OCEAN MARINE BIO END OF YEAR FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Essays and short answer questions

-Geological features of ocean basins (recall features of active vs passive continental margins) -basic anatomy of kelp, fishes and cetaceans -characteristics of soft bottom intertidal ecosystems, comparison of sandy beaches vs mudflats -keystone predators-sea otters and sea stars -names of marine ecosystems, their definitions, and basic characteristics; know what is meant by epipelagic, intertidal, bathyal etc. know the summary figure showing these -phytoplankton blooms, including factors involved at different latitudes-know the graphs well! -adaptations of mesopelagic and bathypelagic fishes

what is meant by vertical stability and instability of the water column? what produces vertical stability or instability?

????????? don't know possibly Basic kinds of vertical circulation Wind driven • Upwelling and downwelling • Langmuir circulation - special case, only down to about 6 m or so Thermohaline circulation - currents due to density differences • Temperature and/or salinity Thermohaline Circulation Cold, high salinity water that is very dense sinks in the polar regions Water then spreads laterally along the ocean floor in a complex manner

what is the largest living fish? the largest animal?

Blue Shark, Whale Shark, polar bear?

what are the levels of organization of a complex multicellular organism, in order, from cells to organ systems?

Cells-->Tissues-->Organs--> Organ Systems

what is the ekman spiral? what causes the ekman spiral to form?

Ekman Spiral • Wind tends to "grab" water and move/push it (friction) - driving force • Coriolis Effect causes moving water at the immediate surface to be diverted at a 45o angle - To right in N hemisphere, left in S hemisphere • Each deeper layer of water is driven by the movement of the layer above it • Coriolis Effect causes each successive layer to be increasingly diverted • Friction causes the speed of the water movement to decrease with increasing depth • Result is a spiral • The net movement of water is at a 90 degree angle to the direction of the wind, called EKMAN TRANSPORT

what do the terms endothermy, ectothermy, homeothermy and poikilothermy mean? what are some examples of endothermic fishes? how is endothermy produced in fishes and why is endothermy advantageous?

Endothermy in Fishes • Ectothermic vs. Endothermic - Ectothermic = cannot raise body temperature above that of environment - Endothermic = can raise body temperature above that of environment • Poikilothermic vs. Homeothermic - Poikilothermic = variable body temperature - Homeothermic = constant body temperature • Endothermy is created by countercurrent exchange, see handout • Endothermy in fishes is in most cases "regional endothermy", where specific parts of the body (e.g. certain muscles, brain, eyes) are kept warmer than the water temperature

How does GPS operate?

Global Positioning System (GPS): uses signals emitted by satellites to determine position with a high degree of accuracy

what characteristics of arthropods have led to their great success? what is ecdysis and why is it necessary? what are the three subphyla of arthropods and what kinds of animals do they contain? what is a biramous appendage?

Phylum Arthropoda Exoskeleton made of chitin • Provides protection, support, attachment sites for muscles • As an arthropod grows, periodic ecdysis (molting) is required Segmented bodies • Loss, fusion, or specialization of segments in some Paired, jointed appendages for locomotion, feeding, sensing environment Dorsal anterior brain connected to ventral nerve cord Open circulatory system Dioecious (few exceptions) Three subphyla in marine environment • Subphylum Chelicerata - horseshoe crabs and sea spiders • Subphylum Crustacea - copepods, barnacles, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, and lots more • Subphylum Uniramia - insects (recent studies suggest this group should be a subgroup within the Crustacea) Subphylum Chelicerata Horseshoe crabs and sea spiders No antennae First paired appendages are feeding structures called chelicerae Horseshoe Crabs: Body consists of carapace (cephalothorax), abdomen, and telson Omnivores that live in shallow waters of Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts of US Migrate into very shallow waters during breeding period Sea Spiders: Usually small (1-10 mm), but can be as large as 40 cm across Trunk of body with large processes (extensions) that join legs Most are carnivores Subphylum Crustacea Anteriormost appendages are two pairs of antennae • Mandibles, then first and second maxillae follow Appendages are typically biramous Body often consisting of head, thorax, abdomen, and telson Thorax often covered by carapace Incredibly diverse group that includes copepods, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, and lots more • Diverse sizes, life styles, modes of feeding, etc. A stomatopod, or mantis shrimp=Mantis shrimps either spear or smash their prey using enlarged appendages Subphylum Uniramia Name of subphylum refers to unbranched appendages Includes the insects Some insects are found in the marine environment where the sea meets the land Only insects found in marine environment far from land are marine water striders, which walk on water surface (remember surface tension?)

what is radial symmetry? bilateral symmetry?

Radial symmetry: More than one plane of symmetry More than one way to slice animal and wind up with mirror images Ex. Seastar Bilateral symmetry: Only one place of symmetry Only one way to cut animal and wind up with mirror images Ex. Fish Terms Related to Bilateral Symmetry see diagram -anterior (cranial) -posterior (caudal) -dorsal -ventral

what are the various sensory systems found in fishes, and what do they detect?

Sensory Perception • Sight - Eyes • Olfaction - Nares (typically with incurrent and excurrent openings) • Touch - receptors in skin • Taste - Taste organs that are not necessarily confined to inside of mouth • Hearing, spatial equilibrium and balance -Inner ear, sometimes aided by gas bladder • Water currents ("distant touch") - Lateral line system • Electrical fields - electroreceptive organs, e.g., ampullae of Lorenzini in sharks • Bending of the cilia ("hairs") of the "hair cells" by fluid movement causes stimulation of the nervous system Gas exchange between a fish's body and air can involve: - Lung - Skin - Vascularized buccal cavity and/or gut - Strengthened gill filaments (instead of gill filaments collapsing due to gravity, maintain high surface area for gas exchange) - Opercular cavities that hold water

what are the various ways that tsunamis can form (what creates them)?

• Sometimes incorrectly called "tidal waves" • Commonly caused by seismic disturbances of the seafloor • In open ocean: - Wavelength typically 100-200 km - Height usually less than 2 m - Typical speed 720 km/hr (about 450 mph) - Not dangerous to vessels Tsunamis Continued • As a tsunami enters shallow water: - Wavelength decreases - Height increases - Speed slows - Steepness increases, but long wavelength means wave face does not typically become unstable in conventional sense • Wall of water that can be tens of meters high moves inland with great destructive force Some coasts (e.g. Japan) have protective seawalls and/or tsunami warning systems in place • If you are on a coastline and experience an earthquake, it is a good idea to quickly make your way to higher ground Tsunamis Continued • If a trough arrives before a crest, water will be sucked seaward a great distance, exposing normally covered ocean bottom. People who don't know what this means are often fascinated, and walk out to investigate the exposed fish, etc. If you ever see this, sound the alarm and get to high ground immediately!

what are the 7 classes of vertebrates and what kinds of animals belong to each?

- Class Agnatha = jawless fishes - Class Chondrichthyes = cartilagenous fishes - Class Osteichthyes = bony fishes - Class Amphibia = amphibians - Class Reptilia = reptiles - Class Aves = birds - Class Mammalia = mammals

what do we mean when we say an alga is calcareous or coralline?

-Some are coralline or calcareous, with deposits of calcium carbonate -Coralline: Growth habits are Branching thalli, Grow like a crust over rocks; Coralline contributes large amounts of calcium carbonates to coral reefs MORE NEEDED

how do coral atolls form?

-circular coral reefs, lagoon in the center, if coral gets eroded and depostied enough -forms a low lying island, formed from subsidence and vertical growth of the reef fringing reef= reef located on the edges of a seamount barrier reef= reef that has grown up and around a subsiding seamount vertical growth= when a coral reef grows up to reach the light it needs to survive

how are sediments classified by origin? by size of grains? which (coarse or fine-grained) is transported most easily by waves and currents?

BY ORIGIN: Lithogenous (Terrigenous) sediments - produced by weathering and erosion of (mainly) terrestrial rocks. Erosion accomplished by: - Rivers - Glaciers - Waves - Winds - Landslides Biogenous sediments - fragments of living organisms (called an "ooze" if >30% by volume), including: - Calcareous hard parts (e.g., foraminiferan ooze) - Siliceous hard parts (e.g., diatomaceous earth, radiolarian ooze) Hydrogenous sediments - precipitate from seawater, result of chemical reactions Examples include - Hydrothermal vent minerals - Manganese nodules - Phosphorite nodules - Calcium carbonates - Evaporites Cosmogenous sediments - Extraterrestrial origin BY SIZE OF GRAINS: LARGEST TO SMALLEST boulders gravel sand mud silt clay TRANSPORTED MOST EASILY BY WAVES AND CURRENTS Currents - deposition depends on speed of current and size and density of sediment - Large particles settle out more readily than smaller ones - Particles settle out most readily from slower currents - Examples of this include formation of turbidite layers from turbidity currents

what do the terms sessile and sedentary mean?

