Olympics set 2
List and describe the different types of DRL procedures. Provide your own example of each.
(a) Full session DRL: In a full session DRL procedure, reinforcement is delivered at the end of an instructional or treatment session if during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a number equal to or below a predetermined criterion. If the number of responses exceeds the specified limit during the session, reinforcement is withheld. (E.g. In a classroom setting if the disruptive behaviour happens 3 or less times during class, the child gets to play on the ipad during their break) (b) Interval DRL: The practitioner divides a total sessions into a series of equal intervals of time and provide reinforcement at the end of each interval in which the number of occurrences of problem behavior during that interval is equal to or below a criterion limit. (E.g. If a child engages in the problem behaviour 2 or less times per 20 minutes of class, they get the ipad for 2 minutes before going back to work. If they engage in the problem behaviour more than 2 times the interval resets back to 20 minutes.) (c) Spaced- responding DRL: the practitioner delivers a reinforcer following an occurrence of a response that is separated by at least a minimum amount of time from the previous response. (E.g. A child has to not engage in disruptive behaviour for 5 minutes before getting reinforced, once they acquire that it goes up to 10 minutes, then 15 minutes. The increase in time needed to not engage in disruptive behaviour decreases the amount of disruptive behaviours and also increases the sitting nicely and listening to the teacher behaviours.)
List, and describe, the four-steps commonly used when conducting a FBA
) Gather information via indirect and descriptive assessment. 2) Interpret information from indirect and descriptive assessment and formulate hypotheses about the purpose of problem behaviour. 3) Test hypotheses using functional analysis. 4) Develop intervention options based on the function of problem behaviour.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of a functional analysis.
- advantage: · Clear demonstration of variable that relates to occurrence of PB · Standard to all other FBAs are evaled · Enables development of effective bx tx - disadvantage: • Assessment process may strengthen or increase the undesirable bx to unacceptable levels or result in behaviour acquiring new functions • Counterintuitive to persons who do not understand its propose • Some bxs may not be amenable to functional analyses • FAs that are conducted in contrived settings may not detect the variable that accounts for occurrence of the problem bx in natural environment • This assessment requires a certain amount of expertise to implement and interpret (also time and effort)
List three variations of descriptive assessment and an advantage and disadvantage of each
1) ABC continuous recording - advantage: precise measurement - disadvantage: antecedents and consequences don't reliable precede/follow the PB making difficult to detect correlations (USE conditional probabilities!) 2) ABC checklist: record occurrence of PB and indicate which antecedents/consequences are associated w the bx - advantage: increased objectivity - disadvantage: no info on timeframe between events and bx 3) ABC narrative recording: data collected when bx of interest is observed - advantage: less time consuming than continuous recording - disadvantage: reliability is low 3) List three variations of indirect functional assessment and the advantages and disadvantages of indirect assessment in general. 1) Checklist 2) Rating scale 3) Questionnaires - advantage: Ø Useful source for guiding subsequent assessments Ø Contributes to hypothesis development about variables that occasion/maintain OB Ø Convenient bc doesn't require direct observation - disadvantage: Ø Informant accuracy? Ø Bias Ø Little research supports reliability Ø Not recommended to ident function of bx
When might you say that an FA is "undifferentiated?"
1) Discrimination failure occurred due to rapidly alternating FA conditions 2) The PB is controlled by multiple conditions 3) The PB is maintained by automatic reinforcement 4) The FA conditions do not incorporate the appropriate consequent events that maintain the bx in the natural environment 5) Carryover effects
List and describe the guidelines for imitation training
1) Keep training sessions active and brief i.e. 2/3 sessions per day vs 1 long session 2) Reinforce both prompted and imitative responses 3) Pair verbal praise and attention with tangible reinforcers - learners willingness to participate may increase by preferred activities following 4) If progress breaks down, back up and move ahead slowly - satiation and distraction 5) Keep a record - directly measure and record performance and review data 6) Fade out verbal response prompts and physical guidance 7) End imitation training - depends on progress goals and the learner - i.e. stop when student imitates first presentation of novel models.
Provide your own example of each of the 6 elementary verbal operants.
1) Mand: child mands for trains by saying "train" 2) Tact: child sees train, and says "train" 3) Echoic: parents say "train", child says "train" 4) Intraverbal: parents sing "twinkle, twinkle little ____", child says "star" 5) Textual: cue card with the word "train" on it, and child says "train" 6) Transcription: parents say "train", child spells t-r-a-i-n with pencil and paper
What are four types of biases that may result in inaccurate data collection? Provide a definition of each.
Expectancy bias - Observer expectations about desirable outcomes of treatment may bias scoring toward congruence with hypothesized outcome. Observer bias - The accuracy and reliability of data may be affected by the presence of a second observer who is often present for the purpose of calculating inter-observer agreement. Reactivity - A change in the participant's behavior as a function of being observed. Observer drift - The control that behavioral definitions exert over observer's behavior may evade over the course of the experiment. This may be due to boredom, fatigue or illness, can negatively affect the accuracy and reliability of observation.
What is the difference between an extinction burst and spontaneous recovery? How can they be distinguished on a graph depicting response rate for a particular behaviour?
Extinction burst: An immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the removal of the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement - usually at the beginning of the intervention, there is intense increase Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of bx after it is diminished to its pre-reinforcement levels or stopped entirely - short lived, less intense as extinction burst - bx that diminished during extinction process recurs even though the bx doesn't produce reinforcement - both occur during the extinction phase but extinction bursts are more intense and at beginning whereas spontaneous burst are less intense and occur once the bx has already been extinguished
Provide the technical definition of extinction. Describe the effects of extinction.
Extinction: as a procedure occurs when reinforcement of a previously reinforced behaviour is discontinued; as a result, the frequency of that behaviour decreases in the future. Extinction Effects: 1) Gradual decrease in frequency and amplitude: this gradual decrease in response will tend to be sporadic with a gradual increase in pauses between responses 2) Extinction burst: an immediate increase in the frequency of response after removal of negative, positive, or automatic reinforcement 3) Initial increase in response amplitude: an initial increase in amplitude/force of response occurs during extinction 4) Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of behaviour after it is diminished to its pre-reinforcement levels or stopped entirely
Define and describe functional communication training. Be sure to discuss (a) how it operates, (b) what its main purpose is, and (c) considerations for effective implementation of the technique.
