformed
Hormones
calcitonin, lactoferrin, leptin, and ghrelin
Phosphorus deficiency
can lead to bone loss, weakness, and loss of appetite
If vitamin B6 is deficient, homocysteine
cannot be converted to cysteine, homocysteine levels rise.
If folate or vitamin B12 is deficient, homocysteine
cannot be converted to methionine, so homocysteine levels rise.
Acetyl CoA is formed during the breakdown of
carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids
Levels of thyroid hormones are
carefully controlled
Iron functions primarily as a
carrier for oxygen --> as a part of hemoglobin and myoglobin
Pantothenic acid (B5) is needed to produce the
carrier protein required for synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids.
Stimuli (touch, NT) change
cell membrane permeability to Na+, allowing it to rush into cell
Folate is particularly important in tissues where
cells divide rapidly: bone marrow, intestines, skin, embryo
The liver produces ________, which binds copper and transports it to other tissues.
ceruloplasmin
A number of different active coenzyme forms of folate are involved in reactions that transfer
chemical groups containing a single carbon atom
Riboflavin (B2) is an important component in the
citric acid cycle and for assisting the body with the absorption of other vitamins
FAD functions in the ________ ________ ________ and is important for breakdown of _______ _______.
citric acid cycle; fatty acids
Vitamin C is found in
citrus fruits, strawberries, broccoli, bok choc, green leafy vegetables, etc.
Hydrolysis Reaction
cleavage of maltose into 2 glucose molecules (by adding water)
Vitamin B12 and cobalamin refer to members of a group of
cobalt-containing compounds
All B vitamins are
coenzymes
In nature, phosphorus is most often found in
combination with oxygen as phosphate
Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) is necessary for
complete metabolism of alcohol by all three systems
Iodine is an essential
component of thyroid hormones, including thyroxine
Distribution of fluid among body compartments depends on the
concentrations of electrolytes and other solutes.
Pregnancy is from
conception to birth; last 40 weeks
Loss of 7% body weight as water can cause
confusion and disorientation
Severe elevations of Ca (Ca Toxicity) can cause
confusion, delirium, coma, death
Manganese is a _____ of some enzymes and an _____ of other enzymes.
constituent; activator
Zinc toxicity has occurred with
consumption of foods and beverages contaminated with zinc that has leached from galvanized containers
The selenium content of plant foods, such as grains and seeds, depends on the selenium
content of the soil in which they are grown.
Riboflavin (B2) is also involved directly or indirectly
converting other vitamins (folate, niacin, B6, and K) into their active forms
Main problems with chronic zinc toxicity is
copper deficiency --> Zinc excess increases metallothionein, which binds copper as well as zinc
Phosphorus is a component of
creatine phosphate, which provides energy to muscles
These hydroxyl groups are necessary for
cross-linking of collagen fibers.
What is the MEOS carried out by?
cytochrome p450 2E1 (cyp2E1)
Reactive oxygen molecules come from environmental sources (smoking, pollution, drugs, etc.) can cause
damage to proteins, lipids and nucleic acid
Zinc can ____ the bioavailability of ______.
decrease; copper
Iron is essential for the
delivery of oxygen to cells. Two oxygen-containing proteins, hemoglobin and myoglobin, contain iron.
Iodine deficiency causes ________ __________.
developmental disorders
Vitamin A is needed for cell
differentiation and development. Low intake can cause LBW and premature birth, but too much can increase the risk of birth defects.
Distribution of electrolytes affects the
distribution of water throughout the body
In spina bifida, the fetal spina cord column
does NOT close completely
Human milk is
dynamic, contains nutrients and bioactive factors needed for infant health/development.
Most bone is formed
early in life
Iron is an
essential mineral
Fluoride's major function are related to
effects on the mineralization bone and teeth
Nerve impulse travels as
electrical current
Depolarization occurs and an
electrical current is generated
The correct combination and amounts of
electrolytes (positively and negatively charged ions) are essential for life.
