Organizational Behavior Exam 1

high-uncertainty avoidance culture

- prefer predictable situations and have low tolerance for ambiguity. - employees expect a clear set of instructions and clarity in expectations. - greater level of creating procedures to deal with problems and writing out expected behaviors in manuals. - tend to avoid risky endeavors such as entering foreign target markets unless the target market is very large.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions (study on values)

- identified five largely independent dimensions 1. Individualism vs Collectivism 2. Power Distance 3. Uncertainty Avoidance 4. Aggressive vs Nurturing 5. Long-term vs Short Term orientation - Cultural variation influences many aspects of organizational behavior: employee job behaviors, attitudes, well-being, motivation, leadership, negotiations, and etc.

low-uncertainty avoidance culture

- more comfortable with taking risks and making decisions that could result in unknown consequences. - organizations do not have rule-oriented cultures. -When they create rules, they also selectively enforce rules and make a number of exceptions to them. - employees are more likely to look for other employments. - employees are more likely to suggest new ideas, innovative ideas. (more innovative and less bureaucracy)

low-power distance cultures

- people believe in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities (egalitarianism). - control tends to be decentralized. - the organizational structure is flat, and status doesn't have the same importance that it does in high power distance cultures. - the leadership team is easily accessible, - employees are actively encouraged to participate at all levels of the organization.

high-power distance cultures

- people occupying more powerful positions such as managers, teachers, or elder people are viewed as more powerful and deserving of a higher level of respect. - generally a centralization of decision-making as a result of a rigid hierarchy (Leaders at the top have significantly more power than their general workforce.) - special treatments for people in power are normal (special dining areas or parking places). - more layers of management exist. - employees are dependent on those with power to provide direction and are not able to take their own initiative on work assignments.

Personality Testing in the Workplace: good for and bad for

Good for: a. Helping ppl better understand themselves b. helping ppl better understand how they relate to coworkers Bad for: a. Hiring decisions (possibility of faking) b. predicting who shouldn't get promoted (don't need all leaders to be v extroverted) c. Firing decisions (personality is not all that predictive of performance)

2 Types of Fit

Person-organization fit: The degree to which a person's values, personality, goals, and other characteristics match those of the organization. Person-job fit: The degree to which a person's skill, knowledge, abilities, and other characteristics match the job demands. - ex: Overqualification

Values

Stable life goals that are established throughout one's life as a result of the accumulating life experiences - tend to be relatively stable, - Affect the types of decisions people make and their behaviors, and Impact how people perceive their environment - Can be arranged in hierarchical fashion(ex: values can be compared, and some value can be sacrificed to achieve the others)

Stereotypes

generalizations about a particular group of people.

The Interactionist Perspective

(Causes of behavior/attitudes within organizations): Behavior is a function of the person and the situation interacting with each other - Oganizations Want FIT

Racial Diversity in the Workplace

- Callbacks for "whitened" Resumes higher - 280 minority managers earning more than $100,000, 60% of the respondents reported that they had seen discrimination in their work assignments and - 45% had been the target of racial or cultural jokes. - Race and sex also interact and often constitute a "double jeopardy." e.g., women of color are asked to do more "office housework" such as being expected to order lunch for everyone. Unconscious biases and racial profiling are harmful to employees, businesses, and societies.

Individualism vs Collectivism cultures in Work Environment

- Collectivists are more attached to their groups while individualists attempt to change groups more often and have weaker bonds to them. - individualists may evaluate the performance of their colleagues more accurately - collectivists are more likely to be generous when evaluating their in-group members. - Collectivists' indirect way of communication can be confusing to individualists. - Collectivist cultures may have a greater preference for team-based rewards as opposed to individual-based rewards.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

- Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. - We must fulfill lower needs before higher needs - a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment. 5. self-actualization needs: "becoming all you are capable of becoming." This need manifests itself by acquiring new skills, taking on new challenges, and behaving in a way that will lead to the satisfaction of one's life goals. 4. self- esteem needs: the desire to be respected by one's peers, feeling important, and being appreciated 3. love/belonging needs: bond with other human beings, to be loved, and to form lasting attachments. Note: having no attachments can negatively affect health and well-being. The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. 2. safety needs: Are they safe from danger, pain, or an uncertain future? 1. physiological needs: air, food, and water.