Biological and Ecological terms: BENTHIC On, in or very near the bottom Sessile: attached to the bottom Sedentary: can move slowly

what are the various adaptations that fishes possess to avoid sinking? which ones do chondrichthians (e.g. sharks) have?

Buoyancy Control • Incorporation of low density compounds in body - E.g., oily liver of sharks • Reduction of dense tissues - E.g., deep sea fishes with reduced musculature, cartilagenous endoskeleton of sharks • Use of appropriately angled fins and body surfaces - E.g., fins of sharks • Gas bladder - E.g., most bony fishes

what are the 4 chordate characteristics? what are the 3 subphyla of chordates, what kinds of animals do they contain, and what are the general appearances of the members of each?

Characteristics of the Phylum Chordata: All chordates have the following characteristics at some point in their life; these can be reduced or absent in some life stages. Functions have changed as well in some chordates. • Notochord (NTC). Original function = support of body. • Dorsal Hollow Nerve Tube (DHNT). Main portion of nervous system. • Pharyngeal Gill Slits (PGS). Original function = filter feeding. • Post-Anal Tail (PAT). Aids in producing thrust for swimming. Subphylum Urochordata - Sea squirts, salps, and larvaceans Subphylum Cephalochordata - Lancelets (Amphioxus or Branchiostoma) Subphylum Vertebrata - Vertebrates (will start these the next presentation) Subphylum Urochordata - -Sea squirts have a pelagic "tadpole" larva stage that has all four chordate characteristics. The adult is sessile and largely lacks the NTC, DHNT, and PAT; the PGS is modified into a basket-like structure for feeding. --Salps are similar to sea squirts where the adult stage is modified for a pelagic existence. Have jet propulsion, water enters mouth and is squeezed out through caudal end (filter feeders). Life cycle involves both sexual and asexual reproduction, can form large chains or "wheels" of genetically identical individuals. --Adult larvaceans are pelagic, and filter feed using a mucous "house" that they construct. Water flow is created by undulating their tails. Often bioluminescent. Subphylum Cephalochordata - -Lancelets have all four chordate characteristics in easily recognizable form as adults. Typically live partially buried in sand with heads sticking out, filter feed using mucous-lined PGS with current created by beating cilia. Can swim rapidly when disturbed.

what is a countercurrent exchange system? what is the relevance of countercurrent exchange system?

Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component, between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. see diagram In organisms possessing two fluid systems separated by a permeable membrane across which exchange of gases or ions occurs, the occurrence of opposing fluid flow on either side of the membrane (e.g. the interface between the blood circulatory system and the gills of teleosts). Counter current exchange maximizes the rate of exchange.

what are the main differences btwn pelagic fishes living in the mesopelagic vs bathypelagic and deeper zones?

Deep Sea Pelagic Environments • No cover, boundaries or hard surfaces except other organisms (imagine being suspended in air or space your entire life) - Mesopelagic - some sunlight comes down from surface, depth 200-1000m - Bathypelagic, Abyssopelagic, and Hadopelagic - no sunlight (only bioluminescence), depth > 1000m General Characteristics of Mesopelagic Fishes: • Small, usually less than 20 cm, • Coloration is typically black, red, or silver • Many are daily vertical migrators - come toward surface at night to feed on plankton in epipelagic zone (phytoplankton form base of food web), thought to be an adaptation for avoiding avian predators that feed during day • Photophores - used for counterillumination (concentrated on ventral surface), inter- and intraspecific communication, prey capture • Large eyes, some specialized for vision in a particular direction (usually upward). These fishes are using available light from sun, sensitive to blue wavelengths to see prey or predators silhouetted against it. Some predators have yellow lenses that filter out ambient light, leaving bioluminescence associated with counterillumination visible.• About half of species have conventional gas bladders, energetic cost of daily migration (if undertaken) is considerable. Other half (mainly non-migrators) lack gas bladders, or have wax esters in the gas bladder (obtained from copepods). General Characteristics of Bathy-, Abysso-, and Hadopelagic Fishes: Don't migrate vertically, less food available, low population densities relative to mesopelagic fishes • Most lack gas bladders entirely, rely on other methods to avoid sinking, especially reduction of muscle and skeletal tissues • Color - uniformly black • Photophores - present but generally less numerous than mesopelagic fishes. Used for intra- and interspecific communication, prey capture (lure or searchlight). - Anglerfish - has esca = lure, illicium = rod • Some fishes have lures that resemble smaller bioluminescent organisms that they move in front of their mouths • Fishes attracted to lure wind up being eaten themselves • Large mouths and/or distensible stomachs to eat large prey if encountered • Excellent olfactory and acoustico-lateralis systems • Weird reproductive methods in some -hermaphroditism, or other weird sexual adaptations (e.g., parasitic males)

what are dinoflagellates? what are some of their notable features?

Dinoflagellates (kingdom protista) -Have 2 flagella at right angles to one another, one entirely in a groove around the middle of the cell -Many have cell walls composed of cellulose plates -Important primary producers -Some emit bioluminescent light when mechanically disturbed -Some are poisonous -Periodic blooms produce "red tides" -Some are animal endosymbionts (zooxanthellae);Lives inside the body of other animals -Symbiotic relationship: host provides nutrients and dinoflagellates provides food -Have grooves

what kinds of features are found at plate boundaries? give actual examples mentioned in class (e.g. Andes result from an oceanic-continental convergent boundary-know this and other examples of different types of plate boundaries)

Divergent Plate Boundary: plates moving away from each other, new material added to each -volcanic activity is associated with addition of new material; oceanic ridges and rises (volcanic undersea mountain range w a rift valley in the middle); rift valleys on land (east Africa, may eventually form seas e.g. red sea) Transform Plate Boundary: plates sliding laterally past one another -faults -offset portions of mid ocean ridges (offsets necessitated by stresses associated with a divergent boundary conforming with the curved surface of the earth) ex: san andreas fault -associated with ridges and rises Convergent Plate Boundary: plates moving toward each other -oceanic-oceanic: subduction of one plate under the other; trench is formed, subducted plate heats up, melts and magma rises, volcanic activity forms a curved line of islands parallel to the trench called an island arc (e.g. Aleutian islands, phillipines, Indonesia) -oceanic-continental: subduction of oceanic plate under the continental; trench is formed with accretionary wedge of sediments, subducted plate heats up and melts and magma rise, volcanic activity forms a curved line of terrestrial volcanoes on continent (eg Cascades and Andes mountain ranges) -continental-continental: collision of plates with low density, neither plate effectively subducted; forms a high mountain range (eg Himalayas, much older Appalachians)

why does the neritic portion of the epipelagic zone have so much primary productivity compared to the oceanic portion of the epipelagic zone? how and why does the typical water clarity differ btwn these two ecosystems?

Epipelagic • Surface to 200m • Adequate light for photosynthesis Two subdivisions: - Neritic = over continental shelves - Oceanic = not over continental shelves, beyond continental shelf break Neritic • In general, much more productive than oceanic due to greater abundance of nutrients - Shallow bottom holding nutrients closer to surface - Upwelling along coastlines • This productivity varies with: - Latitude - Season • Phytoplankton are the source of this productivity (mainly diatoms and dinoflagellates) ((((((Phytoplankton Requirements • Light - varies seasonally, can be limiting at times • Nutrients (nitrogen especially and phosphorus) - major limiting factor - Nutrients (fecal pellets, dead organisms, etc.) that sink to the bottom are not available for phytoplankton to use - Where present, thermoclines/stratification inhibit their return toward the surface Phytoplankton Blooms • Occur when both light and nutrients are abundant • Polar waters - lack of thermoclines means nutrients always available, light is limiting in all seasons except summer. Result is single annual bloom centered around summer • Tropics - abundant light all year, but persistent thermoclines mean nutrients are always limiting. Result is no annual blooms occur. Temperate waters - light is abundant spring through fall, limiting during winter. Nutrients become abundant in winter, and to lesser extent in fall, due to breakup of shallow thermocline (seasonal upwelling can also contribute to this). Result is a major bloom in the spring, minor bloom in the fall.))))) Oceanic • Low productivity due to limited nutrients except for: - equator, where equatorial upwelling results in boost in productivity - portions of polar regions due to overturn • Result is "oceanic desert" with very clear water

what is latitude? what is longitude? what is the rate of rotation of the earth in degrees of longitude per hour?

Grid System of Longitude and Latitude -used to define positions on the earth's surface EARTH ROTATES=360 degrees in 24 hours or 15 degrees per hour LONGITUDE= -indicates how far east or west a location is relative to the prime meridian LATITUDE-indicates how far north or south a location is relative to the equator Location Systems -to determine the location of a position on earth a grid of reference lines is used -lines (parallels) of latitude: begin at the equator (0 degrees) in Ecuador; go north or south up to 90 degrees (n or s pole) -lines (meridians) of longitude: begin at prime meridian through Greenwich, england (0 degrees); go east or west up to 180 degrees (international dateline)

what environmental conditions are required for coral reefs? what environmental factors are usually required for an ecosystem to have a high amount of primary productivity (net photosynthetic output)? why are coral reefs so productive despite the lack of nutrients in the water?

