Nutrition Chapter 10: Trace Minerals

Copper: - There are only ab a dozen copper-containing human enzymes but they participate in variety of critical physiological processes including ..... - Copper may play role in slowing progression of .....

- Functions as a cofactor in oxygen-dependent enzymes in the body - energy metabolism, formation of connective tissue, regulation of iron storage and transport, and antioxidant functions - age-related macular degeneration which causes severe vision loss in elderly

Fluoride: - it is Important in stabilizing the .....

- Prevents dental caries (cavities) through the hardening and maintenance of tooth enamel - structure of bone

Chromium: - No evidence that it ..... - No evidence that it can help control ..... - Deficiency in humans has been observed only in ...... → question chromium's designation as an essential nutrient

- a popular dietary supplements but its proposed benefits have not been supported by results of intervention trials - promotes weight loss or improves muscle mass with resistance training - blood glucose - hospitalized patients who had been receiving 100% of all nutrients intravenously for extended periods

Selenium: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- cofactor for 24 enzymes in antioxidant functions & production of active thyroid hormone - brazil nuts, seafood, meat, whole grains - doesnt occur without additional stress factors - hair and nail brittleness & loss

Molybdenum: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- cofactor for 4 enzymes that metabolize some amino acids & nucleic acids - legumes, whole grains, nuts - none - unknown

Manganese: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- cofactor for enzymes in antioxidant functions, energy metabolism, bone development, and neurotransmitter production - grain products, tea, coffee, nuts, legumes, spinach - RARE: poor growth, dermatitis. may increase risk of diabetes, osteoporosis, atherosclerosis - neurological abnormalities

Copper: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- cofactor for enzymes in antioxidant functions, energy metabolism, iron transport, healthy connective tissue, synthesis of hormones/ neurotransmitters - organ meat, shellfish, nuts, seeds, chocolate, legumes - anemia, poor immune function, osteoporosis, poor growth - RARE; very high doses cause nausea, vomit, diarrhea

Fluoride: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- hardens tooth enamel - treated drinking water, tea, grape juice, sardines - increased risk dental caries - nausea, vomit, diarrhea, staining of teeth

Zinc: - Zinc deficiency could account for .... -Zinc is required for function of more .... in the body than any other mineral - Zinc binds to ab ...... of all proteins in the body including more than .... enzymes

- human growth retardation - proteins - 10% (2800); 900

properties of trace minerals:

- many are cofactors for enzymes - very little digestion required - absorbed in small intestine - circulate freely in blood - less than 100 mg per day - found in plant and animal foods

Chromium: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- may enhance insulin action - broccoli, grape juice, processed meats, whole grains, spices - none in healthy ppl - RARE: kidney failure & liver disease possible

Manganese: - Functions as a cofactor for enzymes involved in ..... - Role of manganese in amino acid metabolism makes it important for ......

- one of the most poorly absorbed trace minerals (generally less than 5% is absorbed) but deficiencies are far less common than toxicities - antioxidant functions and it is involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, cholesterol, and amino acids - synthesis of proteins needed for bone growth and maintenance and for wound healing

Iron: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- oxygen transport and storage, energy metabolism, detoxification, thyroid hormone synthesis - meat, fish, poultry, legumes, nuts, enriched grains - anemia, decreased thyroid hormone production, impaired immune function, growth, and intellectual development - nausea, vomit, abdominal pain, coma, heart/kidney/liver failure

Zinc: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- protein synthesis, antioxidant functions, growth, development, reproduction, immune & neurological functions - oysters, meat, poultry, legumes, nuts, whole grains - impaired immune function, delayed sexual maturation, slow growth, hair loss, neurological impairment - nausea, vomit, diarrhea, decreased immune function, copper deficiency

Selenium: - About 2 dozen selenium-containing human ..... have been identified - Selenium functions as cofactor for several ...... and with other selenium-dependent enzymes in the activation of ......

- proteins - antioxidant enzymes; thyroid hormone, making it essential for normal growth, metabolism, and development

Iodine: - function: - food sources: - deficiency symptoms: - toxicity:

- synthesis of thyroid hormone which regulates protien synthesis and metabolic rate - seafood, dairy products, iodized salt - inadequate thyroid hormone, goiter, impaired brain function/ growth, reduced work capacity - goiter & impaired thyroid function

Hemoglobin is made of 4 units; each unit contains ...... → heme groups contain positively charged iron atoms that can ..... → this structure of hemoglobin allows it to be ......