Is all stress Bad?

- NO Ex: Having responsibility, time pressure are stressful, but positively related to high level of satisfaction.

long-term orientation culture (pragmatic)

- People encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. - People believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. - People are interested in creating long lasting relationship and they would not deal with a new partner in order to make one time deal. - Relationships and market positions are important. - leisure time is not so important.

short-term orientation culture (Normative):

- People prefer to maintain traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. - People pay tremendous respect to absolute good and evil (religious and national subjects). - Immediate results, bottom lines are important. - Leisure time important.

Personalities that lead to High Job Satisfaction and Commitment =

- Positive affective disposition - Positive core self-evaluations -high generalized self-efficacy and self-esteem -internal locus of control -low levels of neuroticism - High agreeableness

Big Five Personality Dimensions (Big 5 Model)

- Researchers suggested 5 personality traits to describe the broad traits as building blocksof personality. Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism - Big 5 is more reliable/consistent - Big 5 more accurate outcome predictions/performance and leader effectiveness

Work-Life Balance

- When work life interferes with family life, we are more stressed and unhappy with our jobs. - Research shows that family-supportive workplace policies and supervisory family support are related to more positive job attitudes.

Pay Gap between men and women

- the median earnings of women in 2018 was 85% of men in the United States - Many organizations do not have family-supportive policies, forcing women to choose such flexible and/or shorter jobs. (selection issue) Common Explanation: women are less likely to negotiate and regardless male evaluators expressed an unwillingness to work with a woman who negotiated. -Women are less likely to negotiate probably not because they were shy, but they predicted the backlash from negotiating.

Masculine (aggressive) cultures

- value achievement, competitiveness, acquisition of money and other material objects, dominance. - characterized by a separation of gender roles. (Men are more likely to be assertive and competitive compared to women) - men hold more positions of power, get paid more, and are expected to act in a masculine manner, while women are expected to be caretakers, are paid less, and are not fairly represented in positions of power in any field. At work: - the pay gap between CEO & other management-level employees & gender pay gap are larger. - fewer women are in top management. - Preference for higher pay.

Individualistic cultures

-people define themselves as an individual and form looser ties with their groups. -value autonomy, independence, self-reliance, and creativity. -place a greater emphasis on standing out and being unique -the rights of individuals tend to take a higher precedence.

Collectivistic cultures (we>me)

-people have stronger bonds to their groups, and group membership forms a person's self identity. -Individuals define themselves in relation to others (e.g., "I am a member of..."). -communication often more indirect to avoid potential conflict or embarrassment. -Greater emphasis is placed on common goals than on individual pursuits. -The rights of families and communities come before those of the individual.

Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion

1. Better Decision Making (stimulates creativity to create new alternatives and correlates with better performance) 2. higher Performance 2. Better Understanding and Service of Customers 3. High Job Satisfaction 4. Low Litigation Expenses 5. Higher stock Price

3 Types of Negative Work Behavior

1. Counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWB): - Abusing others (gossip, rumors, ostracism, harassment) - Production deviance (intentional poor performance) - Theft (stealing money, stapler) - Sabotage - Withdrawal (long lunch breaks, excessive social media use) 2. Absenteeism: making excuses to not come into office 3. Turnover: Voluntary or involuntary termination - Note: company wants to keep their highly valued employees but doesn't really mind if employees w poor performance leave

4 types of Organizational Justice

1. Distributive Justice 2. Procedural Justice 3. Interpersonal Justice 4. Informational Justice

3 Process Based Theories of Motivation

1. Equity Theory of Motivation 2. Expectancy Theory of Motivation 3. Reinforcement Theory

4 Ways Employees can Express Dissatisfaction in the workplace

1. Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the org 2. Voice: Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions 3. Loyalty: Passively waiting for conditions to improve 4. Neglect: allowing conditions to worsen

2 Types of Positive Work Behavior (in role vs extra role performance/OCB's)

1. In-role performance: activities employees perform that are explicitly indicated in job description. (What is typically covered in performance reviews) Can be either: a. Objective (e.g., number of widgets produced) b. subjective (e.g., effort contributed) 2. Extra-role performance/Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs): discretionary behaviors employees perform to help others and benefit the organization.