Hard-Bottom Subtidal - Rocky Bottoms/Rocky Reefs • In shallow water, high primary productivity due to macroscopic algae, and epifauna are more common than infauna. Hard-Bottom Subtidal - Coral Reefs • Largest structures built by living organisms • CaCO3 secreted by reef building coral exoskeletons and calcareous algae • Corals have mutualistic relationship with zooxanthellae that perform photosynthesis • Conditions for tropical coral reef growth - Warm water temperatures - High light (for photosynthetic zooxanthellae) - Low sedimentation (water will be clear) - Low nutrients with resulting low phytoplankton abundance (water will be clear). Allows corals to outcompete algae. • Coral reefs have extremely high productivity, despite fact that they only grow in water that is extremely low in nutrients. How can this be? - There are lots of photosynthetic organisms - zooxanthellae, algae, etc. - on a reef - Nutrient cycling seems to be the key. Nutrients and plankton (sparse as they are) make it into the reef ecosystem and are captured, recycled. Cycling of accumulated nutrients occurs within corals (between coral and zooxanthellae), and also among other organisms inhabiting The reef.

can you list the phyla of photosynthetic, single celled to simple colonial protists we learned about? single celled to simple colonial heterotrophic protists? multicellular photosynthetic protists (=macroscopic algae, which includes kelp)? what is the scientific name of our local species of giant kelp?

Heterotrophic Protists or Protozoan=s All single cells to colonies, no truly multicellular forms Foraminiferas (Phyllum): -Heterotrophic Protists or Protozoans -Have a cell wall (called a "test") made of calcium carbonate -New chambers of increasing size are made as cell grows, often arranged in spiral pattern -Tests can accumulate on bottom forming a foraminiferan ooze -White cliffs of Dover, England are foraminiferan sediments -Important microfossils -Long retractable extensions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm called pseudopodia protrude through pores in the test through endocytosis -Food particles trapped by pseudopodia are moved to interior of cell for digestion -Most species of foraminiferans live on the bottom (free or attached), although there are some very abundant planktonic species Radiolarians (Phyllum) -Heterotrophic Protists or Protozoans -Have a cell wall/test made out of silica -Spherical with radiating spines -Tests can accumulate on bottom forming a radiolarian ooze -Important microfossils -Have pseudopodia that protrude through pores in test for feeding using the process of endocytosis (phagocytosis) -Some form large colonies Photosynthetic Protists= Two main subgroups -Those consisting only of unicellular to colonial forms -Those consisting of truly multicellular forms (plus their close unicellular to colonial relatives) = multicellular algae Diatoms= -Unicellular to Colonial Photosynthetic Protists -Cell wall of silica, consisting of two halves called "frustules" -Reproduction can be asexual or sexual -Important primary producers in maine environment -Planktonic (phytoplankton) and benthic forms -Undergo periodic population explosions or "blooms" -Source of "diatomaceous earth" -Some are planktonic because they have oil-filled frustules, which causes them to rise to the surface Phytoplankton Honorable Mentions (kingdom protista) -Silicoflagellates Internal structural network of silica with a single flagellates Coccolithophorids Cell wall consists of small scale-like structure made of calcium carbonate; Form distinctive microfossils Multicellular photosynthetic protists (and their close unicellular to colonial relatives), otherwise known as multicellular algae Introductory Remarks on Multicellular Algae= -Placed by some into Kingdom Plantae -Phycology = study of algae -Thallus = body of an alga -Some are coenocytes -Multinucleate cells, mitosis without cytokinesis -Some are coralline or calcareous, with deposits of calcium carbonate -Technical classification based on biochemistry and cellular structure -Some have fairly complex life cycles Green Algae: -Pigments include: Chlorophylls a, b, Carotenoids -Cell wall made of cellulose -Some are coenocytic -Some coralline reef builders -Group that gave rise to land plants (Kingdom Plantae) Evidence includes pigments, details of mitosis and photosynthetic pathways Ex. Codium, a Green Alga "Dead Man's Fingers" kingdom protista Red Algae: -Pigments include: Chlorophylls a, d, Phycobilins -Cell wall made of cellulose, agar and carrageenan; Agar and carrageenan are used as gelling and thickening agents in many products; Red algae are harvested for these compounds -Coralline: Growth habits are Branching thalli, Grow like a crust over rocks; Coralline contributes large amounts of calcium carbonates to coral reefs -Red algae have no flagellated cells at any stage; Unique feature; red algae probably represent a very early evolutionary offshoot Ex. Chondria, an Epiphytic Red Alga Epiphyte: alga that grows on another alga but doesn't use it for food kingdom protista Brown Algae: -Pigments include: Chlorophylls a, c, Fucoxanthin -Cell wall made of cellulose and alginic acid; Alginic acid has many commercial uses such as emulsifier, moisturizer (contains water), prevents ice crystal formation -Some brown algae (kelps) are commercially harvested for alginic acid; Includes large kelps, which can be hundred of feet long and grow up to 20 inches per day Create important habitat known as kelp forests, underwater "equivalent" of coniferous forests on land -Kelp Morphology: Pneumatocyst= gas filled, gives buoyancy; Holdfast= grips the bottom -Includes Sargassum, some species in this genus form large floating masses offshore Important habitat for many organisms Sargasso Sea named after these algae -Ex. Brown Alga is Colpomenia kingdom protista SCIENTIFIC NAME OF OUR LOCAL SPECIES OF GIANT KELP: Macrocystis pyrifera = giant kelp (brown algae, kingdom protista)

what are the major layers of the earth? how are they arranged? which is the thickest? the thinnest? how did they form?

Inner Core: -located at planets center -solid and extremely dense b/c of pressure -very hot -composed of 90% iron and 10% nickel Outer Core: -liquid with same composition as inner core -temp. lil bit cooler than inner -thick -probable source of earth's magnetic field Mantle: -biggest layer -thick -much cooler temp than other layers -composed mainly of magnesium silicates and iron -mainly solid, tho there is a region near the upper mantle where rocks are close to their melting pt and can flow slowly Mohorovic Discontinuity (moho): boundary btwn mantle and crust -abrupt seismic differences Crust: -outermost layer of earth -cold, thin, rigid -thickness varies -main rock types are basalt (ocean basins) and granitic (continents) -basalt=magnesium silicates, more dense -granitic=aluminum silicates, less dense evidence for internal structure -density and gravitational info -meteorites -seismic waves proto earth -central portion hot and molten, heat from compression and radio active decay -denser elements of planet moved toward the center -4.5-4.6 bya earhts outer crust solidified due to cooling of the planet from loss of radiant heat energy (crust has since been destroyed);moon was formed at about the same time (by collision btwn earth and another object...material from both sent into orbit and coalesced into moon) lithosphere: crust + moho discontinuity + upper mantle -rigid plates of plate tectonic theory -plates float and move on top of the athenosphere asthenosphere: plastic portion of mantle

what is zonation? what are the factors that determine the upper and lower limits (respectively) of rocky intertidal organisms? what kinds of physical challenges do these organisms face? see table I referred to in class

Intertidal (Littoral) Region alternately covered by water (immersion) and exposed to air (emersion) by tidal action Between high high water (hhw) and low low water (llw) Some organisms live above hhw in splash zone -When tide is out, water might be trapped in tidepools of various sizes and at various heights in the intertidal Zonation - rocky intertidal is not uniform, consists of vertical zones dominated by different sets of organisms -Very well studied due to accessibility Tremendous diversity and density of life High primary productivity due to macroscopic and microscopic algae, seagrasses. Consumers feed on producers and on one another. Intertidal zone is the portion of the marine environment that experiences the greatest fluctuation of physical characteristics/factors (e.g., temperature). Other portions of the marine environment are much more uniform. Marine organisms living in the rocky intertidal face considerable challenges, which can be divided into two main categories: Physical challenges/factors - physical characteristics of the environment; many of these are connected with emersion Biological challenges/factors - biological characteristics of the environment; other organisms challenge of Desiccation = drying out: - Move to or occupy area that is moist at low tide (e.g., under algae, in cracks) - Prevent/reduce water loss (e.g., close up into shells, close up to reduce exposed surface area) - Tolerate water loss physiologically (e.g., algae that tolerate drying out) challenge of Temperature changes: - mainly overheating, some places freezing - Move to cooler location (e.g., in crevices) - Reduce rate of heat gain (e.g., light-colored shells) - Increase rate of heat loss (e.g., ridges on shells) - Physiologically tolerate high or low temperatures challenge of Wave action: - varies with time and place - Move to sheltered microhabitat (e.g., in crevices, under rocks) - Have thick, protective shells - Have strong means of attachment to rocks (muscular foot of chitons and gastropods, fibers secreted by mussels) challenge of Low oxygen levels in tidepools at low tide - especially on warm days: - Extract oxygen from atmosphere - Physiologically tolerate low oxygen levels Changes in salinity - increased salinity due to evaporation, decreased salinity due to precipitation: Reduce exposure (e.g., chiton or gastropod clamping down onto rock, shell pulled downward prevents exposure) - Physiologically tolerate wide range of salinities (be euryhaline) challenge of Exposure to ultraviolet radiation - Reduce exposure (e.g., move to shaded location, pull into shell) - Repair damage with enzymes Rocky Intertidal - Biological Factors Competition for space Space is a major limiting factor; space tends to be occupied Food, light, etc. generally available in abundance (although amount of time available for feeding during immersion, which is a physical factor, may be limiting) Predation - presence of predators Herbivory - presence of herbivores Zonation of the Rocky Intertidal/Littoral If you observe the rocky intertidal at low tide, you will notice horizontal zones or bands of different colors and general appearance at different heights. These are the result of different kinds of organisms living at different heights in the intertidal. What Causes Zonation of Rocky Shores? Usual situation is that upper limit of a species distribution is determined by physical factors, whereas lower limit is determined by biological factors

