OLEAD 100 Exam 2

"Out-groups"

"Out-groups" refer to individuals in a group or organization who do not identify themselves as part of the larger group. These naturally-occurring groups arise for several different reasons and jeopardize team unity and cohesiveness, community, synergy, as well as the ability of the larger group to achieve its goals. This lesson explores the nature of out-groups, how they form, their impact, and practical strategies for leaders to engage and leverage the strengths of out-group members.

building cohesiveness

A cohesive group is one that functions as a unified team working collaboratively to achieve group goals rather than a collection of individuals focused on pursuing their personal agendas. In a cohesive group, members of the team feel comfortable in being themselves, expressing diverse viewpoints, exchanging feedback, recognizing one another's accomplishments, and putting their "best self" forward. Group cohesiveness is exemplified by the common expression that "there's no 'I' in team." Group cohesiveness creates a sense of "we-ness" or the esprit de corps within a group; is an essential component of high-performing groups; allows members to express their personal viewpoints, give and receive feedback, accept differing opinions, and feel comfortable doing meaningful work; helps members to appreciate the group and to feel appreciated by the group; allows members to focus on group goals without distractions from interpersonal issues and conflicts; and develops gradually over time. Cohesive groups tend to feel better about completing work and are more effective achieving goals. Positive outcomes associated with cohesive groups include greater productivity among members; higher member satisfaction; more goal-directed behavior; enhanced conformity to group norms; increased mutual influence among members; greater willingness to attend meetings; positive feelings toward other group members; more consistent group membership; better interaction among members; and increased participation. Group cohesiveness can be strengthened through formal team-building experiences and through day-to-day leadership practices. Formal team-building experiences, which are typically led by a trained facilitator, often involve a challenge that the team is required to meet collectively through a collaborative effort. For example, a team may be challenged to build a structure that will support 20 pounds at least 1 foot above the ground from a limited supply of materials such as plastic straws, marshmallows, and toothpicks. At the end of the exercise, the facilitator typically leads a discussion to help the team debrief their approach, process, and interactions in trying to address the challenge. The team will discuss such questions as How were different members of the team feeling at each stage of the exercise? What do you see as your team's relative strengths in this exercise? What did you do well as a team? What do you see as your team's relative weaknesses in this exercise? What did you do think you might have done better? What would you do differently next time? How was your approach to this exercise similar to your approach to meeting challenges at work? How was your approach to this exercise different from your approach to meeting challenges at work? What did you learn from this exercise? In the future, what will you do differently at work as a result of this exercise? This type of team-building exercise prompts the group to reflect on and better understand its effectiveness and level of comfort in working with one another. As a result of the debriefing discussion, rather than repeat recurring patterns of group behavior that may be less than optimal, the group can make appropriate adjustments in order to work more effectively and efficiently as a unified team. Although such exercises tend to be useful, leaders can also build group cohesiveness through their day-to-day leadership practices. Examples of daily practices that enhance group cohesiveness include the following: Create a climate of trust. Invite members to be active participants. Encourage passive members to become involved. Listen and accept group members for who they are. Help group members achieve their goals. Promote the free expression of divergent viewpoints. Share leadership responsibilities. Foster and promote member-to-member interaction as well as leader-follower interaction.

Administrative Skills

Administrative skills involve running the organization and fulfilling its purpose. These skills involve such challenges as planning, organizing work, assigning tasks to the right people, and coordinating work activities. Three key administrative skills are managing others' performance, managing resources, and showing technical competence. Note that in the online version of this course, "managing others' performance" is used in place of "managing people." The emphasis on managing performance in the online lesson is intended to more clearly differentiate "managing people" from "interpersonal skills." Managing others' performance: Effective leadership involves connecting with people, understanding the tasks to be completed, the skills required to perform them, and the environment in which people work. "Management by walking around" captures the essence of managing others' performance. Managing resources: Exercising this skill set entails obtaining and allocating people, money, supplies, equipment, and space. Although staff may be engaged to assist with such tasks, ultimate responsibility rests with the leader. Showing technical competence: This entails specialized knowledge and technical competence about the work completed by the leader or the employees he or she leads. It also includes understanding the intricacies of how an organization functions—"organizational know-how." Technical competence enables the leader to coordinate the various operations of a work unit and integrate them into a cohesive system, much like an orchestra conductor leads different musicians to perform together.

Out-Group Members

An out-group includes individuals who feel they are different from the majority of people in the larger group; they do not identify themselves as part of the larger group. More specifically: Out-group members may feel disconnected, in opposition to the larger group, disinterested in group goals, unaccepted, alienated, discriminated against, or powerless. There are many forms of out-groups, including minorities who think their voice is not being heard; people who think their ideas are unappreciated; and social loafers who work below their capacity.

Synthesizing and Applying Principles of Ethical Leadership

The following two videos illustrate two examples of ethical leadership challenges. Watch each video, then consider how you would answer the questions related to each recording.

The Impact of Out-Group Members

Because out-groups can undermine group cohesiveness and team unity, they may hamper achievement of team goals. The potential negative effects of out-groups are summarized below. The downsides of out-groups include inefficiencies in productivity, increased conflict, and greater likelihood of employee strikes. Out-groups run counter to building community: an out-group either is in conflict with or avoids community. Community offers a forum for everyone to express their ideas, values, and opinions. Community involves working together to achieve a shared vision that serves the common good. Out-groups have a negative effect on group synergy. Synergy is the positive energy created by group members when working toward a common goal. Synergy is additive energy: the group's combined efforts are greater than the sum of individual contributions. Out-groups take energy away from the group by creating the need to deal with conflict and by failing to capitalize on the talents and contributions of out-group members. Out-groups jeopardize mutual respect within a group because members of the out-group often feel that they do not receive the respect they deserve from others. Ethical leadership involves treating others' decisions and values with respect. Ethical leaders create conversations so that everyone in the group hears the voice of out-group members.

implementing a vision

Employ the following guidelines for implementing a vision. Exert effort over an extended period of time. Model the attitudes, values, and behaviors set forth in the vision: "Walk the talk." Set high performance expectations (challenging goals) that motivate others to accomplish the mission. Exert continuous effort in a step-by-step process that builds credibility and inspires others to express the same values Empower and collaborate with others to share the work. Encourage and support others' efforts to reach the goal. Example: Terry Fox runs 3,339 miles in 143 days with a prosthetic leg in his Marathon of Hope in order to raise money for cancer research.