3 Key levels of Analysis in Org Behavior

1. Individual: The manager's personality itself - getting along with others, lowering stress levels, making more effective decisions, etc. 2. Group: How a given manager's personality affects the team - resolving intra- and intergroup conflict and building cohesion 3. Organization: How the organization's culture affects organizational performance - understanding and valuing the people within the organization

2 job attitudes that have the greatest potential to influence how we behave

1. Job satisfaction: the feelings people have toward their job. 2. Organizational commitment: the emotional attachment people have toward the company they work for.

4 Need Based Theory of Motivation

1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2. ERG Theory 3. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory 4. Acquired Needs Theory

Benefits of Hiring employees with good fit

1. More satisfied with their job. 2. More committed to the company. 3. Less likely to burnout. 4. Stay longer in their company. 5. Perform better?

2 Personality Assesments

1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 2. Big Five Personality Dimensions- OCEAN (Big 5 Model)

Tools for Creating an Inclusive Workplace

1. Need a shift in mindset - From managing diversity to leveraging diversity - Focus on inclusion, not just maximizing difference 2. Speak up when you witness discrimination. 3. Create an inclusive culture - Signals, involvement from top management matter

Specific Diversity Issues

1. Pay gap between men and women 2. Glass Ceiling 3. Glass Cliff 4. Racial Diversity in the Workplace 5. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Diversity in the Workplace

8 Factors Contributing to Job Attitudes

1. Personality 2. Person-environment fit 3. Job characteristics 4. Psychological contract 5. Organizational justice 6. Work relationships 7. Stress 8. Work-life balance

Challenges to Achieving Diversity and Inclusion

1. Similarity-Attraction Phenomenon 2. Faultlines 3. Stereotypes and Unconscious Biases

Organization

A system of two or more people, engaged in cooperative action, trying to reach a purpose or goal

Add High-LOW Charts of OCEAN Characteristics

Add High-LOW Charts of OCEAN Characteristics

Organizational Justice

An employee's perception of fairness in the workplace

Diversity

Any characteristic that varies within a particular work unit such as gender, race, age, education, tenure, or functional background. alone may lead to higher levels of conflict, lower levels of team performance, and higher levels of turnover.

Personality

Encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. gives us clues about how that person may act or feel. - change over long periods of time. - understanding is helpful to effectively manage organizational behavior and assign ppl roles

Frustration-regression hypothesis

Frustrated by the growth opportunities in his job leads to Regress to relatedness need, socializing with coworkers (ex: upset at work so goes out and parties)

Ability

Having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job - Sometimes key determinant of effectiveness

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Identifies 8 personality preferences: 4 pairs of opposites 1. Extroverts vs Introverts 2. Sensors (realists, focus on facts) vs Intuitives (enjoy abstract thinking and future possibilities) 3. Thinkers (logical/analytical decision makers) vs Feelers (care more about how their decision affects others wellbeing) 4. Judgers (highly organized) vs Perceivers (adaptable, spontaneous, flexible)

Factors Contributing to Job Attitudes

Job attitudes form work behaviors. Job attitudes are formed by individual factors, organizational factors, Job Factors, and Environmental Factors.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic: pursuing an activity because it is inherently enjoyable and absent of apparent rewards. - Ex: reading for fun Extrinsic: performing an activity because it is related to desirable outcomes such as financial rewards, status, or approval from others. - Ex: reading a book bc you have to write a book report NOTE: - when individuals are intrinsically motivated, they tend to perform well - when there are indirect rewards for performance, performance was largely a function of intrinsic motivation, - when there are direct rewards for performance, the importance of intrinsic motivation lessened, and rewards became a more powerful predictor of performance - having rewards increased intrinsic motivation - intrinsic mattered more for performance quality, whereas external rewards mattered more for performance quantity)

Performance Equation

Job performance is viewed as a function of three factors (motivation, ability, environment) performance = ability x motivation x environment

ERG Theory

Need based theory of motivation that is a modification of Maslow's hierarchy, in which the five needs are collapsed into three categories without a strict hierarchy (existence, relatedness, and growth). Existence: corresponds to Maslow's physiological and safety needs, Relatedness: corresponds to social needs, Growth: refers to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization. Note: 2 needs can operate at one time - Frustration-regression hypothesis

Rokeach Value Survey (1973)

One of the most established surveys to assess individual values Terminal and Instrumental Values - Adresses why we have diff values: a. shaped early in life and show stability over the course of a lifetime. (ex: Early family experiences, parenting) b. Values of generation also change and evolve in response to the historical context that the generation grows up in.