what kingdom do bacteria and cyanobacteria belong to ?what are the major features of the members of this kingdom?

Kingdom Monera -Prokaryotic cells (lack membrane-bound organelles) -Heterotrophic (cannot make own food using inorganic energy) subtypes----Decomposers; Pathogenic -Autotrophic (can make own food using inorganic energy) subtypes----Chemoautotroph (use energy rich inorganic compounds as energy source for making their food) e.g. hydrothermal vent bacteria; Photoautotroph (do photosynthesis, use light as energy source) e.g. cyanobacteria (first photosynthetic organisms, changed earths atmosphere from one with no free oxygen to one that had abundant oxygen, perform nitrogen fixation) -important fossils are stromatolites prokaryotic -Single celled to colonial -can be either autotrophic or heterotrophic -cell wall present, may be made of peptidoglycan Photoautotrophs= including cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae) are important for many reasons, including: Perform nitrogen fixation-convert nitrogen into form of nitrogen organisms can use; Responsible for original formation of oxygen-rich atmosphere on earth (previously oxygen-poor); Form distinct fossils called stromatolites How do they form??? Stromatolites- Perform photosynthesis, use light as energy source

What are the major oceans of the world? where are they located? which is the largest? the deepest?

MAJOR OCEANS= Atlantic (located btwn n. america and europe, btwn africa and s america, above antarctica) Pacific (located btwn n america and asia) Indian (located btwn africa and australia and below asia) Arctic (located below north pole and above asia) Southern (antarctic) (located above antarctica, below africa) LARGEST=Pacific DEEPEST=Pacific

what are major taxonomic categories in order? what are the five kingdoms?

Main Taxonomic categories: Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species kinky people come over for group sex **Exceptions exist within the 5 kingdom system -Ex. Dodder, a parasitic plant Kingdom monera, kingdom protista, kingdom plantae, kingdom fungi, kingdom animalia

how does oceanic crust differ from continental crust?

OCEANIC CRUST=the relatively thin part of the earth's crust that underlies the ocean basins. It is geologically young compared with the continental crust and consists of basaltic rock overlain by sediments. CONTINENTAL CRUST=the relatively thick part of the earth's crust that forms the large landmasses. It is generally older and more complex than the oceanic crust. granitic

what are the major geological features of the ocean floor? how did they form? what is the distinction between active and passive continental margins?

Ocean Floor and Land differences: -sea floor as dramatic as land (mountain ranges are longer, valley floors wider and flatter, canyons deeper) -Erosion (by waves and currents) is slower in the ocean -sea floor features are often covered by sediments Continental Shelf: -located at the edge of a continent -usually areas of varying width that slope gently toward the ocean basins -average width approx 65 km, average max seaward depth 130 km -supported by continental crust -are covered/uncovered by water due to glacial periods that cause fluctuations in sea level -some shelves are almost bare of sediments due to fast moving currents Continental Shelf Break: -boundary of continental shelf -an abrupt increase in slope (amount of change in depth with horizontal distance) of bottom Continental Slope: -angle and extent of slope varies with location, 200 m to 3000 m or higher -may contain rocky outcroppings, relatively thin covering of sediments b/c of steepness Submarine Canyons -associated with continental slope -may extend up, into and across shelf -steep sided and v shaped, generally run perpindicular to shore -some associated with river systems, some with faults -continued erosion of canyons caused by turbidity currents caused by earthquakes or overloaded sediments from shelf Continental rise: -associated with passive margins -a gentler slope formed by sediment accumulation at the base of the steeper continental slope -common in atlantic, indian and arctic oceans Oceanic Trenches -associated with active continental margins or oceanic-oceanic convergences -located at the base of the continental slope if oceanic-continental convergence -located adjacent to island arcs if oceanic-oceanic -common in pacific ocean -deepest parts of the ocean -ex:marianas trench Abyssal Plain (ocean basin floor) -most extensive part of ocean -mostly flat -depth typically 3000-6000 m -composed of oceanic crust (basalt) covered by sediment deposits Abyssal plain can be interrupted by: -abyssal hills (short) -steep sided seamounts that rise abruptly, may rise above the surface to become islands -guyots=flat topped seamounts, typically are 1000-1700 m below the surface seamounts: formed by mantle hot spots ex: hawaii shield volcano: looks like a curved shield on its side -massive, gentle slope -low viscosity lava composite volcano: -steep slope, very viscous lava, deadly eruptions cinder cones: smallest kind of volcano mass wasting events -as the island builds up, unstable edges of the island can suddenly (and catistrophicaly) slip away, leaving behind dramatic cliffs called scarps oceanic ridges and rises: -underwater volcanic mountain ranges associated with divergent plate boundaries -when slopes of mountain ranges are steep they are referred to as ridges -when slopes of mountain ranges are gentle they are called rises -ridges and rises can isolate deep ocean basins Active continental margins: -associated with oceanic-continental convergence zones of plates Passive continental margins: -associated with interiors of plates, where the oceanic and continental crusts belong to the same lithospheric plate Low Sea Level V High Sea Level= erosion of exposed regions formed valleys and canyons, rivers deposited sediments far out on the shelf; higher sea level sediments deposited on inner regions of shelf

what is oviparity? viviparity? ovoviviparity?

Oviparous: Eggs laid externally -Either internal or external fertilization Ovoviviparous: Eggs retained in mother's body Viviparous: Young are released alive -No maternal nourishment beyond original egg yolk -Internal fertilization only

regarding salinity, what is the definition of parts per thousand (0/00)? what is the salinity of typical seawater in 0/00? has the salinity of the ocean changed much over geological time? what is the law of constant proportions? how does changing the salinity affect the density of water?

Parts Per Thousand (0/00)= salt content/concentration is expressed in units "parts per thousand" (0/00). equal to the grams of salt per kg of seawater Average Salinity of Seawater=35 parts per thousand (0/00) Despite these inputs, the overall salinity of the ocean has remained stable over the last 1.5 billion yrs. How can this be? input rate=removal rate MORE ON THIS (sources of salt ions= dissolved out of rocks and soil, mostly terrestrial and carried to the oceans by rivers. Especially cations. -gases released by volcanic activity, variety of pathways (especially anions) -hydrothermal vents release ions as well;processes removing ions from ocean water -ADSORPTION of ions to clay sediments falling through the water column. Ions stick to clay sediments, and are carried down and incorporated into the bottom sediment. --evaporite formation=bay gets cut off by ocean, salt in H2O is evaporated --sea spray=sprays out salt -biological processes, e.g. dead bodies, poo (salt that was at one time in the ocean but now is not) Principle of Constant Proportion: for open ocean water, the ratios of the amounts/concentrations of major constituents to one another are constants. Overall salinity can change, but ratios of major constituents do not. • Increasing the salinity lowers the freezing point of water • As the salinity of water increases, its density increases

what major features do cnidarians share? what is a nematocyst? what is a polyp and a medusa and what is the basic cnidarian life cycle? what are the major classes of cnidarians and what kinds of animals do they contain?