Constructive climate

Climate refers to the atmosphere of a team or organization, and it is defined as people's shared perceptions of the way things are in a group or organization. These include perceptions of the group's activities, rituals, procedures, values, and underlying assumptions. In a positive climate, people feel supported, appreciated, and encouraged; a positive climate promotes group members' satisfaction and supports each person's efforts to achieve their best.

Handling Conflict in Practice

Communication is central to managing conflict. When communication channels are open, people are more likely to understand one another's beliefs, values, and goals as well as one another's needs for esteem, control, and affiliation. In this context, conflicts tend to be easier to negotiate. Because conflicts are often multi-faceted and complex, understanding different approaches to conflict can help the leader employ effective strategies for resolving them. These approaches include: Fisher and Ury's method of principled negotiation The communication strategies of differentiation, fractionation, and face saving The Kilmann-Thomas styles for approaching conflict Fisher and Ury's Method of Principled Negotiation Fisher and Ury's book, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In, offers a step-by-step process based on four key principles for coming to mutually acceptable agreements in every sort of conflict. One of the core tenets of the book is that positional negotiation is not productive and should be replaced with interest-based negotiation. The four key principles of their approach are listed below. Principle One: Separate the people from the problem Principle Two: Focus on interests, not positions Principle Three: Invent options for mutual gains Principle Four: Use objective criteria resolve the conflict Principle 1: Separate the People from the Problem Separating people from the problem refers to disentangling relational issues from content issues and then using a different strategy to address relational and content dimensions of the conflict. This can be accomplished by applying the following guidelines: Recognize that all conflicts involve a people factor and a problem factor which are entangled and need to be separated. Focus on the people aspect of the conflict by recognizing the other party's emotional response to the conflict; appreciating the other person's unique qualities and acknowledging their idiosyncratic needs; understanding how one's behavior affects the other person; working side by side with the other party to attack the problem rather than each other; and trying to nurture and strengthen the relationship. Focus on the problem aspect of the conflict by using objective criteria for resolving the problem; focusing on observable behaviors rather than personal attributes or assumptions; and supporting views with facts, examples, and observations. Principle 2: Focus on Interests, Not Positions This step in the process differentiating between each person's position and their underlying interest. When two people are in conflict, each person's position represents their stand or perspective, point of view, or decision. For example, an employee might want to work from home two days a week, and his or her supervisor might want them to be in the workplace every day of the week. Each party's interest represents each person's underlying need, value, or goal that is behind his or her position. In general, the underlying interest is the motive behind each party's stated position. In terms of the telecommuting example, the employee's interest may be the need for increased flexibility during normal business hours in order to handle personal issues related to a divorce such as finding and moving to a new residence, making child-care arrangements, meeting with attorneys, and setting up new bank accounts. The supervisor's interest may be the need for the employee's daily presence at work in order to ensure that issues involving customers and other members of the project team are resolved within 24 hours. Identifying a person's underlying interest requires looking beyond that individual's stated position in order to understand the motive behind his or her position. What is the other person trying to accomplish? The following guidelines are useful for focusing on interests. Look at the basic concerns that motivate people, such as the need for security, belonging, recognition, control, and economic well-being. Concentrate on interests to address the "real" underlying conflict. Address both interests and positions to make conflict resolution more authentic. Ask: "What's really going on here and what are we going to do about it?" Focus on interests and communicate them. Remain open to the other party's unique approaches to resolving the conflict. Principle 3: Invent Options for Mutual Gains Finding a solution to a conflict often requires creative brainstorming in order to find options that are mutually acceptable to both parties. The goal is to find a solution strategy that meets each person's underlying interests—a "win/win outcome." For example, in terms of the employee/supervisor conflict related to telecommuting, a win/win outcome might be for the employee to work a flexible schedule that includes spending sufficient time in the office each day to address issues involving customers and colleagues. To invent options for mutual gains, apply the following guidelines: Avoid treating conflict as an "either-or" proposition. Make a deliberate effort to find options with benefits for both parties. Brainstorm to discover creative solutions. Generate numerous alternatives as they come to mind and avoid analyzing them until numerous alternatives have been identified. Think outside the box to discover innovative approaches. For example, for a given issue, generate options from the perspective of each stake holder who is influenced by that issue. Analyze, adapt, and combine alternatives to find workable solutions. Resist the idea that there is a single best solution. Remain sensitive to everyone's interests. Explore and build on areas of common ground where people's interests overlap. Compromise if a solution that satisfies each person's unique interests can't be found. Principle 4: Insist on Using Objective Criteria Use objective criteria to settle different interests based on principle rather than pressure. Resist the temptation to use hierarchical status, power, or coercion to resolve the conflict. Examples of objective criteria that can be used as the basis for resolving the conflict include: Precedent: How similar issues were resolved in the past Professional standards: Rules or standards for a profession or trade Laws and regulations: What a court would decide Moral standards: Doing what's right or ethical Tradition: Established practices or customs Scientific judgment: Consideration of facts and evidence

Conceptual skills

Conceptual skills involve working with concepts and ideas. Three key conceptual skills are problem solving, strategic planning, and creating vision. Problem solving: Problem solving involves taking systematic action when reality falls short of expectations. It entails figuring out what went wrong and determining how it can it be fixed. Problem solving refers to the cognitive ability to take corrective action in a problem situation to meet desired objectives. This involves a four-step process: Identify the problem Generate alternative solutions Select the best solution Implement the solution Strategic planning: Strategic planning is a cognitive ability that involves developing effective strategies and action plans to achieve organizational and group goals. This entails building consensus around shared priorities, and then mobilizing people and resources to implement an action plan that systematically leads to the achievement of over-arching goals of strategic importance to the organization. Strategic leaders demonstrate the ability to learn and apply new information the capacity to embrace change by adapting and responding quickly to changes in the environment managerial wisdom rooted in a deep understanding of people and the work environment Creating vision: Creating vision refers to the capability to challenge people with a compelling picture of the future that is better than what currently exists. This involves articulating a compelling vision and engaging others to embrace new ideals and values that lead to the future. Creating vision also entails responsibility for implementing the vision and modeling the principles embodied in that vision ("walk the talk").