Why are People Important to Organizations?

Organizations that value their employees are more profitable than those that do not. Research shows that successful organizations have a number of things in common:e.g., providing employment security, engaging in selective hiring, utilizing self-managed teams, being decentralized, paying well, training employees, reducing status differences, and sharing information. Such organizations also attract better employees.

Attitude

Our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment.

Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of decision-making processes - How fair is the process that leaders use to make decisions? - Ex of low procedural justice: Favoritism, Unwillingness to listen to other POV, Unwillingness to consider all the information available, Inconsistent rules

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of outcomes (equity) - How fair is what I receive for my work? E.g., pay, feedback, benefits - High financial reward doesn't always predict high job satisfaction

Interpersonal Justice

Perceived respect in enactment of decisions - To what degree do leaders treat people with dignity, respect, and emotional support? - Ex of low interpersonal justice: Treating employees with no respect, Improper remarks or comments, Podcast on a**holes

Uncertainty Avoidance

The degree to which people feel threatened by ambiguous, risky, or unstructured situations.

Power Distance

The degree to which the society views an unequal distribution of power as acceptable.

Tightness-Looseness of Culture

Strength of social norms that reside in a culture.

Surface-level diversity vs. Deep-level diversity

Surface-level diversity: highly visible traits (race, gender, and age). Deep-level diversity: invisible traits (values, beliefs, and attitudes).

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

Test to assess the dominant need. Method: presenting research subjects with an ambiguous picture and asking them to write a story based on it. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person.(analyzed by experts) - Currently, used to access motivation & occupation, personality disorders, forensic examination, and etc. Criticisms: a. With so much variability, serious validity and reliability problems. b. Lack of standardization of the cards(drawings) and scoring systems. Ex: Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is he doing? Why is he doing it?

Motivation

The desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior - If someone is motivated, They want to try hard and perform well

Self-monitoring (Outside of the big 5)

The extent to which a person is capable of altering his or her actions and appearance in social situations - High self-monitors understand what the situation demands and modify their behavior accordingly tend to be more successful in their careers and are more likely to advance - Tend to be less accurate when evaluating someone else's performance - May experience higher levels of stress - May be less committed to their companies - Low self-monitors tend to act the way they feel

Agreeableness

The degree to which a person is affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm

Emotional Stability (reverse of Neuroticism)

The degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody. - Has the strongest (and most negative) correlation with job satisfaction.

Openness (to Experience)

The degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas. - High openness->Do well in jobs that require high levels of creativity, new ideas, and constant learning

Conscientiousness

The degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable. - Typically has the biggest effect on job performance.

Extraversion

The degree to which a person is outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoys socializing. - Typically has the strongest influence on first impressions and leadership evaluations

Work Relationships

The people we interact with, their degree of compassion, our level of social acceptance in our work group, whether we are treated with respect

Organizational Behavior

The systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work.

Glass Ceiling

a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy.

Personality Testing in the Workplace is used for:

a. Selection/hiring b. To facilitate collaboration among team members c. To predict who will be a strong, & successful leader • Even in firing decisions

Job Characteristics that lead to high job satisfaction and commitment

a. Using a variety of skills b. Having empowerment (don't want to be disposable) at work c. Receiving feedback on the job d. Performing a significant task

Why do we have different personalities? (Nature vs Nurture?)

a. genetics - Ex: Minnesota Twin Study b. cultural and environmental factors - A study in which a set of twins were raised in different countries (US and Korea) . One of the twins had a much higher IQ than the other.