NADP acts as an
electron carrier in reactions that synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol
FMN and FAD both function as
electron carriers in the electron transport chain
In the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway, NAD+ acts as an ___________ ____________, and _________ is created as an intermediate.
electron receptor (NAD+ --> NADH); acetaldehyde
In the uterus, the developing offspring is known as an
embryo
Niacin (B3) plays an important role in the production of
energy and in general metabolism
Adequate riboflavin (B2) is crucial to provide
energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
Phosphorus is essential for
energy metabolism (ATP)
Supplemental folic acid can provide
enough active folate to prevent folate deficiency even when vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is deficient
The released ferrous iron is then likely to
enter into the molecular weight pool of iron in the enterocyte and exit the enterocyte via a common pathway along with iron absorbed as nonheme iron
Pyridoxal phosphate is required for many
enzyme reactions in the body
Phosphate regulates a number of
enzymes as activity can be turned on or off by phosphorylating or dephosphorylating
Copper is removed by
excretion in bile and subsequent elimination in the feces .
Membrane potential
exists across nerve cell membranes (negative ions inside cell is greater than outside cell)
Zygotes travel down the ______ _____ into the uterus - along the way it is dividing may times
fallopian tube
Neural tube defects happen in the
first month of pregnancy, often before a women even knows that she is pregnant.
The most common sources of fluoride are
fluoridated water, tea, marine fish eaten with their bones, such as canned salmon or sardines, and topical toothpaste.
Carbohydrates in breast milk
lactose, but many oligosaccharides as well: may promote growth of certain strains of lactobacilli in baby intestine.
Ca deficiency during years of bone formation results in
less bone density (rickets). During adult years, results in increases bone loss (osteomalacia)
Trace elements are required in amounts
less than 100 mg per day
The release of milk from glands through the ducts is referred to as
let-down
Iron poisoning can be
life-threatening.
Excess iron is stored primarily in the ________, bound to ________.
liver, bound to ferritin.
Dietary sources of folate include
liver, yeast, asparagus, oranges, legumes, and fortified grain products.
MEOS is unregulated in the ________ by __________.
liver; ethanol
Both men and women
lose bone mass slowly after about age 35.
Elevated blood Ca levels can cause
loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and frequent urination.
"Natural" sea salt may be very
low in iodine
Zinc deficiency can also occur in diets
low in protein and high in phytates, individuals with kidney disease, alcoholism, and cancer.
Biotin functions in energy metabolism because it is needed to
make a 4-C molecule necessary in the citric acid cycle and in glucose synthesis
In bone marrow, iron is used to
make hemoglobin for red blood cell synthesis
In body cells, iron is used to
make myoglobin and other iron-containing proteins needed for energy metabolism
A copper enzyme is used to produce the pigment
melanin
Once nerve impulse passes, original
membrane potential is restored and Na and K distributions restored by the Na/K ATPase pump
Many B vitamins are coenzymes essential for the proper function of numerous enzymes involved in the
metabolism of energy-yielding nutrients
Biotin is also important in the
metabolism of fatty acids and amino acids
In the duodenum, the
metal porphyrin ring of heme iron is split off from the globin
Losing the ability to synthesize vitamin C is neutral only when
sufficient quantities of vitamin C are part of the diet
Iron overload can happen
over time and accumulates in tissues such as the heart and the liver
Water intoxication =
overhydration
Fertilization of the egg takes place in the
oviduct or fallopian tube, producing a single-celled zygote
Antioxidants protect against
oxidant damage
Vitamin C in foods can be destroyed by
oxygen, light and heat, as well as contact with copper or iron cookware.
The let-down of milk is triggered by the hormone
oxytocin
Phosphate is a part of the
phosphate buffer system that helps regulate pH in cytosol of cells, plasma and in urine pH regulation.
If iron is HIGH, the expression of the gene for transferrin receptors is _______, resulting in less iron getting into cell. At the same time, the gene for ferritin is ______, resulting in increased iron stored in the enterocyte.
reduced; increased
Na plays a critical role in
regulating extracellular blood volume (which can change blood pressure)
Prolactin
released from pituitary and stimulates milk production
Decarboxylation reaction (via vitamin B6)
remove the acid group (COOH) from amino acids so they can be used to synthesize neurotransmitters.
Deamination Reaction (via vitamin B6)
remove the amino groups from amino acid so they can be used to produce ATP or to synthesize glucose.