Conflict Explained

Conflict can be intrapersonal, interpersonal, or societal. This lesson focuses on interpersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflict is a struggle between two or more interdependent individuals who perceive incompatible differences in beliefs, values, and goals, or over differences in desires for control, status, and connectedness. This definition of interpersonal conflict includes the following four components: Conflict is a struggle between opposing parties. The parties in conflict are interdependent and often clash over level of desired influence. Conflict contains an affective element involving such feelings as anger, sadness, loneliness, and abandonment. Differences between opposing parties may involve beliefs, values, and goals, or desires for control, status and connectedness.

Communication and Conflict

Conflict is recognized, expressed, and resolved through communication. Conflict-related communications entail two dimensions or levels of communication: the relational dimension and the content dimension. Both dimensions are always bound together in a conflict. The relational dimension involves participants' attitudes about, perceptions, and feelings about their connection to one another. The relational dimension focuses on leader/follower attitudes toward one another. For instance, the relationship between a leader and subordinate may be positive or strained. The content dimension involves disagreements over objective, observable issues such as money, policies, processes, decisions, plans. The relational dimension of the message suggests how a disagreement about content is interpreted by each party. The meaning of words expressed by parties in conflict is interpreted in the context of the relationship between those individuals. For example, if the relationship between a leader and follower is not strained, a leader's message to "please stop texting at work" may be interpreted by the follower as a friendly request. However, if the relationship is strained, the same message may be interpreted by the follower as a rigid directive. Establishing and sustaining positive relationships, then, represent an essential pre-requisite for avoiding and resolving conflict.

Kilmann and Thomas Styles of Approaching Conflict

Conflict style is a patterned response or behavior that people use when handling conflict. As shown in Figure 10.3, Kilmann and Thomas (1975) identify five conflict-handling styles which vary along two dimensions: Figure 9.3 from page 245 of Northouse's Introduction to Leadership 3rd edition of the textbook it is Showing the Styles of Approaching Conflict on a Grid with Assertiveness on the Y Axis and Cooperativeness on the X Axis Source: From Northouse, Peter. Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice, Third Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2014. Used with permission of SAGE Publications, Inc. (p. 245). From "Conflict and Conflict Management," by Kenneth Thomas in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology "edited by Marvin D. Dunnette, 1976, p. 900." Reprinted with permission of the editor. Assertiveness refers to attempts to satisfy one's own concerns. Cooperativeness represents attempts to satisfy the concerns of others. A person's individual style is usually a combination of the five styles, but understanding the styles can help a person to identify the optimal style for a given situation. The optimal conflict handling style is one that meets both the needs of the participants and the demands of the situation. Avoidance Unassertive and uncooperative Passive and avoids the conflict Denying the conflict, using jokes, changing the topic Advantages: Useful for issues that are trivial, issues that have a great potential for damage, and issues that require a cooling-off period Disadvantages: Typically counterproductive, does little to solve problems or make changes, often leads to frustration and anger Competition Assertive and uncooperative Controlling or persuading others Advantage: Useful when quick, decisive action is needed; can challenge participants to make their best efforts to generate creativity and enhance performance Disadvantages: Typically counterproductive, creates a win/lose dynamic, may increase hostility, fails to recognize others' concerns and needs Accommodation Unassertive and cooperative Attending to the needs of others and ignoring one's own needs Deferring to others: "You are right, I agree; let's forget about it." Advantages: Decreases frustration and other negative feelings, useful when the issue is more important to one party than another or when group harmony is paramount Disadvantages: Creates a lose/win dynamic; the accommodator sacrifices his or her goals, the opportunity to express his or her opinions and feelings, the chance to have his or her contributions fully considered, and the prospect of influencing the outcome Compromise Moderately assertive and moderately cooperative Midway between competition and accommodation and midway between collaboration and avoidance Advantages: Partially satisfies the goals of both parties, useful when other styles have failed, can force an equal power balance between parties Disadvantages: Doesn't go far enough to resolve conflict, neither party is completely satisfied, innovative solutions may be sacrificed for quick solutions Collaboration Assertive and cooperative Mutually agreeing to a positive settlement that fully attends to both parties' concerns without sacrificing or suppressing his or her own concerns The ideal conflict handling style because it recognizes and confronts the inevitability of human conflict to produce positive outcomes Advantages: Creates a win/win dynamic, involves communication that is satisfying, strengthens relationships, often leads to more cost-effective negotiated solutions Disadvantages: Difficult to achieve, demands energy and hard work, takes time to explore differences and select mutually satisfying solutions

Conflict on the Content Level

Content-level conflicts involve struggles about objective, observable issues such as policies and procedures. For example, two employees may have different views about the appropriateness of surfing the Internet at work. In general, content-related conflict may entail differences in beliefs and values or differences in goals and ways to reach goals. Conflicts Regarding Beliefs and Values Conflict involving beliefs and values surface when someone communicates a perspective that is not compatible with another person's view. For example, two people may have different views about abortion, gay marriage, government funding for education, or environmental stewardship. In these cases, differing viewpoints reflect differences in each person's underlying beliefs or values. Conflicts Regarding Goals Conflict involving goals may be substantive or procedural. Substantive conflict refers to differences about what the goal should be. For example, employees may differ on whether a business' top priority should be quarterly profits or long-term growth. Procedural conflict refers to disagreement about the best way to achieve an agreed-upon goal. For example, to achieve the goal of improved customer communications some employees might endorse increased face-to-face interactions while others favor increased use of social media.

DiSC profile

Dominance (D): Direct and to the point, decisive and bottom-line oriented. Individuals who are high in dominance tend to be independent and results-driven. They are strong-willed people who enjoy challenges, taking action, and immediate results. Influence (I): Optimistic and outgoing; often highly social. People who are high in influence prefer participating on teams, sharing thoughts, and entertaining and energizing others. Steadiness (S): Empathetic and cooperative. Individuals who are high in steadiness are typically team players and are supportive and helpful to others. They prefer being behind the scene, working in consistent and predictable ways. They are often good listeners and avoid change and conflict. Conscientiousness/Compliance (C): Concerned, cautious, and correct. People who are high in conscientiousness are often focused on details and quality. They plan ahead, constantly check for accuracy, and what to know "how" and "why."