Faultiness

an attribute along which a group is split into subgroups. - teams with faultlines experience more conflict, are less cohesive, and have less satisfaction and performance. - more likely to appear in diverse teams

Acquired Needs Theory

argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others; and that the type of need that is dominant will drive behavior. - Individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences: 1. The need for achievement: want to be successful 2. The need for affiliation: want to be liked and accepted by others 3. The need for power: want to influence others and control their environment

Terminal values

end states people desire in life - Ex: leading a prosperous life, a world at peace, happiness

Inclusion

ensures that all individuals are allowed to participate in the organizational life fully, their voices are heard, and concerted efforts are made to remove barriers to the fair treatment of everyone. - With inclusion, an organization can reap the benefits of diversity

Environment

external factors that affect performance - Ex: having the resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance

Psychological Contract

if people don't get what they expect it Leads to low job satisfaction and commitment Ex: If you work really hard and then there is a fam emergency that you have to be home for but the company says no. You realize you care more about company than they do about you

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Diversity in the Workplace

in 2020 Civil Rights Act of 1964 would be extended to protect gay, lesbian, and transgender employees, making discrimination in employment decisions based on sexual orientation and gender identity illegal. 91% of Fortune 500 companies have implemented non-discrimination policies that include sexual orientation and gender identity.

Glass Cliff

the tendency of women and minority members to be promoted to leadership positions in poor-performing, struggling firms. (be promoted when firms are struggling) Note: Women leaders are more likely to be forced out of office than men after taking the position.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

need based theory that differentiates between factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees (motivators). - Factors that satisfy employees are very different from factors that dissatisfy them. Hygiene factors: part of the context in which the job is performed, can cause dissatisfaction and demotivate. (satisfying these will not motivate employees) - ex: company policy, salary, security, working conditions, supervision/relationships, etc Motivators: are intrinsic to the job, a part of a job that motivates. - ex: achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibility, advancement and growth Criticism: The classification of the factors are not clear (ex: pay=hygiene factor?) Practical application: a. Improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees. b. Managers should also focus on opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities, advancement opportunities for employees.

tight cultures

norms highly pervasive, visible, and the society does not tolerate deviance from these norms. - (ex: Japan, Singapore, and South Korea)

looser cultures

norms more divergent, and there is a much greater tolerance for behavior that deviates from norms. (ex: Estonia, Ukraine, and Hungary)

The Age Discrimination Act of 1975 & Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964:

outlaw discrimination based on age, gender, race, national origin, or religion.

Informational Justice

perceived truthfulness and adequacy of explanations - Is the information used for decision-making being shared fairly? - Ex of high informational justice: The info is perceived as true and logically consistent, Provides sufficient justification for the decision, Timely, Clear and specific, not vague

Similarity-Attraction Phenomenon

the tendency to be more attracted to similar individuals. - Unfairness in hiring may occur or on job treatment

How can organizations satisfy their employees needs?

physiological needs may be satisfied by a paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and esteem as well. Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security, will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment and providing a workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Company picnics and other social get-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are not and if they have to sacrifice a Sunday afternoon for a company picnic). Providing promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person's accomplishments verbally or through more formal reward systems, and conferring job titles that communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status within the organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging. By making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act:

prohibits discrimination against employees based on physical or mental disabilities who are able to perform the essential aspects of their jobs with or without accommodations.

Unconscious/Implicit Bias

stereotypes that are held that are outside of conscious awareness.

Minnesota twin study (1979-1999)

study followed 137 pairs of twins who were separated at an early age. found that genetics plays a larger role on personality than previously thought

Stress

the amount of stress in our job is negatively related to our job satisfaction & commitment. - Ex: role ambiguity, organizational politics, job security.

Job engagement

the investment of one's mental, emotional, and physical energies into work.

Tokenism

the practice of doing something only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated fairly. - not likely to allow positions of significant power, while representation can allow any top positions. - People who hold identities that aren't represented in positions of leadership have a more difficult time climbing corporate ladders as well

Feminine (nurturing) cultures

value maintaining good relationships, caring for the weak, and emphasizing quality of life over materialistic items. - values are not separated by gender, and both women and men share the values of maintaining good relationships. - tend to have loose gender roles, equal pay, female representation in most positions of power - better work/life balance. - Smaller gender pay gap and more women in top management. - Preference for less working hours.

Culture

values, beliefs, and customs that exist in a society

Instrumental values

views on acceptable modes of conduct - Ex: being honest, ethical, clean, ambitious

Long Term vs Short Term orientation (pragmatic vs. normative)

whether a society exhibits a pragmatic future-oriented perspective or a conventional historic point of view

Selection issue

women tend to choose more flexible and/or shorter hours to take care of children, resulting in lower pay.