FCT: establish appropriate communicative bx to compete w problem bx evoked by EOs. Instead of changing EO, FCT develops alternative bx that are sensitive to EO a. FCT is an application of differential reinforcement of alternative bx (DRA) bc intervention develops alternative communication response as antecedent to diminish problem bx. Altern commun response produces reinforcer that maintained problem bx, making communicative response functionally equivalent to the problem bx. b) Compete w problem bx evoked by est by EOs c) Consider this... · Dense schedule of R · Decreased use of verbal prompts · Bx reduction procedures · Schedule thinning
List four behavioural dimensions to which continuous recording procedures are commonly applied.
Frequency - Frequency recording entails continuous recording of separate instances of behavior as they occur. Duration - Duration involves measuring the entire amount of time that the target response is performed. Latency - Latency refers to the amount of time that elapses between the onset of a specific cue or stimulus and the response of interest. Intensity - Intensity recording involves measures of magnitude strength, amplitude, force or effort of a response.
List and describe the conditions under which extinction should not be used.
Imitation: Extinction should not be used if the behaviour placed on extinction are likely to be imitated by others. Extreme behaviours: some behaviours are so harmful to self or others or so destructive to property that they must be controlled with the most rapid and humane procedures available • Extinction as a singular intervention is not recommended in such situations.
List and define the 6 elementary verbal operants identified by Skinner (1957). In your definition, include (a) the controlling variable, (b) the consequence, and (c) specify what, if any, point-to-point correspondence is present (i.e., note if there is point-to-point correspondence. If it is present, list what the point-to-point correspondence is between), and (d) specify what, if any, formal similarity is present (i.e., note if there is formal similarity. If it is present, list what the formal similarity is between).
Mand: The mand is a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the functional control of motivating operations (MOs) and specific reinforcement. Tact: The tact is a verbal operant under the functional control of a nonverbal discriminative stimulus, and it produces generalized conditioned reinforcement. Echoic: The echoic operant is controlled by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point- to - point correspondence and formal similarity with the response. Point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response or response product occurs when the beginning, middle and end of the response. Formal similarity occurs when the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response or response product (a) share the same sense mode (b) physically resemble each other .in the echoic relation the stimulus is auditory and the response produces an auditory product. Intraverbal: The intraverbal operant occurs when a verbal discriminative stimulus evokes a verbal response that does not have point to point correspondence with the verbal stimulus. That is, the verbal stimulus and the verbal response do not match each other. Textual: The textual operant has point to point correspondence, but not formal similarity, between the stimulus and the response product. For example (a) the verbal stimuli are visual or tactile (i.e. in one modality) and the response is auditory (i.e. another modality) and (b) the auditory response matches the visual or tactile stimuli. Textual behavior is controlled by the antecedent verbal stimuli and it produce generalized conditioned reinforcement. There is point to point correspondence between the antecedent stimulus and response. Transcription: Transcription is a type of verbal behavior in which a spoken verbal controls a written, typed or finger spelled response. Like the textual operant, there is point to point correspondence between the stimulus and response point.
Define and describe noncontingent reinforcement. Be sure to discuss (a) how it operates, (b) what its purpose or function is, and (c) considerations for effective implementation of the technique.
Non-contingent reinforcement is an antecedent intervention in which stimuli with known reinforcing properties are delivered on a fixed time or variable time schedule independent of learner's behavior. (a) NCR may effectively diminish problem behaviors because reinforcers that maintain the problem behavior are available freely and frequently. This enriched environment with positive stimuli may function as an abolishing operation, reducing the motivation to engage in the problem behavior. (b) NCR provides effective intervention for problem behaviors. It is a common treatment for persons with developmental disabilities. (c) Three key elements for enhancing the effectiveness of NCR: - The amount and quality of stimuli with known reinforcing properties influence the effectiveness of NCR. - Most treatment include extinction with NCR interventions. - Reinforcer preferences can change during intervention.
List and explain the typical conditions (4 test, 1 control) of a functional analysis.
4 typical test conditions of a functional analysis: (Each test condition contains a motivating operation and a potential source of reinforcement for problem behaviour) control : Free play- preferred activities continuously available, social attention provided and no demands are placed on the person. Problem behaviour is ignored or neutrally redireted 1.Contingent attention- Attention is diverted or withheld from the person. Consequences for problem behaviour: attention in the form of mild reprimands or soothing statements 2.Contingent escape- Task demands are delivered continuously using a three step prompting procedure. 1. "You need to fold the towel" 2. Model the towel folding. 3. Provide hand-over-hand assistance to fold the towel. Consequences for problem behaviour: Break from the task provided by removing task materials and stopping prompts to complete the task 3.Alone- Low level of environmental stimulation (ie therapist, task materials, and play materials are absent). Problem behaviour is ignored or neutrally redirected. 4. Tangibles: no attention and no toys. Consequences : provide tangibles contingent on problem behaviour
Explain an example of a behavior chain with a limited hold. What advantage does adding a limited hold component to a behavior chain serve?
A behavior chain with a limited hold is a sequence of behaviors that must be performed correctly and within a specific time for reinforcement to be delivered. For example: Need to assemble 15 toy cars within an hour before getting paid. In this example, the assembling of cars has to be performed in a correct sequence and must be done within a certain time period for reinforcement to be produced. Advantages of a behaviour chain with limited hold is that it focuses on accuracy and proficiency.
Describe contingency-dependent and contingency-independent antecedent interventions. How are they different? Be able to provide two novel examples of each
A contingency dependent antecedent event (stimulus control) is dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative and abative effect. Eg) A student respond as '4' for the stimulus '2+2' not only because of stimulus '2+2' but also because of past reinforcement history for saying '4'. A contingency independent (MO) antecedent event is not dependent on the consequence of behavior for developing evocative and abative effects. The antecedent event itself affects the behavior consequence relation. Contingency dependent focus on the consequence of the behavior while contingency independent focus on the event itself.
What are three characteristics of a measurement system? Provide a definition of each.