Articulating a vision

Employ the following guidelines for articulating a vision. Adapt the vision to the audience. Break the vision for change into manageable small steps. People seek consistency and accept changes that are not too disruptive or too different from present conditions. Communicate the vision so that it fits others' latitude of acceptance. Articulate the vision in terms of the status quo. Ensure that the vision is not too demanding; otherwise, it is more likely to be rejected. Highlight the values of the vision. Emphasize ideals that are worth pursuing. Emphasize the values that underlie the vision so that followers identify with something larger than themselves and connect with a larger community. Choose the right language such as words and symbols that motivate and inspire. Use language that affirms, uplifts, gives hope, and underscores the vision's worth. Examples: President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address University of Michigan's football coach's use of climbing Mount Everest as a metaphor for winning the national title Use inclusive language. Link people to the vision and make them part of the process. Use "we" and "our" to enlist participation and build community around a common goal.

guidelines and principles for leading change

Employ the following principles and guidelines for leading change. Link different change initiatives to one another by relating them to the overall organization's purpose and strategic goals. Use meaningful language to focus others' energy on change visions that inspire commitment to the what, why, and how of change. Ensure that each person always knows how change in his or her performance benefits both the individual and the organization. Restructure organizational designs around the work people do rather than their level of decision-making authority. Continually increase the number of people joining you in taking responsibility for change. Use teams to drive change when possible. Equip people to make successful transitions by providing training, information, resources, and support just in time to perform. Encourage others to try things out, see what works, and talk among themselves. Continually focus others' attention on the impact of changing behaviors, skills, and working relationships on individual and organizational performance. Live the change you are leading by practicing new skills, behaviors, and working relationships you would like to bring about.

Climate in practice

Establishing a constructive climate entails: Providing structure Clarifying norms Building cohesiveness Promoting standards

Communication Strategies for Conflict Resolution

Fisher and Ury's method of principled negotiation can be complemented by three proven communication strategies for resolving conflict: Differentiation, fractionation, and face-saving. Differentiation includes defining the nature of the conflict and clarifying each party's position; fractionation involves breaking large conflicts into smaller, more manageable pieces; and face-saving entails protecting each person's self-image and reputation. Details about each of these three strategies are outlined below. Differentiation Occurs in the early stages of conflict Involves defining the nature of the conflict and clarifying each person's position Requires each person to explain his or her position, frequently focusing on differences Essential to working through a conflict Establishes the parameters of the conflict May lead to an escalation of conflict rather than cooling off May initially personalize a conflict Benefits: focuses the conflict helps parties realize how they differ gives credence to both parties' interests ultimately depersonalizes the conflict separates people from the problem Fractionation Breaking down large conflicts into smaller, more manageable pieces Example: Initial global issue: Conflict between an employee and supervisor about the employee's attitude and level of engagement Fractionated issues: Specific concerns about: The employee's active participation in meetings The employee's responsiveness to colleagues' requests The employee's timeliness in returning calls and email messages Occurs in the early stages of conflict Benefits reduces the conflict by paring it down gives focus to the conflict helps reduce the emotional intensity of the dispute facilitates a better working relationship between participants in the conflict Face-Saving Establishes or maintains one's self image in response to threat Addresses participant concerns about how others view him or her in regard to the positions he or she has taken Helps prevent a shift in focus from substantive issues to personal issues Involves communicating in ways that preserve the other person's self-image Acknowledges the other person's point of view in a respectful manner Example: "I think you are making a good point, but I see things differently." Similar to separating people from the problem Deters a shift in discussions to face-threatening issues Can be used to confirm that others they have handled themselves appropriately during conflict and that their relationship is still healthy

Obstacle 2: Unclear Directions

Follower uncertainty about the steps they should follow to reach a goal leads to decreased efficiency, increased errors, and longer turn-around times. On the other hand, clear directions provides followers with greater confidence and sense of control as well as improved productivity. Leaders can circumvent the obstacle of unclear directions by applying the following guidelines. Define the path to the goal by giving clear directions. Inform others what to do and when to do it. Adapt directions to the needs of each individual. Use a calm voice to give directions. Avoid giving directions that are evaluative or critical. When someone makes a mistake, redirect and correct them in a gentle manner.

Obstacle 7: Lack of a Challenge

Followers who do not feel challenged by their work are apt to quit and find something that is more engaging. So it's important for leaders to find ways to challenge people to sustain a high level of performance. Use an achievement-oriented style of leadership when followers don't feel challenged by their work. Challenge followers to excel. Establish high standards of excellence and seek continuous improvement. Push people to higher levels of success; "raise the bar." Show confidence that people can reach challenging goals. Assess each follower's needs to determine whether achievement-oriented leadership is appropriate.

Clarifying norms

Group norms include policies, procedures, codes of conduct, and implied "rules" for how we are supposed to behave in a group. By clarifying norms and making them explicit, leaders enable followers to differentiate between what is acceptable or unacceptable, appropriate or inappropriate, right or wrong. This puts followers in a position where they can monitor themselves to ensure their behavior is in compliance with norms or expectations. More specifically, norms refer to the rules of behavior that are established and shared by group members; inform followers of what is appropriate/inappropriate, right/wrong, and allowed/not allowed in groups; improve a group's performance and effectiveness; and develop early in a group and are difficult to change. Although norms typically grow out of follower interactions with one another and with the leader, leaders should also take a proactive approach to deliberately shape norms that maximize group effectiveness and follower satisfaction. Leaders can significantly affect group norms by communicating expectations, providing incentives along with negative consequences, and modeling desired behaviors. For example, to foster constructive norms for a project team, a leader might define expectations, recognize, and model the following types of behaviors: Commitment to excellence Support for diversity Collaboration among team members Camaraderie among teammates Basketball great Michael Jordan helped led the Chicago Bulls to six NBA titles. Listen to this recording as his mother, Deloris Jordan, discusses the self-imposed norms that helped to provide the foundation for Michael's success in sports and in life. She also discusses the changing norms for parenting in today's society. Click the link to launch the website with the audio recording and transcript - Michael Jordan's Mom Shares Parenting Advice. Establishing positive and productive climate requires leaders to recognize, understand, and promote positive group norms. To learn more about group norms and how leaders may intervene to ensure a climate that promotes success, read the article that follows. Click the link to access the article.

Obstacle 1: Unclear Goals

If followers are unclear about goals or expected outcomes, they will be uncertain about whether their contributions add value and they will be unable to measure progress toward those goals. Apply the following guidelines to overcome the obstacle of unclear goals. Make goals clear and understandable. Clarify priorities so followers are not torn between competing goals. Communicate clear goals to increase follower motivation, likelihood of successful goal achievement, and satisfaction with results. Provide a clear picture of expected outcomes—the end toward which everything else is directed. Define each goal specifically and explain how it fits with other goals.