The kidneys release
renin
If Ca intake is inadequate, normal blood levels are maintained by
resorbing Ca from bone (this can lead to low bone mass)
Loss of 10-20% body weight as water can
result in death
Folic acid has a ____ structure and one _______.
ring; glutamate
Excess weight during pregnancy is considered a
risk factor for postpartum weight retention which is an obesity risk factor
Vitamin C Deficiency causes
scurvy
As iodine intake decreases,
secretion of TSH increases- TSH stimulates thyroid hypertrophy and hyperplasia
T4 is converted to T3 by the
selenoprotein iodothyronine deiodinase
For water molecules, the oxygen side is
slightly negative and the H side is slightly positive
Fluoride is present in
small amounts in almost all soil, water, plants, and animals.
The iodine content of food depends on the
soil where plants are grown or where animals graze.
The most common neural tube defect is
spina bifida.
Once inside the enterocyte, the heme may be
split further into ferrous iron (fell)
Composition of human breast milk varies by
stage of lactation (Colostrum is high in immunologic compounds, low in lactose); preterm milk (for premie babies) tends to be higher in protein and in fat.
Iodine and selenium are needed for the
synthesis of thyroid hormones.
Transamination reactions
synthesize nonessential amino acids by transferring an amino group to a carbon compound.
Niacin is important for other reactions that
synthesize other molecules
TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to
take up iodine and synthesize TH
Water-soluble vitamins include
the B vitamins and vitamin C.
The amount of water lost by the body is regulated by increasing or decreasing
the amount of water excreted by the kidneys
85% of phosphorous in the body is found in
the bones and teeth - Forms hydroxyapatite crystals with Ca (bones/teeth)
When concentrations of solutes in the blood increases,
the brain senses this and releases ADH. *The hypothalamus makes ADH, but it is stored in the posterior pituitary
Dehydration occurs when
the drop in body water reduces the blood volume, reducing the ability to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and to remove waste products
Blood pressure
the fluid pressure of blood against the blood vessels
When weakened by osteoporosis,
the front edge of the vertebrae collapses more than the back edge, so the spine bends forward.
What is an example of a polymorphism?
the gene for hair color
Humans used to have
the gene to make our own vitamin C (gulonolactone oxidase: final step in making vitamin C from glucose), but lost it over evolutionary time.
When red blood cells die,
the iron is released for reuse
Fat soluble vitamins are stored in
the liver and in adipose tissue and are not excreted in the urine
An osmole is
the molecular weight of a solute, in grams that contributes to the osmotic pressure of a solution
Human milk is dependent on
the mother's diet - although the macronutrient composition is similar across populations.
Iron is essential, but too much can be
toxic
Iron is highly
toxic --> iron is tightly regulated
High levels of homocysteine in the blood increase
the risk of cardiovascular disease.
What is fibrosis?
the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, as a result of injury to the liver from the alcohol.
Trace elements are difficult to study because
they are difficult to remove from the diet
What does it mean that all B vitamins are coenzymes?
they bind to other enzymes to promote their activity
What is the active form of thiamin (B1) in the body?
thiamin pyrophosphate
More than half of the iodine in the body is found in the
thyroid gland
When supply of iodine is adequate,
thyroid hormones can be made and their presence turn off synthesis of TSH. (Negative Feedback Loop)
Chemical Contaminants in human breast milk: chemicals accumulated in the mother's
tissues may be transferred to the infant during breastfeeding.
Most people are remarkably _______ to excess iodine.
tolerant
In growing children,
total bone mass increases as the bones grow larger.
The EER for pregnancy is calculated by
totaling energy needs of non-pregnant women with the increased need due to pregnancy and energy deposited in tissues.
There are several Copper-dependent
transcription factors that regulate specific genes
Iron storage and transport proteins:
transferrin, lactoferrin, uteroferrin, ferritin, hemosiderin
For iron to be taken up by cells in the body (e.g. liver, red blood cells), the
transferrin-iron complex must bind transferrin receptors
Some transport proteins for Zinc promote
transport of zinc from intestinal lumen into the cell
Zinc _____ _______ regulate the amount of zinc in mucosal cells
transport proteins
When zinc intake is low,
transporters move more zinc into the mucosal cell.
When zinc intake is high,
transporters push zinc out of mucosal cell into the lumen
And some transport proteins for Zinc reduce zinc by
transporting zinc back into the lumen or into storage vesicles
Niacin (B3) can be synthesized in the body from the essential amino acid
tryptophan if the diet is adequate in tryptophan.