Accuracy in a measurement system means that the value that it yields reflect the through value of the behavioral dimension under consideration. Any discrepancy between the obtained value and true value constitute measurement error. Validity of a measurement system refers to the extent to which the system measures what it purports to measures. Reliability is defined as the extent to which a measurement system yields consistent outcomes. Measurement is considered reliable if it results in the same outcome when applied repeatedly to some behaviour, or when different observers produce the same measurement outcomes while independently scoring the same behaviour.
Why is it important that children have an imitative repertoire?
Because without it, kids with developmental disability will have greater difficulty developing beyond the most basic skills.
What is a behavioural definition? According to the authors, what are the three aspects of an adequate behavioural definition? Provide a definition of each.
Behavioural definitions are descriptions of target responses that are designed to control observers' scoring behaviour. Three aspects of an adequate behavioral definitions are Objectiveness - the extent to which definitions refer to observable events with which two or more people can agree. Clarity - The ability of observer's to read and paraphrase the detentions accurately. Completeness - The definition's inclusion of all relevant instances and exclusion of irrelevant aspects.
Why did the authors hypothesize DRO control for attention-maintained behaviour did not produce the same high levels of problem behavior?
Brief periods during which attention is unavailable in the DRO for attention-maintained behaviour serve as a weaker EO for problem behaviour than brief periods during which demands are present in the DRO for escape-maintained behaviour.
What is the difference between interval and momentary DRO procedures and what are the different types?
On an interval DRO schedule, reinforcement is delivered at the end of specific intervals of time if the PB did not occur during the interval. On a momentary DRO schedule, reinforcement is delivered at the end of specific intervals of time if the PB is not occurring at those times. Interval DRO (a) In fixed interval DRO procedure, a practitioner (a) establishes an interval of time (b) delivers reinforcement at the end of that interval if the problem behaviour did not occur during the interval and (c) upon any occurrence of problem, immediately resets the timer to begin a new interval (b) Variable interval DRO: When reinforcement is delivered contingent on the absence of the targeted problem behavior during intervals of varying and unpredictable durations. Momentary DRO Momentary DRO : Fixed momentary DRO and variable momentary DRO schedule uses the same procedure as interval DRO, except that reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior only when each interval ends rather than throughout the entire intervals as with the whole- interval DRO.
Distinguish between response maintenance and response generalization. In doing so, (a) provide the technical definition of each; (b) in your OWN words, describe the difference between these 2 forms of generalization; and (c) provide your own example of each.
Response Maintenance →(a) extent to which a learner continues to perform the target behaviour after the intervention responsible for the behaviours initial appearance in their repertoire has been terminated; (b) the learner continues to give the same response to the same stimuli even after the intervention has been terminated EX: John is taught to kick a ball. When instruction has ended John continues to kick the ball. Response Generalization→ (a) extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behaviour; (b) when training has ended the learner will emit different responses to the same stimulus EX: John is taught to kick a ball when it is given to him, John then begins to bounces the ball and throw the ball in addition to kicking it when given a ball.
Describe how the control condition eliminates the relevant EO for each test condition (discussed in class).
The control condition eliminates the relevant EO's for each test condition by offering NCR which means free access to everything which eliminates the MO eliminates influences of contingencies included in test conditions. Immediate suppression of problem behaviour is critical for control conditions in an FA
Roscoe, E. M., Schlichenmeyer, K. J., & Dube, W. V. (2015). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A systematic approach for identifying idiosyncratic variables. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 289-314. 1. What was the purpose of the investigation?
The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a technology for systematically identifying events to test in a modified FA after initial FA led to inconclusive outcomes.
What were the general implications (discussion)?
Three features of the IA used in this study offer advantages over previously used IA tools: 1. The closed - ended IA section in the current study contained questions regarding potential idiosyncratic variables. 2. The IA included follow - up questions for affirmative answers on the closed - ended IA section or general statements on the open - ended IA section. 3. By assigning testing priority to those events reported on both the closed - exnded and open - ended IA sections, it seems likely that we reduced the overall duration of modified FA testing. - Limitations: o Did not control for the training and background of the informants. o A tangible condition was not initially conducted with participants for whom access to a tangible or activity was found to maintain behaviour in the modified FA. o The IA was not fully evaluated because only those items or events that were endorsed on the IA and also observed in the DA for 3 of 6 participants were examined. - In summary, the authors developed and evaluated a novel IA tool specifically for the purpose of identifying idiosyncratic variables to test during a modified FA.
10) Discuss the common criticisms of FAs and how to address each
Time consuming: sched shorter sessions or trial based session · Complex: conduct FA informed by open ended interview consisting of control and 1 test condition · Difficult to 'sell' to constituents: build relationship w parents and teachers via open ended interviews · Risky for client/therapist: conduct FA in env that allows PB to occur safely · Cant address low-rate PB: extend duration of session/assessments to full days · Can't address covert PB: conduct FA in baited env and absence of others · Can't address multiple topographies of PB: restrict class of bx that are in SR analysis · Can't address multiple function of PB: conduct multiple test and control comparisons in succession · Can't address PB influence by constantly changing reinforcers: rely on child's request to ident momentarily valuable reinforcers and est value of reinforcers by briefly denying access
Give a novel example (i.e., not provided in the text or in class discussion) of shaping new performance across each of the following dimensions of behavior: topography, frequency, latency, duration, and amplitude.
Topography: Lip biting (lip movement) gets reinforced but producing /f/ (along w lip biting) doesn't - we are reinforcing the lip movement response class but not speech sound b) Freq: lip biting regardless of top/bottom gets reinforced - # of lip bits is important not accuracy c) Latency: when presented with word model, imitation must occur within 5 secs to be reinforced d) Duration: when producing the /f/ sound, must occur for at least 2 secs to be reinforced e) Amplitude: when producing /f/ can start out with a whisper but increase amplitude to more loud/voiced /f/
Describe using examples, unconditioned establishing operations and conditioned establishing operations.
Unconditioned Establishing Operations (UEOs): reinforcer - establishing effects are unlearned. Conditioned Establishing Operations (CEOs): reinforcing effectiveness of other events, but only as a result of the individual's history.
Illustrate with an example how treating a problem behavior before understanding its function can be problematic.