The Fifth Characteristic of Vision a challenge

Inspires people to commit themselves to worthwhile causes that benefit others Motivates people to move beyond self-interest Examples: John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country." Participants in the marathon sponsored by the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society's Team in Training program are challenged to raise money for cancer research in return for personalized coaching and fitness training.

The Third Characteristic of Vision values

Represent new ideas, beliefs and modes of action that people find worthwhile Require understanding the leader's own ideas and beliefs as well as those of followers, other stakeholders, and the organization Trigger changes in ideas, beliefs, and modes of action Mobilize movement toward new ideals Examples: Based on her convictions about individual competence, human dignity, and fairness, a CEO envisions transforming the company's historically authoritarian approach to management to a more democratic style of leadership. Based on a commitment to environmental stewardship, a department director in a manufacturing company inspires her team to achieve zero waste in their unit operations.

Interpersonal skills

Interpersonal skills are "people skills." Leaders need them to work effectively with subordinates, peers, superiors, and external constituents in order to accomplish the organization's goals. Three key interpersonal skills are social perceptiveness, emotional intelligence, and conflict management. Social perceptiveness: Being socially perceptive involves the leader's sensitivity to how his or her ideas fit with others' ideas. It includes awareness of the priorities, motivations, problems, and probable reactions to specific changes of both employees and different organizational constituencies. The ability to anticipate others' reactions to change enables a leader to position proposed changes in a manner that is less likely to be resisted by others. This includes the ability to articulate the benefits of a proposed change to each stakeholder. Emotional intelligence: Emotional intelligence involves a leader's ability to understand his or her own emotions as well as the emotions of others. It entails using emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with emotions, and to manage emotions effectively. A leader can develop his or her emotional intelligence by becoming more aware of his or her own emotions, becoming more aware of others' emotions, and improving his or her ability to regulate emotions and put them to good use. Conflict management: Conflict is the struggle between two or more individuals over perceived differences involving substantive issues or relational issues. People have different needs, priorities, interests, and points of view, so conflict is inevitable. Because it triggers strain and stress for leaders and followers, conflict creates the need for change. In addition, conflict is also precipitated as the result of change due to the uncertainty, ambiguity, and confusion that often accompany change. If people are unclear about a new procedure, for example, there may be conflict about which steps in the process are appropriate to follow. If managed well, conflict can reduce stress, increase creative problem solving, and strengthen working relationships.

Obstacles Explained

Introduction Obstacles and struggles are an inevitable part of life, including life at work where a variety of obstacles can hinder productivity. Leaders are responsible for recognizing problems, determining what can be done to solve them, and providing followers with appropriate guidance and coaching. Obstacles Explained An obstacle is a hindrance, problem, or hurdle that makes it difficult for followers to reach a goal. Obstacles take many forms, including: Physical [poor work space], psychological [close-mindedness], or task-related [complex work process]. In general, an obstacle is anything that has a negative impact on follower performance. Asking followers about their concerns enables the leader to address obstacles and improve their leadership. Overcoming Obstacles in Practice Helping followers to overcome obstacles begins with identifying the problems and then determining what should be done to solve them. This strategies fosters follower motivation, productivity, and satisfaction. Leaders can apply practical principles derived from path-goal theory to implement leadership practices that best fit the needs of group members and the nature of their work. This involves helping followers to define goals and paths for achieving those goals. Dealing with obstacles may entail navigating around them or removing them. This includes following practical guidelines to overcome the seven major obstacles derived from path-goal theory and illustrated in the diagram below.

Leadership Ethics Explained

Leaders have the power to influence others, so leadership also has a moral dimension. More specifically, leaders have an ethical responsibility to remain sensitive to how their leadership affects others' well-being. The ethical shortfalls of leaders in several organizations have adversely affected many people. Accounting and financial scandals have occurred in companies such as Adelphia, Arthur Anderson, Enron, Tyco International, and WorldCom. In addition, sexual scandals have involved clergy in the Catholic church and a number of prominent government officials. These scandals have raised the public's suspicion of leaders at every level in all types of organizations and increased the demand for ethical leadership. Leadership Ethics Explained Ethical leadership refers to the influence of a moral person who moves others to do the right thing in the right way for the right reasons. It is a process by which a good person rightly influences others to accomplish a common good—to make the world better, fairer, and more humane. Ethics involves morals and standards that are considered desirable or appropriate. Ethical leadership involves what leaders do, their behavior and their motives. The leaders use of power, control, and influence affects others and the organization. The leader's ethics--through their behavior, decisions, and interactions--establish the ethical climate for an organization. Perspectives on Ethical Leadership To learn more about ethical leadership, take a few minutes to check out the following recordings, which offer different perspectives of ethical leadership. Perspectives on Leadership Video Principles of Ethical Leadership: Watch a discussion in which the following leaders share their views of ethical leadership: Sara R. Ellenbogen: Attorney, Federal Government Dan Geltrude: Founder and Managing Partner, Geltrude and Company Tom Hogan: Professor of Practice, Labor Studies and Employment Relations, Penn State; former Director of Strategic Talent Acquisition and Retention, Workforce Diversity and EEO/AA, AT&T Michael Wasser: Research and Communications Associate, American Rights at Work

Obstacle 5: Simple Tasks

Many followers find routine mundane tasks to be dull and uninteresting. To sustain follower motivation and engagement with such tasks, leaders can apply the following guidelines. Use a supportive leadership style for simple and repetitive tasks. Strengthen the human connection by being supportive, encouraging, and nurturing. Introduce variety or challenge so that simple tasks don't become dull and uninteresting. Foster camaraderie and supportiveness for followers engaged in mundane work. Demonstrate care for follower well-being and personal needs by being friendly, showing an interest in others' families, giving compliments, and offering other forms of social support.

Developing Leadership skills

Many organizations are creating and implementing leadership development programs designed to enable employees to handle current and future leadership challenges more effectively. In their article titled "Leadership Development," Day and Harrison (2006) assert that: Leadership development is concerned with the intrapersonal change and growth of individual leaders (human capital) and the relational aspects associated with interpersonal leadership processes (social capital). There are no recognized theories of leadership development. A key to the effective development of leaders and leadership depends a great deal on systematic implementation that builds both the human and social capital components of leadership. One consideration is how consistently and broadly the developmental initiatives are practiced. Instead of limiting development to top levels or "high potential" executives, a more effective implementation strategy may be to introduce versions of the focal practices throughout all levels of an organization. Another key to effective implementation is to link initiatives so that leadership development builds on leader development. Grounding developmental initiatives in an overall purpose tied to key strategic business challenges is one way to heighten the relevance of leadership development for better organizational performance.