Phylum Cnidaria •Radial symmetry, with oral and aboral surfaces •Tissues, some with limited degree of organ development •Basic body plan = two tissues (diploblastic) -Endoderm (gastrodermis) and ectoderm (epidermis) separated by non-tissue mesoglea that may or may not contain some cells •Incomplete gut (called a gastrovascular cavity or GVC) •Extracellular digestion •Tentacles surrounding mouth (same as anus!) •Nervous system is a simple noncentralized nerve net •Two basic body forms - medusa which is usually free swimming, and polyp which is sessile or sedentary •Have cnidocytes = specialized cells containing organelles called cnidae. Cnidae are capable of eversion. There are several kinds of cnidae, most common = nematocyst. Nematocysts are stinging structures that can inject a toxin. •Many cnidarians produce proteins that fluoresce in UV light. The function of these proteins in cnidarians is not known, but these proteins have proven to be useful tools in molecular and cellular biology. BASIC CNIDARIAN LIFE CYCLE: Class Hydrozoa (cnidaria) •Three defining characteristics: -Mesoglea lacks cells -Gastrodermis lacks cnidocytes -Gonads epidermal, or gametes shed directly to outside •Variable life cycles -Polyp without medusa -Medusa without polyp -Both polyp and medusa occur -If present, medusa might be released or not, depending on species -ex. Obelia Class Scyphozoa (cnidaria) •Frequently referred to as jellyfishes •Life cycle has larger, prominent medusa and small, sessile polyp stage ex. Aurelia Class Cubozoa (cnidaria) •Commonly called box jellies •Contains the notorious sea wasps -Common in Indo-Pacific region -Severe, painful stings result in death in 3-20 minutes -Less severe stings heal slowly •Life cycle has larger, prominent medusa and small, sessile polyp stage Class Anthozoa (cnidaria) •Includes sea anemones, hard and soft corals, sea fans, sea pens, sea pansies •Life cycle has polyp only, no medusa (see CB 76) •Polyps can be solitary or colonial •Have endosymbiotic zooxanthellae in tissues Subclass Hexacorallina (cnidaria) •Includes sea anemones, and hard and soft corals •12 or more tentacles that are rarely branched (pinnate) •Some have exoskeletons of CaCO3 Subclass Octocorallina (cnidaria) •Octocorals have endoskeletons of various materials (some calcareous) •8 tentacles that are branched (pinnate) Sea fans or gorgonians are octocorals Sea pens

what is a ctenophore? what basic features do ctenophores have and what do they look like?

Phylum Ctenophora • Planktonic • Radial symmetry • Three basic tissue layers (triploblastic) plus mesoglea -Tissues are endo-, meso-, and ectoderm • Tissues, with limited degree of organ development • Complete gut • 8 comb rows of ciliated cells • Some have lobes for swimming • Many have tentacles with colloblasts (sticky cells) • Monecious (hermaphrodites)

what are the general features of echinoderms? what are the classes of echinoderms and what kinds of animals do they contain?

Phylum Echinodermata • Have many unique features, but details of early development suggests a distant relationship to us (Phylum Chordata) • Adults are radially symmetrical, often pentamerous (symmetry based on 5 parts) • No head • Calcareous endoskeleton (largely of calcium carbonate) • Water vascular system consisting of network of water-filled canals connected to tube feet • No circulatory system - functions performed largely by water vascular system and coelom • Five classes: - Asteroidea = sea stars (Class Asteroidea • Mostly carnivores capable of everting stomach through mouth • Some have pincher-like pedicellariae on aboral surface • Flexible endoskeleton consisting of plates • Slow movement via tube feet) - Ophiuroidea = brittle stars and basket stars (Class Ophiuroidea • Very flexible endoskeleton permits rapid arm movement, used for rapid locomotion • Have central disk that is distinct from arms • Have small spines on legs • Have tube feet that are tentacle-like and lack suckers, used for passive suspension or deposit feeding • Reclusive, often hide during day under rocks, etc.) - Echinoidea = sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars (• Rigid endoskeleton (called a test) • Have moveable spines and pedicellariae • Slow movement via tube feet and spines • Feeding: - Sea urchins graze on bottom using Aristotle's lantern - Heart urchins and sand dollars deposit or suspension feed using tube feet and sometimes small spines and/or mucous) - Holothuroidea = sea cucumbers (Class Holothuroidea • Endoskeleton is made of microscopic, calcareous spicule-like structures • Tube feet around mouth modified into tentacles mainly for deposit feeding (some are suspension feeders) • Defense can involve secretion of toxic substances, discharge of sticky filaments, or evisceration (gut regrows) • Have a structure for gas exchange called a respiratory tree) - Crinoidea = feather stars and sea lilies (• Endoskeleton similar to brittle stars • Some move slowly, some stay in place • Use arms for suspension feeding)

what are the various classes of mollusks we learned in class and what kinds of animals do they contain?

Phylum Mollusca - Molluscs Basic body plan has three main parts, which can be highly modified in some classes -Head-foot = muscular structure used for locomotion via waves of muscular contraction, also attachment to substrate -Mantle which secretes a hard shell (shell mainly of calcium carbonate) -Visceral mass = mass of internal organs •Paired gills located in mantle cavity for gas exchange (water flow via cilia) •Retractor muscles for pulling shell down for protection •Open circulatory system = blood not always contained within vessels •Radula = specialized feeding structure for scraping algae off of substrate •Molluscs can be monecious or dioecious •Typical life cycle (can be modified in some, see CB 78, 79, and 80) see hub diagram •There are four major classes of molluscs and several minor ones. The major ones are: -Class Polyplacophora = chitons -Class Gastropoda = snails and related forms, including limpets, abalones, sea hares, sea slugs -Class Bivalvia = clams, oysters and mussels -Class Cephalopoda = squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes, and nautiluses Class Polyplacophora - Chitons Modification of basic molluscan body plan is shell consists of 8 overlapping plates Class Gastropoda •Modifications of basic body plan may include: -head more distinct and developed -torsion (twisting) of body so that mantle cavity is now at front end near head -shell deepened to allow animal to retract completely within it -mantle and/or shell reduced or lost Class Bivalvia •Modifications of basic molluscan body plan include: -Shell divided into two halves with hinge -Foot flattened/compressed -Head poorly developed -Mantle cavity enlarged -Radula lost •Typically deposit or filter feeder Class Cephalopoda •Modifications of basic molluscan body plan may include: -foot divided and modified into arms and/or tentacles -shell reduced and internal, or absent -mantle cavity modified for jet propulsion -lateral fins for swimming -closed circulatory system = blood always in vessels -mouth with a hard beak for biting and tearing (radula also present, pulls food into mouth cavity) -toxic saliva -well-developed nervous and sensory systems -capable of rapid color changes using chromatophores (see CB 104) -ink glands for protection (see CB 104) -bioluminescence (see CB 69) •Carnivores •Dioecious (see CB 80)

what are the general features and appearances of each of the 8 phyla of worms covered in this class?

Phylum Platyhelminthes -Flatworms • True organs and organ systems (all organisms from now on) - Nervous, muscular, reproductive, digestive, and excretory systems (no circulatory system) • Triploblastic (all organisms from now on) • Monoecious • Bilateral symmetry • Incomplete gut, or none at all in some parasitic forms • Acoelomate • Four classes - Class Turbellaria = free-living flatworms. Most are benthic, and move over bottom using muscular contractions and/or cilia on ventral surface - Class Trematoda = endoparasitic flukes - Class Monogenea = parasites (mostly ectoparasites) - Class Cestoidea = endoparasitic tapeworms that lack guts Phylum Nematoda - Roundworms • Complete gut (all organisms from now on, except where otherwise noted) • Have pseudocoelom that acts as a hydrostatic skeleton • Secretes an external covering called a cuticle • Some free-living, some parasitic • Longitudinal muscles only, no circular • Practically ubiquitous (found everywhere Phylum Nemertea - Ribbon Worms • Have a circulatory system (all organisms from now on except chaetognaths) • Have a coelom (all organisms from now on) • Have a proboscis to capture prey, may administer a toxin • Mostly benthic, with a few deepwater pelagic species, and some are symbiotic with larger animals Phylum Annelida - Segmented Worms • Body composed of repeating segments that are similar to one another in structure • Three classes that are found in marine environment - Class Polychaeta = errant, burrowing or tube-dwelling with parapodia and setae. Some symbiotic with larger animals. See CB 15, 27, 28, 77, 94, and 105. - Class Oligochaeta = no parapodia - Class Hirudinea = leeches, which are ectoparasites with specialized mouthparts for attachment and feeding Phylum Sipuncula - Peanut Worms • Deposit feeders with mouth on end of retractable stalk (introvert, see CB 25) • Live in burrows, tubes, other enclosed spaces Phylum Echiura • Have a spoon- or fork-like extendable proboscis • Includes the fat innkeeper worm, which constructs a burrow (see CB 26) - Filter feeder that makes a mucous net - Peristaltic muscular contractions pump water through burrow - Other organisms commonly live in burrow Phylum Pogonophora - Beard Worms Some disagreement on group definition • Usually occur at depths >100 m • Large tube-dwellers (see CB 17) • No mouth or gut, but have tentacles - Chemosynthetic bacteria live in internal structure called a trophosome, manufacture food that is consumed by worm - Tentacles probably for absorbing nutrients from water needed by chemosynthetic bacteria Phylum Chaetognatha - Arrow Worms • Planktonic carnivores • Have fin-like extensions and grasping, tooth-like spines that inject a toxin • Often wait motionless, then dart quickly after prey • No circulatory system

which of these levels of organization do sponges possess? what is the basic anatomy and appearance of a sponge?