Understanding why a bx occurs (its function) often suggests how it can be changed for the better · Premature efforts to treat problem bx before seeking understanding of purpose it serves for a person can be inefficient, ineffective and even harmful - Example, a timeout procedure is implemented for a child with problem of constantly tantruming when asked to wash hands before lunch · Child is removed from hand washing activity to a chair in the corner of the room · May be, however, that the events that typically follow washing hands ( those associated with lunch time) are aversive to the child · Tantrums have effectively served to allow the child to avoid those events
Define verbal behavior using technical language.
Verbal Behaviour: Behaviour reinforced through the mediation of the listener's behaviour of reinforcing the speaker's behaviour. The listener's behaviour has been explicitly conditioned by the verbal community for the purpose of social control. - defined based on the function of the response instead of the form - skinner wanted to: 1) Emphasize individual speaker 2) Refer to bx selected and maintained by consequences 3) Relatively unfamiliar to speech/language professions - (textbook not clear )
Describe the role of the speaker and the listener in a verbal episode.
Verbal behaviour involves social interactions between speakers and listeners, whereby speakers gain access to reinforcement and control their environment through the behaviour of listeners. The listener must learn how to reinforce the speaker's verbal behaviour, meaning that listeners are taught to respond to words and interact with speakers. The listener not only mediates reinforcement, but functions as a discriminative stimulus for verbal behaviour. Often, much of the behaviour of a listener is covert verbal behaviour.
Define and give an example of a naturally existing contingency. Describe how this is different than a programmed contingency.
We define a naturally existing contingency as any contingency of reinforcement that operates independent of the behaviour analysts or practitioner's efforts. Example: walking fast on an icy sidewalk is punished my slipping and falling. This is different than a programmed contingency because a program contingency is designed and implemented by a behaviour analyst or practitioner to achieve the acquisition, maintenance, and / or generalization of a target behaviour change.
Provide a definition and example of when a positive score would be recorded for each of the following: (1) whole-interval recording; (2) partial-interval recording; and (3) momentary time sampling.
Whole-interval recording: in which an interval is scored as positive if the target behaviour occurs for the entire observational period. Partial-Interval recording: In which an interval is scored as positive if the target behaviours occurs at any point during the observational period. Momentary time sampling: This procedure consist of scoring an interval as positive if the target behavior occurs exactly at the conclusion of a predetermined interval.
When might you want to use behavior chain interruption strategy (BCIS)? How would you go about implementing a BCIS, and what kind of response should you expect from the learner?
You might want to use a behaviour chain interruption strategy (BCIS) when a chain is inappropriate. The BCIS relies on the participant's skill to perform the critical elements of a chain independently, but the chain is interrupted at a predetermined step so that another behaviour can be emitted. You can implement a BCIS by determining the initial SD and substituting an SD for an alternative behaviour, or by extending the chain and building in time delays. Given that the first SD in a chain evokes a response, which in turn terminates that SD and produces a second SD, and so on throughout the chain. If the first SD appears less frequently, the entire chain occurs less often. Thus, you would expect the learner to complete this behaviour less often.
List and describe the general guidelines for implementing the shaping procedure. Provide an example of parent's trying to shape their child's vocal verbal behavior (a word other than, "Ball")
a. Assess: nature of terminal B to be learned and resources available b) Estimate total amount of time required to achieve terminal B - shaping requires multiple approximations and linear progression can't be predicted c) Pryor's 10 laws of shaping d) When... decision is made to use shaping procedure, practitioner must Select terminal B Decide criterion for success Analyze response class Ident first B to reinforce Eliminate interfering stimuli Proceed in gradual stages Limit # of approximations at each level Continue reinforcement when terminal behaviour is achieved i.e. Select terminal B > verbal B "ball" Decide criterion for success > when child imitates "ball" within 8/10 trials across 3 sessions Analyze response class > single word production Ident first B to reinforce > when child imitates "ball" within 5 secs of production Eliminate interfering stimuli > may get distracted by other individuals in env ... etc.
List and describe the guidelines for using DRO procedures.
a. Recognize the limitations of DRO: with interval DRO, reinforcement is delivered contingent only on the absence of problem behavior during the interval, even though another inappropriate behavior might have occurred during that time. (b) Set initial DRO intervals that assure frequent reinforcement: practitioners should establish an initial DRO time interval that ensures that the learner's current level of behavior will contact reinforcement when the DRO contingency is applied. (c) Do not inadvertently reinforce other undesirable behavior: DRO does not require that any certain behaviours be emitted for reinforcement, whatever the person is doing when reinforcement is delivered is likely to occur more often in future. When using DRO, the practitioner should deliver reinforcement at the intervals or moments specified by the schedule contingent on the absence of any other significant inappropriate behavior. (d) Gradually increase the DRO interval: The DRO schedule should be thinned by increasing the interval through a series of initially small and gradually increasing increments. (e) Extend the application of DRO to other settings and time of day: when the frequency of problem behavior is reduced substantially in the treatment setting, the DRO intervention can be introduced during other activities and times in the person's natural environment. (f) Combine DRO with other procedures: Including DRO in a treatment package with other behavior reduction procedure often yields more efficient and effective behavior.
An interesting finding of this study was that the DRO control condition produced consistently high levels of escape maintained behaviors. What did the authors hypothesize the reasons for this to be?
• Outcome likely was obtained because the DRO condition was the only control condition that presented the EO for escape (i.e. demands). • Intermittent exposure to the DRO contingency in a multielement FA may fail to suppress responding because single DRO sessions are interspersed among other demand sessions in which problem behaviour is reinforced • Results are that extinction of escape maintained behaviours may not occur during DRO control
articles: Describe the play condition in a functional analysis and what principles are operating.
• Play (condition) was a control for both positive (delivery of attention) and negative (escape from demands) reinforcement in FA. This simplified assessment by minimizing the number of concurrent comparisons. • The play condition involved free access to attention + highly preferred leisure items combined with absence of demands. • Condition served as noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) control for behaviour maintained by either positive or negative reinforcement.
When might a play control condition produce high levels of problem behaviour?