1 heme group (an iron atom surrounded by a ring-shaped structure) and 1 protein chain - bind to oxygen molecules - loaded with oxygen in the lungs so it's sometimes called an oxygen transport protein

UL for fluoride for men and women 19+ is ....

10 mg

In healthy individuals only ab ..... dietary iron is absorbed but when iron is absorbed more efficiently, and when its stores are high, iron is absorbed less efficiently

10-15%

RDA for iodine for men and women 19 years and older is .....

150 micrograms (UL is 1100 micrograms)

UL for zinc for men and women 19 years and older is .... RDA intake of zinc is ..... for men 19+ and ...... for women 19+

40 mg - 11 mg men; 8 mg women

UL for selenium is ..... per day in adults - A single high dose of selenium may be ..... although selenium toxicity occurs with long term exposure to moderately high levels of intake through supplementation or through frequent consumption of selenium-rich foods (rare) - Most common toxicity symptoms are ....

400 mcg - fatal - hair and nail loss and brittleness and garlic breath

UL for iron for men and women 19+ years is ....

45 mg

RDA for selenium is .... per day for adults

55 mcg

RDA for iron for men 19+ is ....; women 19-50 is ...... → recommendations assume iron bioavailability of 18% → for vegetarians and vegans who consume no meat the bioavailability is 10% so intake recommendations of them are ....

8 mg men; 18 mg women double

RDA for copper is ..... per day in adults - Ab 55-75% dietary copper is absorbed =

900 mcg - it is more efficient than other trace minerals

how can we get all the trace minerals we need without excess intake?

By eating a balanced and varied diet

..... also provide zinc and some cold lozenges and some over the counter drugs sold as cold remedies

Fortified cereals, beans, and nuts

what is the #1 nutritional disorder in the world affecting developing and industrialized nations?

Iron deficiency

who are affected the most by inadequate intakes of trace minerals?

Pregnant women and developing fetus and children in rapid growth stages

Adequate Intake (AI) for fluoride is .... for men 19+ and ..... for women 19+

4 mg for men 3 mg for women

Fluoride is not required for growth or reproduction to sustain life so it is not considered an essential nutrition but the decline in incidence of tooth decay over the past 70 years has been due to ..... - Fluoridation of drinking water began in 1940s to help prevent dental caries → ab 74% of population is served by community water systems that receive ...... - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for .....

addition of fluoride to public water supplies - fluoridated water - safeguarding our public drinking water, which includes establishing ranges for fluoride that reduce rates of dental caries and not exceeding upper thresholds

Zinc is a cofactor for enzymes that participate in major metabolic pathways → binding of zinc to proteins plays important structural roles by ....

allowing proteins to achieve and maintain their appropriate shapes

Iron-deficiency anemia:

anemia caused by inadequate iron intake (microcytic hypochromic anemia) affects ab 30% world's population

Very little iron is excreted from the body so iron toxicity can occur when intake is too high causing symptoms of .....

apathy, fatigue, liver damage, and immune problems

Ultratrace minerals include ..... - Daily recommendations for intake of these are considered "not determinable" (ND) bc so little data exists → ......

arsenic (As), boron (B), nickel (N), silicon (Si), and vanadium (V) - food is considered only safe source of these nutrients to avoid possible overconsumption

we also get fluoride through .....

beverages made with fluoridated water and marine fish, and dental products

trace minerals often act as cofactors by .....

binding to enzymes, enabling them to carry out their chemical reactions

Body converts iron carefully so that daily losses are minimized: we lose iron through .....

blood loss but the shedding of cells from gastrointestinal tract and skin, and small losses in sweat leads body to retain more iron

Calcium is the only dietary factor that may reduce absorption of heme and nonheme iron because .....

calcium and iron compete with each other for absorption so when large amounts of calcium are consumed with iron at the same time or during same meal, iron absorption is decreased

which trace mineral functions in enhancing insulin function?

chromium

Trace mineral .... status as essential nutrient has recently come into question

chromium's

pica

compulsive eating of nonnutritive substances such as clay or ice

Excessive zinc intake decreases .... - One of the most common copper deficiency symptoms: copper deficiency often results in ...... bc copper-containing enzymes are required to .....