Phylum Porifera (Sponges) -Adults are sessile, permanently attached to 1 spot -Some asymmetrical, some radial symmetry -Asexual and sexual reproduction -Filter feeders with intracellular digestion; No stomach, occurs inside of cells: Ostia= incurrent openings Oscula= excurrent -Endoskeleton: Skeleton is inside the body; Made up of calcium carbonate spicules, silicon dioxide spicules and network of spongin (protein) fibers, or combination of the last two -Some have chemical defenses that make them distasteful and/or toxic -Have specialized cells, but no true tissues (can be shredded→ regrow) Choanocytes: collar cells Water movement, filter feeding and intracellular design Amoebocytes: Intracellular digestion, transport food throughout organism, secrete endoskeleton Porocytes: Lining of ostia Pinacocytes: Flattened cells that cover outer surface Sponge Morphology -Choanocyte= "collar" cells Food gets trapped then endocytosis occurs Flagellum moves but cell is fixed in place Water is replaced by going through openings -Amoebocyte Makes spicules and acs as circulatory system -Porocytes Ostia Least complex: Asconoid Medium: Synconoid Due to canals for water Most complex: Leuconoid Individual canals and parthways Spongin (collagen)- protein only found in animals

what kinds of fishes and other organisms are most common in the epipelagic zone?

Plankton - Phytoplankton - diatoms and dinoflagellates (red tides) - Heterotrophic organisms including arthropods (e.g. copepods), salps, larvaceans, chaetognaths, ctenophores, cnidarians, larvae of all sorts • Nekton - Planktivores - Streamlined, muscular, fast-swimming predators (e.g. endothermic sharks, tunas and billfishes; cetaceans) • Neuston (e.g. floating siphonophores)

what are seagrasses? what kingdom do they belong to? what are their major features and how did seagrasses come to be in the marine environment?

Seagrasses (Kingdom Plantae) -Superficially resemble terrestrial grasses, not closely related -Truly marine = tolerate total submergence in seawater -Pollination via water currents -Fruit and seed dispersal via water currents and/or herbivores Ex. Eelgrasses in calm waters with sediment bottoms Ex. Surf grasses on rocky bottoms exposed to wave action ----Plants evolved from green algae, invaded the land ----A few species of flowering land plants subsequently re invaded the ocean ----Plants in the marine environment vary in their tolerance of submersion in salt water ----3 main groups: seagrasses, salt-marsh plants and mangroves

for soft bottom intertidal habitats, what kinds of organisms (epifauna v infauna, and major phyla) are most common? what environmental factor determines the maximum depth within the sediment that most organisms can live at? how do sand and mud bottoms differ w regard to this factor, and also the availability of food (in the form of detritus) within the sediment for deposit feeders to eat?

Soft-Bottom Intertidal • Defined as bottom soft enough for an organism to burrow into • Unstable, no solid places for algae attachment. Very few macroscopic algae can deal with this. Main point - little to no primary production by macroscopic algae, and detritus (dead and decaying organic material) brought in by waves and currents from other ecosystems is an important food source • General Distribution - Epifauna - few - Infauna - more common. Variety of burrowing methods. - Note that this is opposite of rocky intertidal, where epifauna are more abundant than infauna (very few things can burrow into solid rock). - Fishes - flatfishes are particularly abundant in the subtidal Soft-Bottom, Sand vs. Mud • Size of particles reflects amount of wave/current action and also source of sediment - Smaller = less wave/current action. Mud bottom where water is calm. - Larger = more wave/current action. Sand bottom where there is significant wave or current action. • Oxygen availability decreases as you go deeper into sediment, until you reach a layer with no free oxygen (anoxic). Only anaerobic monerans can live without oxygen • Oxygen availability - Mud - Water and oxygen movement is slower/more difficult through mud, so the zone where there is enough oxygen for animals to live in the sediment is narrower. - Sand - water and oxygen moves more easily through sand, so animals can live at a greater depth within the sediment. • Grain size affects amount of detritus (dead and decaying organic material) available for deposit feeders - Mud = more deposited organic material, more food in sediment, deposit feeders more abundant than suspension feeders. - Sand= less deposited food. However, food for suspension feeders is generally more abundant (e.g., detritus stirred up by waves, plankton brought in by waves/currents), so suspension feeders more common.

what features define the vertebrates (i.e. what do all vertebrates and only vertebrates have in common)?

Subphylum Vertebrata -TheVertebrates Most vertebrates have: - Endoskeleton of bone - Vertebrae, which replace NTC in function • All vertebrates have: - Neural crest tissue - Cranium (largely result of presence of neural crest tissue)

what is a deposit feeder? suspension feeder? filter feeder?

Suspension Feeding: Feeding on particulate organic matter present in the water Deposit Feeder: suspension feeding in which organisms -feed on stuff deposited Filter feeding: suspension feeding in which water is actively pumped or filtering structures are swept through the water Passive suspension feeding: No active pumping of water, but use of cilia and mucus to move particles to mouth

what causes the coriolis effect? how does the coriolis effect divert air and water currents in the northern and southern hemispheres?

The Coriolis Effect •Diverts/deflects currents: -To the right in the northern hemisphere -To the left in the southern hemisphere •Caused by different velocities at different latitudes on rotating earth •Note that winds are generally named for the direction the moving air comes from

for a vegetated soft-bottom subtidal ecosystem, what kind of photosynthetic organism is most common? why are many different kinds of organisms able to live in this habitat?

Vegetated Soft-Bottom Subtidal =Seagrass Beds • Shallow areas with abundant light needed for photosynthesis • Seagrasses tend to dampen currents and waves • Seagrasses trap and stabilize sediment • True roots allow nutrients to be absorbed from sediment • Epiphytic algae grow on seagrasses • Seagrasses + epiphytes = high primary productivity • Some herbivores feed directly on living seagrasses, but not a huge number. • Seagrasses are converted into lots of detritus, also provide shelter. Many more things eat the detritus or are higher level consumers. Result is a rich ecosystem.

what are the three factors that determine the size of waves that are generated by wind?

Wave Creation Wind • Wave size/height increases with increasing: • Wind speed • Wind duration • Fetch = distance that wind blows over water Impacts on ocean water • Tsunamis typically due to seafloor movements • Wakes, whales breaching, etc. Gravitational attraction of moon and sun = tides (special situation treated separately later on)

how do scientists subdivide the marine environment by association with the bottom or water column, by speed of movement of an organism, by association w a continental shelf, by light availability, and by depth? know the various subdivisions and the bases for them

Ways of Dividing the Marine Environment • Terms describing relationship to the bottom and depth - Pelagic = in the water column • Epipelagic = surface to 200 m; adequate light • Mesopelagic = 200 to 1000 m; "twilight zone", some light from surface but not enough for photosynthetic organisms to survive • Bathypelagic = 1000 to 3-4000 m; no sunlight • Abyssopelagic = 3-4000 m to 6000 m • Hadopelagic = 6000+ m; in trenches • Terms describing relationship to the bottom and depth - Benthic = very near, in, or on the bottom • Intertidal or littoral = high high water (hhw) to low low water (llw) • Subtidal or sublittoral = llw to 200 m; llw to shelf break • Bathyal = 200 to 3-4000 m; slope and rise • Abyssal = 3-4000 m to 6000 m • Hadal = 6000+ m; in trenches Ways of Dividing the Marine Environment • Terms describing relationship to continental shelves - Neritic = on or over continental shelves (edge defined by shelf break) - Oceanic = not over continental shelves

UNIT 1-Maps and Navigation; History of Oceanography = 5 questions

What kinds of maps are there, and what are they designed to depict best? How does GPS operate? What are the major oceans of the world? where are they located? which is the largest? the deepest? what is latitude? what is longitude? what is the rate of rotation of the earth in degrees of longitude per hour?

what is a thermocline?

a steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake, marked by a layer above and below which the water is at different temperatures. A few things worth noting: • Ocean consists of layers of different densities and temperatures • A well developed thermocline exists at tropical and temperate latitudes • No thermoclines exist at polar latitudes -regions where surface water is sinking due to thermohaline circulation • Deep ocean water is cold and dense • Water with similar characteristics is found at the surface on either side of the equator, roughly symmetrical • These bodies of water with similar characteristics extend downward under the surface waters of the equator. Water that is similar to the surface water found at higher latitudes exists at the equator at deeper depths.

what is the basic structure of the water molecule? what is a polar covalent bond? what is a hydrogen bond?