• When the play condition shared stimulus features with the demand condition, the play condition may acquire discriminative properties associated with escape responding for some subjects • When play condition contained frequent interactions between the therapist and subject it may have occasioned behaviour maintained by avoidance of social interaction in general • Suggested that play and alone conditions may be superior controls for maintainence by social positive and social negative reinforcement in a FA
Based on your reading of each type of DR procedure, be able to describe the conditions under which you would chose each type of DR procedure.
DRI/DRA • To choose this method of reinforcement, the inappropriate behaviour targeted for reduction and the appropriate behaviour selected have to receive reinforcement at different rates • Incompatible or alternate behaviours have to be present in the learner's repertoire, and are required to be equal or less effort than the problem behaviour, must be emitted enough to be able to receive reinforcement, and are likely to produce reinforcement when the intervention ends DRO • Reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the PB during or at specific times DRL · This type is slow, so it cannot be used with self-injurious or other violent behaviours. · Used when you want to decrease the behaviour, but not eliminate it
Be able to describe how to set the initial intervals for each DR procedure.
DRO: An initial DRO time interval should be set that ensure that the learner's current level of behaviour will contact reinforcement when the DRO contingency is applied. Beginning with an interval that is equal or slightly less than the mean baseline interresponse time (IRT) usually will make an effective initial DRO. To calculate a mean IRT, we divide the total duration of all baseline measurements by the total number of responses recorded during baseline. (for variable-interval DRO the initial interval is the average time of varying intervals) DRL: We use the mean number of responses emitted during baseline sessions, or slightly lower than that average, as the initial full-session DRL reinforcement criterion. Interval DRL and spaced-responding DRL initial time criteria can be set at the baseline mean or slightly lower. For example, one response per 15 minutes makes an acceptable initial interval DRL criterion as calculated from a baseline mean of 4 responses per 60-minute sessions. With the same baseline data (4 responses per 60-minute sessions), it appears reasonable to use 15 minutes as the initial IRT criterion for a spaced-responding DRL schedule.
List and describe the potential advantages/benefits of programming common stimuli.
-conducting sessions in the natural environment are not always possible/practical -community-based training may not expose learners to the full range of examples they are likely to encounter in the same setting -instruction in natural settings may be less effective and efficient than in contrived sessions because the trainer does not have control of the natural flow of events -instruction in simulated settings can be safer
What are the possible explanations for an undifferentiated pattern of responding in an FA and how might you account for each of these possible explanations by changing the design?
1) Provide a more salient and distinct discriminative stimulus at the beginning of each session (Betz & Fisher, 2011, pg. 216) by utilizing different coloured t-shirts or individual people for each condition. 2) Conduct pairwise comparisons to rule out the conditions that do not control mouthing. Specially, pairwise comparisons between the alone and attention condition. 3) Conduct an extended alone phase to see if mouthing maintains or increases. If it maintains or increases, then it is likely mouthing is maintained by automatic reinforcement. 4) We can alter the reinforcing consequences by conducting direct or indirect assessment; although, it should have been done before functional analysis (FA). It is possible that the consequences have changed in the natural environment - if they have, then changes to the consequence need to be modified in the FA. 5) Since we cannot control carryover effects, I would provide the participant with a long break. We could also conduct another session later to check for validity and whether replication occurs.
List and describe the two related techniques that behavior analysts use to program indiscriminable contingencies. In your description, ensure that you (a) define each technique, (b) provide the rationale for why these techniques are used/how they produce indiscriminable contingencies and (c) provide your own example of each.
1. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement→ a contingency of reinforcement in which some but not all occurrences of the behaviour produce reinforcement. (b) Behaviour on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement will be more resistant to extinction and the behaviour will be emitted for a longer period of time, even when reinforcement is no longer available. On an intermittent schedule of reinforcement, reinforcement is given at random times, the learner can not predict when the response will produce reinforcement, in this way they learner will continue to give the correct response till it eventually produces the reinforcer. This results in the maintenance of responding as the learner is unable to discriminate when reinforcement is no longer available. Ex: A learner on a VR4 schedule can not predict when a response will produce reinforcement. After two responses he gets reinforced, then not till the 6th response is reinforcement provided, then on the 1st response he is reinforced, and the 3rd response is reinforced. 2. Delayed Reward→ Reinforcement occurs in a different setting from which the behaviour took place. reinforcement is delayed, it is difficult for the learner to discriminate when improved performance had occurred for reinforcement, and generalization across settings of the behaviour are a result. Ex: your teacher wrote home you did well raising your hand and answering questions in english class. When your parents read the note they reinforce you for that behaviour. Your participation continues to increase during English class but also in Math and Science class.
Suppose you want to teach a child to tie her shoes. describe a plausible task analysis that would be appropriate (diagram each step with corresponding SDs and responses). Explain how a given stimulus is both an SD and a conditioned reinforcer. In which steps of the chain does this not apply? SD "Tie your shoes"
1. Pick up laces 2. Cross laces 3. Pull laces across 4. Make a loop 5. Make two loops 6. Cross loops 7. Fold loop under 8. Grab and Pull loops across Each stimulus in the chain is both a SD and conditioned reinforcer. The completion of step one (shoe laces in hand) is a conditioned reinforcer to picking up your shoe laces. Holding the shoe laces in your hands (Stimulus change) is the SD for the next step to occur (cross laces). This shows that reinforcement is contingent on the successful performance of step 1. Successful completion of step one then signaled the next step to occur. Each response in the chain produces a stimulus change that acts as an SD for the next response in the chain. The First and last stimuli in the chain do not serve as both conditioned reinforcers or SD.
When teaching sufficient stimulus examples, the actual number of examples needed varies as a function of a number of factors. List and describe the relevance of these factors. (pg.627)
1. The specific item taught. Multiple examples of the specific item 2. The stimulus context in which the item is taught: present the stimulus a variety of ways it will be found in the natural environment 3. The setting where instruction occurs: Vary the setting of which the stimulus can be found in 4. The person doing the teaching: vary instructors to not limit response to one person. • Varying and giving multiple examples in which these examples are different will make it more likely for the learner to respond correctly to untrained examples / situations.
List and describe the guidelines for using extinction effectively. In your description, provide the rationale for the guideline as well as your own example.