The second characteristic of vision a change

Represents a break with the status quo Points to new ways of doing things that are better than the past Can occur in many forms, including: Procedures Goals Values Rituals May be resisted by followers and seen as "stirring the pot" Is usually embraced by followers who want to be part of the more attractive future Example: Realizing the vision of decreased dependence on fossil fuels requires people to implement changes in daily habits such as how they commute to work and how they insulate and heat their homes

Demonstrating Empathy and Reflective Listening

Northouse describes the use of reflective listening as "serving as a mirror or sounding board for another person's expressed or unexpressed emotions and attitudes, you focus on how something has been expressed, or the emotional dimension behind the words" (Northouse, 2015, p. 206). This communication technique is most appropriate when the speaker is expressing strong emotion—either positive or negative. To use reflective listening, identify and label the feeling that is being expressed by the speaker, and then put that feeling label into a sentence to demonstrate your understanding. Note that typically there is more than one appropriate feeling label and reflective listening statement for a given situation. If a reflective response is off target, the speaker will usually correct the mistaken understanding—which is a good thing because the listener's goal is to understand the affective message being conveyed by the speaker. When a reflective listening statement is on target, the speaker will often elaborate by going into greater detail or discussing similar incidents. This is also a good thing because it opens the communication channels and helps the listener to achieve more complete understanding. The following examples illustrate how a reflective listening response focuses on the affective components of the spoken message and demonstrates the listener's understanding of the feeling being expressed by the speaker.

Task-oriented style

Oriented toward goals Want to achieve Gratified by getting things done Find meaning in doing Examples: Using color codes in a daily planner Making a list for everything Completing chores early on Saturday mornings

Relationship-oriented style

Oriented toward people Celebrate relationships Gratified by connecting with people Find meaning in being Examples: Keeping cell phone on as much as possible Interrupting someone who is working just to talk Working out problems in association with others

The first characteristic of vision a picture

Paints an ideal future image that's better than the status quo Presents an ideal image of where an organization is going Describes a future that is more attractive, exciting, affirming, or inspiring Illustrates how people will be working productively to achieve a common goal Might not be fully developed Example: Many innovations introduced by Apple Computer were triggered by Steve Jobs' vision of possibilities.

Obstacle 3: Low Motivation

Path-goal leadership incorporates expectancy theory, which stipulates that people are more motivated when their efforts lead to an expected outcome that they value. In other words, people are motivated when they feel competent, get what they expect, and value what they do. These considerations lead to following guidelines that leaders can apply to motivate followers. Provide guidance so that followers' efforts lead to a valued, expected outcome. Follow three key guidelines: Help followers feel competent: Provide feedback that confirms they know what they are doing. Help followers get what they expect. Make sure the expected outcome is achievable. Structure realistic expectations about rewards for accomplishments. Follow through and deliver any rewards promised for achieving goals. Help followers value what they do. Provide rewards, recognition, and positive feedback that are meaningful to and valued by followers. Help followers to see how their work contributes to group and organizational priorities.

Five Key Characteristics of an effective vision

Provides a mental picture or image of a better future Represents change and points to new ways of doing things Embodies the values of followers and the organization as well as the leader Provides a map that gives direction, meaning, and purpose Exemplifies a challenge to contribute to a worthwhile cause that benefits others

The Fourth Characteristic of Vision a map

Provides a path to follow in order to achieve short- and long-term goals Gives people a sense of security, calmness, reassurance Enables people to recognize when they're on- and off-track Embodies a guiding philosophy that gives meaning and purpose Helps people recognize how they contribute to the organization—something bigger than themselves—by connecting them to over-arching goals, principles, and values Examples: The campaign leader for a presidential candidate helps volunteers to understand how distributing flyers may help to create a future that is consistent with the candidate's strategy, platform, and philosophy. Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama outline an overall strategy for focusing on deep space exploration by engaging private companies to assume responsibility for selected missions related to low-earth orbit.

Providing structure

Providing structure through clear goals, defined roles, and individualized guidance helps groups to achieve shared goals efficiently. Focusing followers on such outcomes as the group's mission, goals, and priorities helps to ensure that everyone works toward the same end. Leaders also provide structure by assigning roles and delegating tasks, ideally in a manner that allows each person to contribute to group goals by capitalizing on their individual strengths and interests. Another way to provide structure involves individualized guidance or coaching support to help followers complete tasks in a manner that reduces errors and enhances individual growth and development. Providing structure gives followers a sense of security, direction, and stability; provides group members with an "architectural drawing" that gives form and meaning to their activities; and lets people know where they "fit in"—how their contributions facilitate the achievement of group goals. A few examples of structure include agenda for group meeting; course syllabus; an organization's strategic plan; a project plan; and a team charter or contract. Leaders provide structure by communicating concrete goals, delegating explicit assignments, and defining clear responsibilities. Examples of concrete goals Expected outcomes for a project Quarterly objectives for a work unit The mission of a military unit Examples of explicit assignments or tasks delegated to particular individuals Create an agenda for an upcoming meeting Assemble materials required for a contractor briefing Facilitate a project team discussion to achieve group consensus on a specific issue Administer a customer satisfaction survey Prepare a monthly financial report that details all income and expenses Examples of clear areas of responsibility that define an individual's role in a group Product development Customer relations Purchasing Marketing Sales

Out-Groups and Discrimination

Racial, ethnic, age, and gender discrimination continues to be a part of daily life in the workplace for many minority people. As a result, members of such minorities may find themselves treated and/or feeling like members of an out-group. The personalization model of diversity management represents one of several approaches for reducing discrimination and bias through frequent, positive personalized contact that disconfirm negative stereotypes, diminishes in-group/out-group distinctions, and reduces intergroup conflict.