draw 2 H20 molecules -O is delta -; H is delta + -connect 2 molecules w a DOTTED line from the 2nd O to an H in the 1st molecule -Dotted line bond=H-bond -solid line bond=covalent bond H-bond: result of electrostatic attraction btwn oppositely charged (relative) portions of adjacent water molecules polar Covalent bond: shared pair of electrons, this is a polar covalent bond b/c oxygen has a stronger pull on the electrons, making this region of the molecules relatively negative and the hydrogens relatively positive OR SHORTER ANSWER polar covalent bond. electrons shared unequally, with oxygen having the stronger 'pull' on them H-bond. result of electrostatic attraction btwn oppositely charged portions of adjacent water molecules WATER MOLECULE Composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom • Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to the oxygen atom (covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between atoms) • Due to unequal sharing of electrons, the oxygen atom is slightly negative, hydrogen atoms are slightly positive; water is a polar molecule

what are the two gas laws we learned in class, and what are their relationships to air embolisms and the 'bends'?

gas law 1 relationship of pressure and volume of a parcel of a gas: as you increase the pressure on a parcel of gas, the volume of the parcel decreases proportionally and vice versa. -EX: if a SCUBA diver takes a breath of air at depth and then rises towards the surface w a closed airway, the air within his lungs expands, and rupture the lung lining. the air that escapes goes to the heart, rendering the heart ineffective as a pump. Called an 'AIR EMBOLISM' or 'BAROTRAUMA' it is usually fatal gas law 2 relationship of pressure and the saturation value of a gas: as you increase the pressure on a fluid, the maximum amount of a gas that the fluid can hold in solution (the saturation value) increases, and vice versa. -EX: if a SCUBA diver stays at depth for a considerable length of time, nitrogen gas that is being inhaled is absorbed by the blood. as the diver ascends back toward the surface, the amount of nitrogen gas comes out of solution and forms bubbles in the bloodstream. called 'DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS' or 'THE BENDS'

What kinds of maps are there, and what are they designed to depict best?

maps and charts= -show a three dimensional earth (whole or portion) on a flat two dimensional field -any map or chart has distortion -charts are associated with aerial or nautical navigation -a 'perfect' map would preserve relative distances, directions, areas, and shapes all at the same time; it is impossible for a map to do this -are created by projecting features of the earth along with lines and latitude and longitude -type and amount of distortion depends on how map was created and its intended use -different projections are made by varying the orientation and the type of surface on which the projection is made CYLINDRICAL=paper touches near the equator -can show long paths as continuous and straight line drawn between two points represents a path that will get you to your destination -limitations include considerable distortion of size (distortion gets greater further from the equator) and straight line paths on map are (usually) not the shortest routes MERCATOR PROJECTION MAP= -cylindrical -distortion greatest at high latitudes (poles) -used because it permits use of continuous lines for reference and navigational paths CONIC=paper is a cone near the poles -used for smaller portions of the earth TANGENT PLANE=paper is laid flat against globe at any position -often used to show polar regions ROBINSON PROJECTION=does not represent any single characteristic (relative distances, directions, areas or shapes) accurately but is a good compromise for some uses EQUAL AREA PROJECTION= -designed to represent the relative areas of landmasses or oceans with minimal distortion -ex: goodes interrupted homolosine -many of these present earth's surface like it was peeled or as a shape resembling an oval -show relative areas of features as accurately as possible, distortion greater the further away from the equator; pathways not continuous curves or lines, not useful for navigation Topographic Maps= show lines connecting same elevations on land (height contours) Bathymetric Maps= show contour lines connecting points of same depth (depth contours) Physiographic maps= give 'three dimensional' views Bathymetric Mapping Bathy=deep, metric=measuring Goal is to construct maps that show depth of the seafloor

what is viscosity? surface tension? heat capacity? density? what is the effect of changing temperature on the viscosity, surface tension, and density of liquid water?

viscosity of water: The thickness of a liquid is related to the friction between molecules • The more easily molecules slide past one another, the less viscous the liquid • H-bonds tend to prevent water molecules from sliding past one another • Viscosity is proportional to the number of H-bonds - Viscosity increases with decreasing temperature -affects marine organisms • Planktonic organisms tend to drift downward more slowly in colder water • Nektonic (swimming) organisms must expend more energy in colder water surface tension of water: • Intermolecular attraction resulting from H-bonds is partially responsible for the high surface tension of water • The lateral and downward directed H-bonds between molecules create a thin flexible boundary layer over the waters surface • Surface tension increases with decreasing temperature (more H-bonds) -• Is important to the survival of many organisms • Neuston are organisms that are associated with the surface film. They float or walk on top of the film, or cling to it. - Examples include bacteria, protozoa, fish eggs, copepods, Portuguese Man-of-War density of water: • Density = Mass per unit volume (g/cm3) • Denser media can support denser objects - Air = 0.08 g/cm3, water = 1.00 g/cm3 • An object floats if it is less dense than the medium it is in - E.g., humans are more dense than air but less dense than seawater • Marine organisms take advantage of the density of seawater - If present, skeletons mainly for muscle attachment or protection against predators, not support against gravity -- Due to increased number of H-bonds water molecules are held further apart; this increases volume and decreases the density - Reason why ice floats (density is 0.92 g/ml) rather than sinks -• Increasing the salinity lowers the freezing point of water • As the salinity of water increases, its density increases density relationship to temperature= the density of water increases with decreasing temperature to a maximum of 1.00 g/cm3 at 4°C. Below 4°C, the density of water decreases with decreasing temperature. heat capacity • Heat is a form of energy (energy of molecular motion) • Electromagnetic energy of the sun is converted to heat energy at Earth's surface • In ocean, heat energy is transferred - Primarily by convection (mixing) - Secondarily by mechanical exchange between molecules (conduction) -• Absorbing heat energy typically increases temperature of a substance • Heat capacity = measure of amount of heat energy a substance can absorb or release without experiencing a large temperature change • Liquid water has a high heat capacity due to its many H-bonds - Heat energy is breaking numerous hydrogen bonds. • Oceans absorb heat very slowly during warm periods • Oceans release heat very slowly during cold periods • Large bodies of liquid water are able to resist extreme daily temperature fluctuations • This fairly constant water temperature has a moderating influence on coastal air temperatures, and marine organisms typically experience more constant temperatures that terrestrial organisms.

Unit 6 Review of basic biology, taxonomic surveys-kingdom protista through phylum porifera-15 questions

what are major taxonomic categories in order? what are the five kingdoms? what do the terms sessile and sedentary mean? what is a deposit feeder? suspension feeder? filter feeder? what is radial symmetry? bilateral symmetry? what kingdom do bacteria and cyanobacteria belong to ?what are the major features of the members of this kingdom? can you list the phyla of photosynthetic, single celled to simple colonial protists we learned about? single celled to simple colonial heterotrophic protists? multicellular photosynthetic protists (=macroscopic algae, which includes kelp)? what is the scientific name of our local species of giant kelp? what do we mean when we say an alga is calcareous or coralline? what are dinoflagellates? what are some of their notable features? what are seagrasses? what kingdom do they belong to? what are their major features and how did seagrasses come to be in the marine environment? what are the levels of organization of a complex multicellular organism, in order, from cells to organ systems? which of these levels of organization do sponges possess? what is the basic anatomy and appearance of a sponge? what is oviparity? viviparity? ovoviviparity?

Unit 2 Geological Oceanography 10 questions

what are the major layers of the earth? how are they arranged? which is the thickest? the thinnest? how did they form? how are sediments classified by origin? by size of grains? which (coarse or fine-grained) is transported most easily by waves and currents? how does oceanic crust differ from continental crust? what are the major geological features of the ocean floor? how did they form? what is the distinction between active and passive continental margins? what kinds of features are found at plate boundaries? give actual examples mentioned in class (e.g. Andes result from an oceanic-continental convergent boundary-know this and other examples of different types of plate boundaries) how do coral atolls form?

Unit 5 Waves and Tides 3 questions

what are the three factors that determine the size of waves that are generated by wind? what are the various ways that tsunamis can form (what creates them)? what are spring and neap tides, and what causes them?