copper absorption - anemia; release iron from where its stored in the body and for incorporation of iron into its heme form

which trace mineral functions in bone health?

copper and manganese

which trace mineral is required for enzyme function?

copper, iron, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium

Nonheme iron

dietary iron not associated with hemoglobin; the iron of plants and other sources assists in functioning of enzymes

Can also come from the body not properly absorbing iron bc of .....

disease or presence of dietary components that inhibit nonheme iron absorption

Iron deficiency anemia is common in ..... and results from conditions that cause ....

elderly; chronic loss of blood or malabsorption

Iron is an important component of many enzymes required for ...... (iron is required for wide variety of critical biological functions including those involved din reproduction, growth, and healing in its role in DNA synthesis)

energy metabolism, antioxidant actions, the immune response, and DNA synthesis

Goiter:

enlargement of the thyroid gland

Ab 55% pregnant american women has iodine blood concentration in the mild iodine deficiency range as established by WHO → can impact ....

fetal brain development and result in lower IQs and intellectual disabilities

which trace mineral functions in hardening tooth enamel?

fluoride

Fluoride may cause health issues if level in drinking water access standard set by EPA → leads to ...... - fluorosis: - EPA warns that excessive intake over lifetime may have adverse effects on .....

fluorosis - small opaque flecks on the teeth and then stains or puts in the teeth with longer-term exposure - bone or lead to skeletal fluorosis that shows increases likelihood of fractures bc bones become brittle as they become excessively dense

Higher intakes of iron can cause ....

gastrointestinal distress and may suffer from constipation, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea

Excess selenium can result in ....

hair loss and brittle nails and in extreme cases, respiratory distress along with kidney and heart failure

Severe zinc deficiency results in .....

hair loss, diarrhea, infertility in men, and impaired neurological and behavioral functions

Ultratrace Minerals:

have potential intake requirements of less than 1 microgram per day

Low selenium increases risk of ....., may also decrease ....

heart disease and some cancers; immune function

Most iron is in ..... form in the body

heme

Food sources offer iron in .... and ... forms - Dietary heme iron (from hemoglobin and myoglobin in animals) is in .... - Nonheme iron is found in meat and fish; it is the only form of iron found in .... - Nonheme iron makes up ..... of iron we consume but its not well absorbed by the body as heme iron is

heme and nonheme forms -red meats, poultry, and fish - plant foods such as lentils and beans, dried fruits, and grain products - 85-90%

Most iron in the body occurs as ..... - heme iron: - Red blood cells contain hemoglobin so they can .....

heme iron - critical part of the protein hemoglobin which is present in red blood cells - pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport it for release into tissues

Iron-deficiency anemia develops when body stores of iron drop too low to support .... - Most common cause is .... - Combo of ...... can put premenopausal women at risk of iron-deficiency anemia → ab 10% women age 20-49 have this condition - Iron lost through ..... must be replaced

hemoglobin synthesis which leads to less hemoglobin incorporated into red blood cells - blood loss - blood loss through menstruation and, limited/restricted diet that may minimize sources of heme iron - menstruation, frequent blood donations, or other forms of blood loss

Almost 20% of world population is at risk of zinc deficiency (highest risk in .......), about ..... of population is at risk for deficiency in US - who are particularly at risk for zinc deficiency? - Alcohol reduces zinc .... and increases zinc .... - ..... in whole grains and legumes which are dietary staples among vegetarians, inhibit zinc absorption - Zinc status in elderly may be compromised due to .....

highest risk in south asia and parts of africa and central america 12% - Chronic alcohol abusers, vegetarians, and elderly - absorption; excretion in urine - Phytates - reduced food intake & impaired absorption of mineral caused by low production of gastric acid

Mild to moderate zinc deficiency can cause impaired .....

immune function, appetite and weight loss, delayed sexual maturation, and slowed growth

Symptoms of copper deficiency include .....

impaired immune response and osteoporosis

Individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis are at high risk for iron toxicity bc of ....

increased absorption and high iron stores

Inadequate fluoride results in ...

increases risk of dental caries

Iron deficiency anemia is more likely to occur in .....

infants and young children who need higher amounts of iron due to growth, and in pregnant women