Conflict on the Relational Level

Relational conflicts, which are often called personality clashes, involve how people relate or interact with each other. For example, an employee may feel that a colleague is rude or lacks sensitivity. As another example, one person may prefer an intense, focused, and face-paced approach to discussions while another prefers more relaxed conversations with an interplay of business and small talk. Relational conflicts may involve issues of esteem, control, or affiliation. Relational Conflicts and Issues of Esteem Esteem-related conflict occurs when someone feels her self-esteem needs aren't being met. For instance, she may believe she is not perceived as she would like to be seen. For instance, a person may not feel valued or appreciated because she believes her contributions are not adequately recognized. Relational Conflicts and Issues of Control Control-related conflict occurs when one person's needs for control are incompatible with another person's needs for control. Both parties perceive that they are competing with one another to exercise influence over a given issue. For example, an employee and their supervisor may argue about the extent to which an employee can flex her work schedule. Relational Conflicts and Issues of Affiliation Affiliation-related conflict occurs when someone feels that his needs for affiliation are not being met. For example, a person may feel that a colleague is not meeting his desire for camaraderie and friendly interaction. As another example, someone may feel that he is not liked by a colleague. Relational conflicts are difficult to resolve due to any combination of the following reasons. They are difficult to recognize because they are seldom overt. They are often ignored because many people are reluctant to communicate that they want more recognition, control, or affiliation. Relational conflicts are inextricably bound to content issues and often surface during discussion of conflict issues. So the conflict is perceived as a content issue rather than a relational issue. Leaders who maintain open communication with others have a greater chance of understanding and addressing conflicts that involve others' beliefs, values, and needs for esteem, control, and affiliation.

Relationship-oriented leadership

Relationship Leadership Relationship-oriented leadership focuses on followers' well-being, how they relate to each other, and the atmosphere in which they work. This style emphasizes leadership practices that help followers feel comfortable with themselves, others, and the situation. Relationship leadership has been labeled differently by various researchers: Consideration behavior: Building camaraderie, respect, trust, and regard between leaders and followers Employee orientation: Taking an interest in workers as human beings, valuing their unique qualities, giving special attention to personal needs Concern for people: Building trust, providing good working conditions, maintaining a fair salary structure, promoting good social relations The essence of relationship leadership includes: Treating followers with dignity and respect Building relationships and helping people get along Making the workplace pleasant Enhancing working relationships with followers The next video resumes the discussion of leadership style as Mr. De Treux, Ms. Naraghi, Mr. Simpson, and Mr. Taliaferro define relationship-oriented leadership.

promoting standards

Standards of excellence are criteria for evaluating individual and group performance. Leaders who explicitly communicate their expectations for performance inform followers up front of the standards that will be used in the future to assess performance. By conveying standards in advance, the leader establishes benchmarks for desired performance outcomes and increases followers' accountability for meeting those standards and achieving those outcomes. Advance knowledge of performance standards puts followers in position to monitor their progress. The following six factors should be included in standards of excellence so that followers can function effectively: What group members need to know and which skills they need. How much initiative and effort they need to demonstrate. How group members are expected to treat one another. The significance of deadlines. What goals they need to achieve. The consequences if they fail or achieve goals. Leaders can apply the following guidelines for using standards of excellence to influence performance. Require results: Articulate clear, concrete expectations that lead to desired goals and objectives. Review results: Monitor follower performance and give constructive feedback to recognize positive behaviors and correct nonproductive behaviors. Reward results: Reinforce and reward team members for achieving desired results. Step 1: Require Results Purpose: To reduce follower uncertainty about clarify expected outcomes Guidelines Articulate concrete expectations clearly for team members. Establish mutual goals and identify specific objectives for achieving them. Step 2: Review Results Purpose: To monitor progress and provide feedback that shapes successful performance Guidelines Monitor as needed to ensure that performance is "on-track." Give positive feedback to recognize positive aspects of performance. Give constructive feedback to guide and correct shortfalls in performance. Be honest, direct, and communicate with the intent to help. Enable members to know if they're doing the right things, in the right way, at the right speed. Inform group members how to maintain or improve performance. Apply the following guidelines for giving constructive feedback: Address behaviors. Describe specifically what you have observed. Use "I" language. Give the feedback in calm, unemotional language. Check to ensure clear communication has occurred. Resolve performance problems by confronting and resolving inadequate performance—the willingness to do so is the most distinguishing characteristic of effective leaders. Confront problems as they occur in a proactive manner. Explain how unacceptable behaviors hinder achievement of group goals. Monitor problematic behaviors to ensure they cease. Counsel members who refuse to improve about leaving the group. Use performance reviews (performance appraisals) as an opportunity to discuss the follower's success in meeting previously-established standards of excellence. More specifically, use performance reviews to: Assess progress toward standards of excellence. Reinforce positive aspects of performance. Encourage continued development in areas that fall short of established standards. Step 3: Reward Results Purpose: To reinforce and reward positive aspects of performance so that they are maintained and further improved Guidelines Recognize contributions Give personalized appreciation for individual excellence Pay attention to and encourage high performers Capitalize on the benefits of rewarding results Group members feel valued Group identity and community spirit are enhanced

Overcoming Obstacles to Implementing Strategy

Strategic management involves strategy formulation and strategy implementation. Of these two components, implementation is more complicated, more time-consuming, and the more frequent cause of strategy failures. Read the article, The Foundations of Successful Strategy Implementation: Overcoming the Obstacles about overcoming obstacles to implementing enterprise strategy.