1. Withholding all reinforcers maintaining the problem behaviour: identify and withhold all possible sources of reinforcement that maintain the target behaviour - e.g., PB is biting staff → need to correctly identify the maintaining reinforcer (attention) → once correctly identified, then withhold reinforcement 2. Withholding reinforcement consistently: consistency is essential for extinction; error of not withholding reinforcement consistently negates effectiveness of extinction procedure - e.g., If PB of biting is maintained by attention → must consistently not provide attention to the behaviour in order to achieve successful extinction outcome 3) Combining extinction with other procedures: - The effectiveness of extinction may increase when it is combined with other procedures, especially positive reinforcement. - Differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures hold promise for reducing extinction effects such as bursting and aggression - e.g., if we are extinguishing SIB for attention, if we reinforce an alternative behavior it will be more effective than using only extinction. 4) Using instructions: bx sometimes diminish more quickly in extinction when teachers describe the extinction procedure to students - eg. PB is punching and function is attention > teacher tells student "If you punch me, I'm going to ignore you" 5) Planning for extinction produced aggression: Behaviors that occurred infrequently in the past will sometimes become prominent during extinction by replacing the problem behaviors.Frequently, these side effect replacement behaviors are emotional behaviours such as aggression - it is important that extinction-produced aggression doesn't produce reinforcement - e.g., when you implement extinction for hitting, biting occurs even though it was infrequent prior to extinction 6) Increasing number of extinction trials: An extinction trial occurs each time the behavior does not produce reinforcement. Increasing extinction trials improves efficiency of extinction by accelerating the extinction process (can increase when setting will accommodate the frequent occurrence of PB). - e.g., PB is punching during transitions > increase transitions to increase # of extinction of trials 7) Including significant others in extinction: it is important that other persons in the environment not reinforce undesirable behavior. All individuals in contact with the learner must apply the same extinction procedure for effective treatment. - e.g., if a child is engaging in aggression for tangibles and the extinction procedure is only implemented by one parent but not the other, extinction will not be successful. 8) Guarding against unintentional extinction: Desirable behaviors are often unintentionally placed on extinction. It is important to ensure that the desirable behaviour are not facing extinction. Should reinforce desirable behaviours if we want to maintain it - eg. PB is punching to communicate frustration > altern bx is using PECS > RF when child uses PECS to communicate frustration instead of AGG 9) Maintain extinction-decreased behaviour: apply extinction procedure permanently to maintain the extinction-diminished behavior. Otherwise, treatment gains may be maintained by gradually fading out the intervention (e.g., sensory extinction using gloves) 10) Circumstances extinction shouldn't be used: a) Imitation: inappropriate to extinguish if bxs are likely to be imitated by others - some bx may be tolerated if one person emits them and intolerable if several people emit them b) Extreme bx: bx that are so harmful to self/others, or destructive to property that they need to be controlled w the most rapid and human procedure available - eg. PB is cutting themselves/others w sharp objects
List and describe the 4 behavior-environment relations that functionally define imitation
Any physical movements may function as a model for imitation (model is antecedent stimulus that evokes imitative behavior); any imitative behavior must be emitted within 3 seconds of model; model and behavior must have formal similarity; model must be controlling variable for imitative behavior a.Distinguish between planned and unplanned models Planned models are pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that show learner exactly what to do (i.e. video tape); unplanned models occur in everyday social interactions and produce new adaptive behaviors i.e. watching other people ride bus you figure out what they are doing and copy them. b.Provide an example of a model & imitative response (a) with formal similarity and (b) without formal similarity Therapist claps hands, child claps hands (formal similarity); you can't have an imitative response WITHOUT formal similarity. c.Describe the contingencies of reinforcement that provide the controlling variables for imitative behavior There is a controlling relationship between a model and imitative behavior such that a novel model initially evokes an imitative response after which the new behavior has a history of reinforcement and therefore becomes a discriminated operant.
List and describe the three procedures used by behavior analysts to thin NCR schedules
Constant time increase: A therapist can increase the fixed time (FT) or variable time (VT) schedule intervals by using a constant duration of time, and decrease the amount of time that the learner has access to the NCR stimuli by a constant amount of time. Proportional time increase: A therapist can increase the FT or VT schedule intervals proportionately, meaning that each time, the schedule interval is increased by the same proportion of time. Session to session time increase or decrease: A therapist can use the learner's performance to change the schedule interval on a session- to - session basis. A therapist will decrease the interval if the problem behavior starts to worsen during schedule thinning. The duration of the NCR interval can be increased again after control of the problem behavior has been reestablished.
Describe contingency adduction and provide an example.
Contingency Adduction is a process whereby a behaviour that was initially selected and shaped under one set of conditions is recruited by a different set of contingencies and takes on a new function is the person's repertoire. Example: examining the degree to which behaviour changes would generalize from one child who received teacher - administered or self - administered token reinforcement during a math activity to a peer seated next to the child.
Provide a definition of continuous and discontinuous recording measures. What is one advantage and disadvantage of continuous versus discontinuous measures?
Continuous measures record behaviour on the basis of its occurrence in an uninterrupted, natural time flow. (record all instances of behaviour) -Continuous measures (Frequency, duration, latency, intensity -advantages: • Provide the most complete record of behaviour -disadvantages: •expensive,Impractical • Labour intensive Discontinuous measures (also termed intermittent measure) sample from all possible occurrences of behaviour. -• advantages :(Whole Interval Recording, Partial Interval Recording, Momentary Time Sample) often valuable - disadvantages : • Incomplete record of behaviour, Raises questions about the representativeness of the collected data
What are the five factors that can impact resistance to extinction? Provide an explanation for each.
Continuous/intermittent reinforcement: a) Intermittent reinforcement may produce behaviour with greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement b) Intermittent scheds produce more resistance than others (VR/VI more resistant to extinction than FV/FI) c) The thinner intermittent schedule of reinforce is, greater resistance to extinction E.g., 2) Establishing operations: resistance to extinction is greater when extinction is carried out under high motivation (EO) than low - strength of EO above minimum level will influence resistance to extinction 3) Number, magnitude, and quality: the number of times a behavior produces reinforcement may influence resistance to extinction. - behavior with long history of reinforcement may be more resistant to extinction than a behavior with a short history of reinforcement - greater magnitude and quality of reinforcement will produce more resistance to extinction than those of less 4) Number of previous extinct trials: - Extinction (behavior diminishes), accidental reinforcement (behaviour strengthens), reapply extinction (behaviour diminishes with fewer total responses during reapplication of extinction) - with each successive application of extinction, decreases in behaviour become rapid until only 1 response occurs following withdrawal of reinforcer 5) Response effort: the effort required for response influences resistance to extinction - response requiring greater effort diminishes more quickly during extinction than one with less effort (greater resistance with low effort behaviours)
What is differential reinforcement (DR)? Provide the technical definition for the four common types of DR procedures. Provide your own example of each.