Body needs ..... to make thyroid hormones which play key roles in essential metabolic processes

iodine

which trace mineral is a component of thyroid hormones?

iodine

Iodine content of food depends on .... - Highest naturally occurring concentrations of iodine are in foods from .... - Iodine is commonly added to .... in US but only ab 15% of daily salt intake comes from iodized table salt

iodine content of the environment it comes from - the sea such as fish, shellfish, and plants (seaweed or algae) bc the oceans contains the most iodine - table salt

Excessive intake can elevate levels of TSH which disrupts thyroid function and sometimes causes some symptoms of .....

iodine deficiency: goiter, elevated TSH levels, and hypothyroidism

Essential trace minerals include:

iodine, iron, zinc, copper, selenium, molybdenum, and manganese

Iodine in processed grain products is largely due to the use of .... - Fruit and vegetables contain some iodine but the amount depends on ....

iodine-containing food additives (dough conditioners) - the content in the soil where they are grown

To prevent deficiency, ..... was created (ionized salt)

iodine-fortified salt

Iron balance is achieved by carefully regulating ...

iron absorption, storage, release, and transport

In children, ..... is a major cause of unintentional death causing symptom of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation ,rapid heartbeat, dizziness, shock, and confusion

iron poisoning

Adult men & postmenopausal women have ..... for the condition

lower risk

Zinc is most concentrated in .....

meats; poultry; and certain types of seafood such as oysters, which contain more zinc per serving than any other food

Men are at higher risk for iron toxicity than women bc .....

men don't have monthly blood loss

Trace minerals:

minerals found and needed in smaller amounts, daily requirement less than 100 mg (micro minerals)

Iron deficiency: - Develops when persons iron intake does not .... - Low iron intake over time leads to .... - Deficiency in pregnant women can lead to ....

most prevalent nutritional disorder in the world and the only nutrient deficiency to affect significant % of women and children in industrialized countries - meet daily needs - depleted iron stores and iron-dependent functions throughout the body can be compromised - cognitive impairment of child

In muscles, the iron-containing oxygen storage protein is ..... myoglobin: - function of Myoglobin:

myoglobin - is similar in structure to hemoglobin but only has 1 heme unit and 1 protein chain - transports and stores oxygen in muscle cells and helps coordinate the supply of oxygen to the demand of working muscles

Short-term symptoms of excessive zinc intake include ...... - Chronic long term effects include ....

nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea - copper deficiency (excessive zinc reduce copper absorption), altered iron function, reduced immune function, and lower levels of high-density lipoproteins

Most of earth's iodine is found in .... and iodine content in soil varies by ....

oceans; location which affects iodine content of crops

Copper is highest in ....

organ meats (liver and kidney), shellfish, nuts, seeds, mushrooms, chocolate, and legumes

Highest concentration of selenium are in .... - Most common sources in diet are ..... - Selenium content of meats is consistent but selenium in plant food varies depending on .... - Dietary selenium is ....., and is not regulated in relation to nutrition status

organ meats and seafood - meat and cereals - content of mineral in the soil where plant was grown - well absorbed

inhibitors:

phytate, soy protein, compounds in tea and red wine (polyphenols), high calcium intake in same meal with iron

Trace minerals are found in ......, but their bioavailability (the extent to which a mineral can be absorbed and used by the body) can be influenced by .....

plant based and animal based foods the form of the food, our nutrition status, age, and for women, pregnancy

Milder iodine deficiency are most common in ......, as the RDA for iodine during pregnancy is 50% higher than for nonpregnant women - Lack of iodine can affect .... - If pregnant woman is extremely deficient in iodine, ...... can develop in her child - cretinism:

pregnant women - brain development and growth of the developing fetus - cretinism - leads to intellectual disability, deafness and muteness, stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and other abnormalities

Iodine supplements are sometimes recommended for .....

pregnant women and women of childbearing age

Iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy increases risk of ....

preterm birth and low birth weight increasing infants risk of health problems later

Zinc is required for regulation of ....

protein synthesis, reproduction, cell division, growth and development, immune responses, and neurological functions

Trace minerals are also incorporated into other types of ..... in addition to enzymes; for example iron is a component of oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells called ......; zinc plays role in stabilizing structure of ...... in the body

proteins - hemoglobin - 100s of proteins

Copper deficiency from low dietary intakes are ..... in US - Copper deficiency are somewhat common in people who have ...... to treat obesity and in those with other conditions that cause nutrient malabsorption

rare - gastric bypass surgery

Anemia occurs when oxygen-carrying capacity of ..... is inadequate and iron deficiency is the leading cause of the anemia that results from shortage of ....