Unit 9 and 10 Combined-selected topics in Fish Biology; Taxonomic surveys=Class Agnatha through Class Mammalia and Marine Ecology 27 Questions

what are the various adaptations that fishes possess to avoid sinking? which ones do chondrichthians (e.g. sharks) have? what are the various sensory systems found in fishes, and what do they detect? what is a countercurrent exchange system? what is the relevance of countercurrent exchange system? what is the largest living fish? the largest animal? what do the terms endothermy, ectothermy, homeothermy and poikilothermy mean? what are some examples of endothermic fishes? how is endothermy produced in fishes and why is endothermy advantageous? why do all seabirds have to return to land at least sometime during their lives? what are the 4 orders of marine mammals and what kinds of animals do they contain? what are the general features of each, including types of appendages present, means of thermal insulation and degree of adaptation to the aquatic environment? how do scientists subdivide the marine environment by association with the bottom or water column, by speed of movement of an organism, by association w a continental shelf, by light availability, and by depth? know the various subdivisions and the bases for them what is zonation? what are the factors that determine the upper and lower limits (respectively) of rocky intertidal organisms? what kinds of physical challenges do these organisms face? see table I referred to in class for soft bottom intertidal habitats, what kinds of organisms (epifauna v infauna, and major phyla) are most common? what environmental factor determines the maximum depth within the sediment that most organisms can live at? how do sand and mud bottoms differ w regard to this factor, and also the availability of food (in the form of detritus) within the sediment for deposit feeders to eat? for a vegetated soft-bottom subtidal ecosystem, what kind of photosynthetic organism is most common? why are many different kinds of organisms able to live in this habitat? what environmental conditions are required for coral reefs? what environmental factors are usually required for an ecosystem to have a high amount of primary productivity (net photosynthetic output)? why are coral reefs so productive despite the lack of nutrients in the water? why does the neritic portion of the epipelagic zone have so much primary productivity compared to the oceanic portion of the epipelagic zone? how and why does the typical water clarity differ btwn these two ecosystems? what kinds of fishes and other organisms are most common in the epipelagic zone? what are the main differences btwn pelagic fishes living in the mesopelagic vs bathypelagic and deeper zones?

Unit 4 Weather and Ocean Currents 5 questions

what causes the coriolis effect? how does the coriolis effect divert air and water currents in the northern and southern hemispheres? what is the ekman spiral? what causes the ekman spiral to form? what is a thermocline? what is meant by vertical stability and instability of the water column? what produces vertical stability or instability?

Unit 8 Taxonomic Surveys Phylum Arthropoda through Phylum Chordata 11 questions

what characteristics of arthropods have led to their great success? what is ecdysis and why is it necessary? what are the three subphyla of arthropods and what kinds of animals do they contain? what is a biramous appendage? what are the general features of echinoderms? what are the classes of echinoderms and what kinds of animals do they contain? what are the 4 chordate characteristics? what are the 3 subphyla of chordates, what kinds of animals do they contain, and what are the general appearances of the members of each? what features define the vertebrates (i.e. what do all vertebrates and only vertebrates have in common)? what are the 7 classes of vertebrates and what kinds of animals belong to each?

Unit 3 Chemical Oceanography 9 questions

what is the basic structure of the water molecule? what is a polar covalent bond? what is a hydrogen bond? what is viscosity? surface tension? heat capacity? density? what is the effect of changing temperature on the viscosity, surface tension, and density of liquid water? regarding salinity, what is the definition of parts per thousand (0/00)? what is the salinity of typical seawater in 0/00? has the salinity of the ocean changed much over geological time? what is the law of constant proportions? how does changing the salinity affect the density of water? what are the two gas laws we learned in class, and what are their relationships to air embolisms and the 'bends'?

Unit 7 Taxonomic Surveys Phylum Cnidaria through Phylum Mollusca 11 questions

what major features do cnidarians share? what is a nematocyst? what is a polyp and a medusa and what is the basic cnidarian life cycle? what are the major classes of cnidarians and what kinds of animals do they contain? what is a ctenophore? what basic features do ctenophores have and what do they look like? what are the general features and appearances of each of the 8 phyla of worms covered in this class? what are the various classes of mollusks we learned in class and what kinds of animals do they contain?

why do all seabirds have to return to land at least sometime during their lives?

• All seabirds nest on land, otherwise dependence on land varies. Examples of extremes: - Albatrosses are far offshore except when breeding and nesting (see CB 58) - Gulls, cormorants, and pelicans almost always near shore, highly dependent on land (see CB 57)

what are spring and neap tides, and what causes them?

• As the moon and sun change relative positions over the course of a month, the tidal heights change - Spring tides = gravitational attractions of the moon and sun are in line, and increase the range of tidal heights - Neap tides = gravitational attractions of the moon and sun are at right angles to one another, and decrease the range of tidal heights

what are the 4 orders of marine mammals and what kinds of animals do they contain? what are the general features of each, including types of appendages present, means of thermal insulation and degree of adaptation to the aquatic environment?

• Mammals originally evolved on land from reptiles, some now have entered and occupy the marine environment • All marine mammals are placentals, no marsupials (young developing in pouch would drown under water) • Degree of dependence on land varies among species There are four different orders of marine mammals: - Order Carnivora. Marine representatives of this group include sea otters and the polar bear. - Order Pinnipedia. Seals, sea lions, fur seals, and the walrus. - Order Sirenia. Manatees and the dugong. - Order Cetacea. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Contains two suborders: • Suborder Mysticetes - baleen whales • Suborder Odontocetes - toothed whales Order Pinnipedia • Includes - Seals - Sea lions and fur seals - Walruses • Have four flippers • Thick layer of blubber provides insulation Seals • No external ear flap, rear flippers provide thrust when swimming, cannot prop themselves up on front flippers • Eat invertebrates and fishes • Most common local species - harbor seal, Phoca vitulina • Largest seals are elephant seals, up to 20 ft in length and 4 tons Sea Lions and Fur Seals • Have external ear flaps, front flippers can be rotated to support body upward on land, front flippers provide propulsive force when swimming • Most common local species - California sea lion, Zalophus californicus • Agile, inquisitive, and intelligent Walrus • Confined to cold northern waters • Use tusks to dig into ice to help them haul out of the water, break through ice from below to open breathing holes, and for defense. Males also use them in battles for territory and defense of their harems of females. Order Sirenia • Manatees and dugong • No rear paired limbs (no external pelvic appendages) • Lots of blubber • Slow swimming herbivores Sea Otters • Insulation via thick fur (thickest of all mammals), skin stays dry underneath (not lots of blubber) • Thick fur made it desirable for hunters, almost hunted to extinction • Eat invertebrates, especially sea urchins. Carry rocks for breaking them open. • Keystone predator - Sea Otters Are Keystone Predators in the Kelp Forest • Keystone predators maintain the biodiversity of an ecosystem. Removing the keystone predator not only results in the loss of the predator, but a large number of other species will then disappear as well. • Sea otters eat sea urchins which in turn eat kelp. By eating sea urchins, the otters keep the sea urchin population in check. Kelp forest thrives. • Removal of the otters by hunting or some other cause results in the urchins undergoing a population explosion • Increased number of sea urchins eat the kelp (they also nibble away at the stipe where it joins the holdfast, dislodging kelp thalli from their holdfasts) • Kelp disappears, along with everything else dependent on the kelp. An "urchin barren" remains. • Don't have to come to shore for any reason, but some do haul out • Violent sex life - males sometimes injure or kill females while mating • Three subspecies - Asian, Alaskan, and California Polar Bear • Occurs in the Arctic • Lives mostly or entirely on pack ice - reason it is considered a marine mammal • Largest carnivore found on land • Great swimmer • Hunts seals • Only bear that will stalk humans naturally Order Cetacea • Dolphins, porpoises, and whales • Of all marine mammals, these are most adapted for the marine environment - Most other marine mammals come ashore at least to bear their young. Cetaceans spend their entire lives in the aquatic environment. • Bodies resemble those of fishes, example of convergent evolution (= shared characteristics due to similar environment and selective pressures, not shared common ancestry) • No external pelvic appendages - Present in early embryos - Vestigial bones only in adults • Propulsion via rear flukes • Blowhole in top of head for breathing • Thermal insulation provided by blubber - Very little hair • Countercurrent heat exchangers keep testes cool for proper sperm production • Some have countercurrent heat exchangers to keep tongues cool, preserve body heat • Very intelligent, with complex behavior • Two suborders - Suborder Mysticeti = baleen whales - Suborder Odontoceti = toothed whales Suborder Mysticeti - Baleen Whales • Baleen - see CB 62 - Fibrous, flexible material that hangs in plates from the upper jaw - Made of keratin (same material as your hair) - Used for filter feeding • 2 external blowholes • Contains largest animal that has ever lived - blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus • Local resident (migratory) - Eschrichtius robustus, gray whale - Unusual because it is mainly a bottom feeder Suborder Odontoceti - Toothed Whales • Have teeth for grasping prey • 1 external blowhole • Most (all?) can use echolocation • Includes animals called dolphins, porpoises, and whales - Dolphins have longer beaks than porpoises - Largest toothed whale is the sperm whale • Agile and very intelligent - Star performers at marine parks like Sea World Noteworthy Behaviors of Many Cetaceans in General • Complex vocalizations • Cooperative hunting • Play • Migration • Breaching • "Spying" • Stranding • Aiding injured individuals Cooperative hunting of humpback whales involves "bubble nets" • One member of the group swims in a circle around the prey (e.g., a school of fish) and blows bubbles, creating a bubble barrier that prey are reluctant to swim through - Concentrates prey in a small horizontal area • Members of the group then swim upward together in the middle of the bubble net, driving prey toward the surface where they are concentrated and consumed