Differential reinforcement is reinforcement only responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimensions (i.e. frequency, topography, duration, latency, or magnitude) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction. Four common types of DR: Differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviour (DRI): A procedure for decreasing problem behaviours in which reinforcement is delivered for a behaviour that is topographically incompatible with the behaviour targeted for reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behaviour (E.g. sitting in a seat is incompatible with walking around the room; eating food is incompatible with screaming) Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour (DRA): A procedure for decreasing problem behaviour in which reinforcement is delivered for a behaviour that serves as a desirable alternative to the behaviour targeted for a reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behaviour (E.g. reinforcing completion of academic worksheet items with the behaviour targeted for reduction is talk-outs; reinforcing sitting nicely with a group of peers with the behaviour targeted for reduction is laughing loudly.) Differential reinforcement of other behaviour (DRO): A procedure for decreasing problem behaviour in which reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behaviour during or at specific times. (E.g. Sam hits his head, every 7 minutes that Sam does not hit his head he gets a goldfish). Differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL): A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement (a) follows each occurrence of the target behaviour that is separated from the previous response by a minimum interresponse time (IRT), or (b) is contingent on the number of responses within a period of time not exceeding a predetermined criterion. Practitioners use DRL schedules to decrease the rate of behaviours that occur too frequently but should be maintained in the learner's repertoire. (E.g. Jesse raises his hand every 30 seconds during class time, the teacher does not want to stop hand raising behaviour all together but limit it to a more acceptable level. The teacher gives reinforcement of computer time when Jesse raises his hand 10 times or less during class time, and not when Jesse raises his hand more than 10 times per class.)
Michael, J. (1993) Establishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 191-206. (Only for Kendra's class) 1. What is the difference between discriminative variables and motivative variables?
Discriminative variables are related to the differential availability of an effective form of reinforcement given a particular behaviour. Motivative variables are related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of environmental events.
Describe three classifications of functional behavior assessment (FBA) and specify which classification allows for implication of function of behavior?
Functional Analysis (FA) / (experimental) analysis: antecedent and consequences representing those in the person's natural environment are arranged so that their separate effects on problem behaviour can be observed and measured. - ** FA is the ONLY FBA method that allows practitioners to confirm hypotheses regarding functional relations between problem behaviour and environmental events. ** Descriptive assessment / descriptive FBA: encompasses direct observation of behaviour under naturally occurring conditions. - Events that are shown to have a high degree of correlation with target behaviour may suggest hypotheses about behavioural functions. Indirect Assessment / indirect functional assessment (Indirect FA) / indirect functional behaviour assessment (Indirect FBA): uses structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the problem behaviour to identify possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behaviour. (do not involve direct observations, rather, solicit information based on others' recollections of the behaviour. ) - Lack of empirical data to support their validity and inter - rater agreement, indirect methods of FBA are not recommended as the principal means of identifying the functions of behaviour.
What is interobserver agreement (IOA)? What do high versus low IOA scores tell us about the accuracy of the measurement system?
IOA refers to the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed value after measuring the same event. (From CHH) To obtain IOA scores, two persons independently scores the same behavior episode, and agreement between the two records is then calculated. High IOA scores do not indicate the accuracy of a measurement system, both observers could be inaccurate but still agree. However, low IOA scores indicate that adjustments are needed before useful data can be obtained.
How does extinction of behavior maintained by positive, negative, and sensory reinforcement differ? Provide an example of each.
Positive Reinforcement: behaviours maintained by positive reinforcement are placed on extinction when those behaviours do not produce the reinforcer e.g., child property destructs, the bx is reinforced by adult vocal attention, place attention on extinction and property destruction should decrease Negative Reinforcement: Behaviours maintained by negative reinforcement are placed on extinction (escape extinction) when those behaviours do not produce a removal of the aversive stimulus (person cannot escape from aversive situation) e.g., child bites when demand is given to escape, bx is reinforced by the fact they don't have to do the demand anymore, could put padding on to extinguish biting during demands and follow through w demands Sensory Reinforcement: Behaviours maintained by automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by masking or removing the sensory consequence. - those bx that have natural sensory consequence that maintain the bx - recommended for SIBs and persistent, non-purposeful, repetitive self-stim bxs E.g., child is reinforced by auditory stimulation from tapping fingers on the table, masking the sensory consequence by placing a towel on the table, the child taps on the towel and does not produce the auditory stimulation.
What is the difference between procedural and functional variations of extinction? How can behaviour analysts distinguish between the two?
Procedural: ignoring Functional: withholding maintaining reinforcers Functional behavioural assessment enabled applied behaviour analysts to distinguish between the procedural (ignoring) and the functional forms of extinction (withholding maintaining reinforcers)
Give an example of shaping across a response topography and shaping within a response topography. Explain why your examples fall into each of these categories.
Shaping: process of systematically and differentially reinforcing successive approximations to terminal B - helps learns acquire a new B • Across response topography: select members of response class are differentially reinforced; members of other response classes are not reinforced Eg. lip movement, speech sounds, single word-phrase-sentence productions are diff topographies of layer response class of SPEAKING B · Lip biting (lip movement) gets reinforced but producing /f/ (along w lip biting) doesn't - we are reinforcing the lip movement response class but not speech sound • Within Response topography: form of B is constant but differential reinforcement is applied to another measurable dimension of the B Eg. lip movement, speech sounds, single word-phrase-sentence productions are diff topographies of layer response class of SPEAKING B · Word production is reinforced when it is produced within 10 secs but not when more > reinforced when produced within 5 secs but not more - the B is constant (word production) but we reinforce depending on latency
Provide the technical definitions for stimulus generalization, response maintenance, response generalization, and setting/situation generalization. Provide your own example for each. Finally, list the three basic forms of generalized behavior change.