red blood cells iron-containing hemoglobin that carries oxygen in red blood cells

which trace mineral functions in antioxidant activity?

selenium, zinc, copper, manganese

Iron stores in body are regulated only by controlling its absorption in the ..... bc iron cannot be excreted in urine or bile

small intestine

The body cannot .... zinc so a regular daily intake of zinc is required to maintain adequate zinc levels although absorption does increase in the small intestine when intake is low

store

Safe range of intake for trace minerals is narrow compared with major minerals, bc trace minerals are required in .... - Trace mineral deficiencies can cause ....

such small amounts - vague or varied symptoms difficult to diagnose but sometimes inadequacies have severe and deadly consequences

Rare for individuals to over-consume trace minerals through food along but intake above UL is possible through ....

supplementation, resulting in dangerous adverse effects

fluoride is another important trace mineral required for optimal health but not required to .....

sustain life and not considered an essential nutrient

Iron:

the most abundant trace mineral in the body, crucial component of hundreds of enzymes and other proteins in the body

Trace minerals differ from major minerals in all of the following ways EXCEPT:

they are less essential in human health

All of the following are general properties of trace minerals, EXCEPT:

they are only found in foods of animal origin

Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones, it is required for normal function of the ..... → pituitary gland in the brain secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) which ..... → thyroid hormones regulate energy metabolism and protein synthesis and play an important role in development of fetal skeleton and brain (........)

thyroid gland - regulates the thyroid by increasing the uptake of iodine from the blood, stimulating thyroid hormone production and release - iodine deficiency is a huge problem during pregnancy

Goiter occurs when ...... → TSH levels rise to stimulate thyroid hormone synthesis by the thyroid gland but bc it doesn't receive enough iodine, thyroid hormone production remains low → TSH levels remain high and .....

thyroid gland is not able to make enough thyroid hormone - this continued stimulation of thyroid gland causes it to grow and expand forming lump in the neck

When people don't get enough iodine, the thyroid gland cannot produce adequate levels of..... which can lead to .....

thyroid hormones which can lead to goiter or hypothyroidism (under-active thyroid) which slows metabolic rate

Symptoms of iron deficiency:

tired and out of breath, perform poorly at work or school, and have slow cognitive and social development during childhood, have trouble maintaining body temperature and more susceptible to infections bc their immune systems don't work properly Another symptom is pica

Vegetarians absorb less zinc so dietary reference initiates recommend they consume ...... zinc

twice as much

Condition can also come from insufficient dietary intake of iron (more common with ......)

vegetarians bc they avoid meat and don't consume dietary heme iron)

Selenium deficiency by itself rarely causes obvious symptoms or illness but physiological stresses like ........ can cause clinical illness

viral infections, chemical exposure, or low intakes of other antioxidants together with low selenium intake

nonheme iron absorption is enhanced when consumed with ....

vitamin C or with unidentified factor in meat, fish, or poultry (MFP factor)

selenium deficiency increases likelihood of developing ...... when intake of selenium is low → deficiency of vitamin E occurs bc selenium functions as a cofactor for an important antioxidant enzyme system and a deficiency of selenium increases ......

vitamin E deficiency oxidative stress and places greater demand on antioxidant function of vitamin E

anemia

when the blood is deficient in red blood cells, in hemoglobin, or in total volume

which trace mineral functions in growth and wound healing?

zinc & manganese

enhancers:

MRP (meat, fish, poultry) Vitamin C

what provides the majority of total iodine intake in the US? - iodine in milk originates from the ....

Milk and processed grain product - fortification of animal feed and the use of iodine-containing sanitizers during milk collection

what foods inhibit nonheme iron absorption by binding to iron in the gastrointestinal tract?

Soy protein, phytates (compounds found in whole grains and legumes), and polyphenols (such as tannins in tea and red wine)

Molybdenum: - Average intake of US population is usually ..... - Deficiencies unknown in healthy individuals and risk of toxicity in humans is very low

a cofactor for only 4 enzymes and the function of one of these enzymes is not well understood - above the RDA