Leadership Ethics in Practice

The diagram below illustrates six factors that are related to ethical leadership. The Factors of Ethical Leadership from page 230 of the Northouse, Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. Source. Adapted from Northouse, Peter. Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice, Third Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2014. Used with permission of SAGE Publications, Inc. (p.263) The Character of the Leader Image of Table 11.1 from page 264 of the Introduction to Leadership textbook Source: From Northouse, Peter. Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice, Third Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2014. Used with permission of SAGE Publications, Inc. (p. 264) Character refers to a person's qualities, disposition, and core values. An individual's character reflects the core of who one is as a person. The true test of character lies in the ability to maintain ethical values even in time of immense adversity. Individuals with strong character are generally seen as good human beings with honorable and admirable core values such as Character can be developed over time by practicing values-driven behaviors; for example, by telling the truth, people become truthful. Courage, generosity, self-control, honesty, sociability, modesty, fairness, and justice—identified by Aristotle more than 2,000 years ago Trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring and citizenship—taught as part of the curriculum at the Josephson Institute in California (click on the table to the right titled "The Six Pillars of Character") Courage, patience, humility, and compassion—practiced by Nelson Mandela in his pursuit of justice and equality for all in South Africa The Actions of the Leader The actions of an ethical leader refers to the use of morally appropriate behaviors and practices to achieve goals. The actions, decisions, and interactions of ethical leaders are consistent with the following three principles: Showing respect Treat others as unique human beings—not as a means to an end. Value others' ideas. Hold others in high esteem. Be tolerant of differences. Demonstrate civility and consideration toward others. Serving others Promote others' best interests. Be follower-centered rather than self-centered. Place others' interests foremost. Act in ways that benefit others. Mentor and empower others. Showing justice Treat followers in an equal manner. Provide special treatment to others only when the grounds for doing so are clear, reasonable, and based on sound moral values. Treat others the way you would like to be treated—follow the Golden Rule. Clearly establish and communicate the rules for distributing scarce rewards. The Goals of the Leader Leaders use goals to influence others, and the goals that a leader establishes reflect his or her ethics. A leader may choose moral goals (e.g., Mother Teresa helping the poor) or immoral ones (e.g., Adolf Hitler eradicating Jews). To identify and pursue just and worthy goals, the leader should take the interests of others into account; establish goals that the leader and followers mutually agree on; and resist the temptation to use power to impose the leader's will on others. The Honesty of the Leader An honest leader is seen by followers as reliable, dependable, and trustworthy. Honesty involves the following practices. These leadership practices circumvent the negative effects of dishonesty. Dishonesty will Tell the truth. Be open with others so that the rationale behind decisions is transparent. Represent reality as fully as possible without revealing confidential information. Use judgment to balance truth telling with what is appropriate to disclose; limit openness when the complete truth can be hurtful or detrimental to others. increase distrust because the leader is seen as undependable and unreliable; compromises the leader's ability to lead; strains and breaks down relationships with followers; and implies that manipulating others is acceptable. The Power of the Leader The power of the leader refers to his or her capacity to influence or affect others. French and Raven (1959) identified five bases of social power (defined and illustrated in the table below) that can be used by ethical leaders in positive ways to benefit others. Five Bases of Power Five Bases of Power 1. Referent power Based on followers' identification and liking for the leader Example: A college professor who is highly admired by students 2. Expert power Based on the followers' perceptions of the leader's competence Example: A person with strong knowledge about a software program 3. Legitimate power Associated with having status or formal job authority Example: A judge who presides over a court case 4. Reward power Derived from having the capacity to provide benefits to others Example: A supervisor who can give bonuses to employees 5. Coercive power Derived from being able to penalize or punish others Example: A teacher who can lower a student's grade fro missing class Source: Based on French and Raven, 1959. Northouse, Peter. Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice, Third Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2014. Used with permission of SAGE Publications, Inc. (p.273) To use power in positive ways, ethical leaders can apply the following guidelines. Be constantly aware of how one's leadership affects others. Remain vigilant to ensure that power is not used in destructive ways. Take the will of others into account when exercising influence. Use power to accomplish mutual goals rather than promote the leader's personal agenda. The Values of the Leader Values are ideas, beliefs, and modes of action that people find worthwhile or desirable. Values that are just and worthy lie at the core of ethical leadership. According to Ciulla (2003), the following three kinds of leadership values were identified by James MacGregor Burns: To exercise values-oriented leadership, a leader must understand their own values, have the courage to express them, and integrate their values with those of others in order to to achieve common goals. When a leader's values differ from a follower's, the leader should Ethical values Similar to character Examples: Kindness, altruism Modal values Concerned with a leader's means or actions Examples: Responsibility, accountability End values Describe a leader's goals or outcomes Examples: Justice, community remain true to his or her own values while being sensitive to others' values; negotiate through differences to find the best outcome for everyone; and try to find common ground between the leader and follower.

Task-oriented leadership

Task-oriented leadership focuses on procedures, activities, and goal accomplishment. This style emphasizes the completion of tasks—what the leader is doing. Task leadership has been labeled differently by various researchers: Concern for production: Policy decisions, new product development, workload, sales volume Production orientation: Stressing production and technical aspects of the job Initiating structure: Organizing work, defining role responsibilities, scheduling work activities

How Out-Groups Form

Understanding the reasons why out-groups form is the first step in trying to resolve out-group issues. An out-group may develop as a result of any combination of the following reasons. People disagree with or oppose the position of the majority. Group dynamics related to the formation of majority vs. minority subgroups may relate to the process the group uses to make decisions. Achieving consensus means that everyone in the group can accept the outcome of a decision, even if the outcome was not their top preference. Consensus decision-making is difficult. Without consensus people align themselves with majority or minority viewpoint, and the minority is seen as an out-group. One alternative to consensus decision making involves voting on issues. Unfortunately, voting tends to create winners and losers, and losers may see themselves as the out-group. Individuals cannot identify with the beliefs, norms, or values of the dominant group members. People sense they are excluded by the larger group. They don't know where they fit in because they differ from the larger group. They may feel powerless, weak, and alienated. Some people lack communication skills or social skills to relate to the larger group. Their actions and comments are perceived by others as "different." They're unable to adapt to the norms of the group. They may want to join the larger group but don't know how to accomplish this.

Obstacle 6: Low Involvement

When people feel like they're an important part of a group or organization, they are more motivated and productivity increases. Conversely, when followers feel like they're not an important part of the group, satisfaction and productivity decrease. In addition, high involvement also enhances commitment to the group and group cohesiveness. Leaders can overcome the obstacle of low follower involvement by applying the following guidelines. Use a participative leadership style when followers don't feel like they're an important part of the group or organization. Invite others to be part of the process for deciding how to get things done. Give people a voice in what happens. Establish an open climate that welcomes everyone's contributions. Enable individuals to establish a unique identity in the group by providing opportunities for them to express diverse thoughts and ideas. Foster inclusiveness so that people feel that they fit in. Show individuals that their voice is heard. Provide feedback that makes people feel that they are contributing to the group. Consult with others and integrate their suggestions into decisions. Make others feel involved.

Obstacle 4: Complex Tasks

When tasks are unstructured, ambiguous, or complex, followers often feel overwhelmed, frustrated, or threatened. Leaders can help followers to manage and successfully complete complex tasks by applying the following guidelines. Use a directive leadership style for complex tasks. Clarify the path to the goal. Simplify the work by breaking it down into more manageable chunks. Provide guidance and direction so people don't feel frustrated, overwhelmed, or threatened. Give instructions and a timeline so that people know what is expected, how to do it, and when to deliver. Set clear standards for performance. Make rules and regulations clear. Simplify complex tasks.

Leadership skills

refer to competencies that can be learned. These skills are demonstrated through a leader's performance. In the last several years, researchers and practitioners have given increased attention to leadership competencies which include administrative, interpersonal, and conceptual skills. The figure below provides an overview of three core leadership skills in each of these three categories.