Stimulus generalization - when an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behaviour tends to be evoked by stimuli that share similar physical properties with the controlling antecedent stimulus. Three basic forms of generalized behavior change: (1) Response maintenance - refers to the extent to which learner continues to perform the target behaviour after a portion or all of the intervention responsible for the behaviour's initial appearance in the learner's repertoire has been terminated. e.g., learned how to eat with a fork and continues to eat with a fork one month after training (2) Response generalization - is defined as the extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behaviour. Book example: Traci wanted to earn some extra money by helping her older brother with his lawn mowing business. Her brother taught Tracie to walk the mower up and down parallel rows that moved progressively from one side off the lawn to the other. Traci discovers she could mow some lawns just as quickly by first cutting around the perimeter of the lawn and then walking the mower in concentric patterns inward towards the center of the lawn. e.g., taught to cut a piece of paper in half with scissors - fold and tear the piece of paper in half or cut with a cutter e.g., taught to eat with a fork - discovers to eat with a spoon (3) Setting/situation generalization - is defined as the extent to which a learner emits the target behaviour in a setting or stimulus situation that is different from the instructional setting. e.g., learning how to order from menu through role-playing in class - ordering food at different restaurants after training.
Distinguish between stimulus and response generalization. In doing so, (a) provide the technical definition of each; (b) in your OWN words, describe the difference between these 2 forms of generalization; and (c) provide your own example of each.
Stimulus generalization - when an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behaviour tends to be evoked by stimuli that share similar physical properties with the controlling antecedent stimulus. e.g., eating with a spoon when a bowl of cereal is present has been reinforced in the past. The child eats with a spoon when a bowl of soup is present. Response generalization - is defined as the extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behaviour. - e.g., taught to cut a piece of paper in half with scissors - fold and tear the piece of paper in half or cut with a cutter - e.g., taught to eat with a fork - discovers to eat with a spoon Difference - stimulus generalization involves an antecedent stimulus and the history of reinforcement to evoke the same type of behaviour (same topography); whereas response generalization involves emitting untrained behaviours that are functionally the same as target behaviour (same function), no programed reinforcement previously for those bx
Describe using examples, three kinds of conditioned motivating operations.
Surrogate CEO: the neutral event is paired with or precedes a UEO à correlating a stimulus with a UEO. Example: being tired increases reinforcing effectiveness of sleep. Reflexive CEO: a CEO that established its own termination of a form of reinforcement or punishment à correlating a stimulus with worsening or improvement. Example: seeing a light before being sprayed with water. Transitive CEO: a CEO that establishes the effectiveness of another event as reinforcement and evokes any behaviour that has produced this other event à conditional conditioned reinforcement and punishment. Example: ??
List and describe the guidelines for using DRL procedures including when it should not be used.
a. Recognizing the limitation of DRL: If a practitioner needs to reduce an inappropriate behavior quickly, DRL would not be the method for first choice. DRL is slow. Further, DRL would not be advisable for use with SIB, violent or potentially dangerous behaviours. (b) Choose the most appropriate DRL procedure: Full-session, interval and spaced- responding DRL schedules provide different levels of reinforcement for learners. Spaced responding and interval DRL usually produce reinforcement at a higher rate than full-session DRL does. Arranging frequent contact with the reinforcement contingency is especially appropriate, and most often necessary, for learners with severe problem behaviours.Only spaced-responding DRL delivers reinforcement immediately after the response, and it is used to reduce the occurrence of behaviour while maintaining those behaviours at lower rates. Full-session and interval DROs are used when it is acceptable that the rate of the PB reaches zero or as an initial step toward the goal of eliminating the PB. (c) Use baseline data to guide the selection of the initial responses or IRT limits: Practitioners can use the mean number of responses emitted during baseline sessions, or slightly lower than average, as the initial full session DRL criterion. Interval DRL and spaced-responding DRL initial time criteria can be set at the baseline mean or slightly lower. (d) Gradually thin the DRL schedule: Practitioners should gradually thin the DRL schedule to achieve the desired final rate of responding. Practitioners commonly use three procedures. (1) With full-session DRL, the practitioner can set a new DRL criterion using the participant's current DRL performance. (2) With interval DRL, the practitioner can gradually decrease the number of responses per interval or increase the duration of the criterion interval (3) With spaced-responding DRL, the practitioner can adjust the IRT criterion based on the mean IRT of recent sessions, or slightly less than that average. (e) Provide feedback for the learner: The effectiveness of a DRL procedure can be enhanced by feedback to help the learner monitor her rate of responding.
List and describe the general guidelines for using DRI and DRA.
a. Select incompatible/ alternative behavior: The behavior selected to be incompatible with or alternative to the inappropriate behaviour (1) Already exists in learner's current repertoire (2) Requires equal or preferably less effort than the problem behavior (3) Is being emitted at a rate prior to DRI/ DRA intervention that will provide sufficient opportunities for reinforcement (4) Is likely to be reinforced in the learner's natural environment after intervention is terminated. b. Select reinforcers that are powerful and can be delivered consistently: Providing as consequences for the incompatible/alternative behaviour stimulus changes identified by stimulus preference assessment and reinforcer assessment or functional behaviour assessments will increase the effectiveness of DRI/DRA. c. Reinforcing incompatible / alternative behavior immediately and consistently: Initially a practitioner should use a continuous schedule of reinforcement for the incompatible or alternative behavior, and then transition to an intermittent schedule. d. Withhold reinforcement for problem behavior: The effectiveness of differential reinforcement as an intervention for problem behavior depends on the incompatible or alternative behavior yielding a higher rate of reinforcement than the problem behavior. Maximizing the difference between rates of reinforcement obtained by the two response classes entails withholding all reinforcement for problem behavior. e. Combine DRI/DRA with other procedures: A practitioner will seldom use DRI/DRA as a single intervention if problem behavior is destructive, dangerous to the learner or to others or if it interferes with health and safety. In these situations the practitioners might combine DRI/DRA with other reductive procedures (e.g. response blocking, time out, stimulus fading) to produce a more potent intervention.
