Organizational Psychology
Self Determination Theory
- Within SDT, when a behavior is so motivated it is said to be externally regulated—that is, initiated and maintained by contingencies external to the person. - Internalization refers to the active attempt to transform an extrinsic motive into personally endorsed values and thus assimilate behavioural regulations that were originally external 3 Psychological Needs Competence- Seek to control the outcome and experience master Relatedness- Is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others Autonomy- Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self Externally regulated behaviour: Is the least autonomous, it is performed because of external demand or possible reward. Such actions can be seen to have an externally perceived locus of causality Extrinsic Motivation Introjected regulation of behaviour: describes taking on regulations to behaviour but not fully accepting said regulations as your own. This is the kind of behaviour where people feel motivated to demonstrate ability to maintain self-worth. Regulation through identification: Is a more autonomously driven form of extrinsic motivation. It involves consciously valuing a goal or regulation so that said action is accepted as personally important. Integrated Regulation: Is the most autonomous kind of extrinsic motivation. Occurring when regulations are fully assimilated with self so they are included in a person's self evaluations and beliefs on personal needs. Because of this, integrated motivations share qualities with intrinsic motivation but are still classified as extrinsic because the goals that are trying to be achieved are for reasons extrinsic to the self, rather than the inherent enjoyment or interest in the task. Dispositions Amotivated orientation (low confidence in one's capabilities) is associated with goal-avoidance motivation, and more generally, associated with lower goals levels and lower performance. Control orientation (extrinsic motivation) is associated with both avoidance and approach goals. Approach goals are associated with higher goal levels and higher performance. Autonomy goals (intrinsic motivation) leads to mastery goals, enhanced focus, and therefore enhanced performance.
Affective Events Theory (AET)
AET focuses on the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. - AET directs attention away from features of the environment and towards events as proximal causes of affective reactions. Environment features influence affect primarily by making affective events more or less likely. - AET also adds time as something that affects feelings of job. - AET considers structure of affective reactions (multidimensional, happy, sad, mad) as well as structure of environment (pay) - affect fluctuates over time due to endogenous (mood) and exogenous variables (events) - outcomes of affective reactions are both attitudinal and behavioral primary cognitive appraisal of emotional significance of event (goal relevance)->secondary appraisal (meaning analysis)-> emotion The theory proposes that affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing (e.g., uplifts) as well as negative-inducing (e.g., hassles) emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant psychological impact upon workers' job satisfaction. This results in lasting internal (e.g., cognition, emotions, mental states) and external affective reactions exhibited through job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. - Tasks that are considered challenging, rewarding, or that provide an opportunity to develop new skills induce positive affect and increase job satisfaction. - tasks that are rated as routine, boring, or overwhelming are associated with negative affect (e.g., low self-esteem, low self-confidence) and concerns over job evaluations. Mood - general, lack specific target/context Research demonstrates that employee mood is a strong predictor of job satisfaction. Emotion - Reaction to an event, is specific, targeted towards an object There is a stronger correlation between positive emotions and affective commitment than between positive emotions and job satisfaction
Socioanalytic theory
Acceptance- the ability to obtain, social acceptance and support Status- the desire for, and the ability to obtain, status, power, and the control of resources. Meaning- desire for meaning and purpose in life Communion striving represents actions directed toward obtaining acceptance in personal relationships and getting along with others Status-striving captures actions directed toward obtaining power and dominance within a status hierarchy - Communion striving and status striving have been identified as broad goals associated with social interactions Accomplishment striving reflects an individual's intention to accomplish tasks and is characterized by a high task orientation. Task-oriented employees have a strong desire to accomplish task-related goals as a means of expressing their individual attributes and preferences -related to conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion Importance of each motivator varies across jobs
Employment Opportunity Index: Proximal antecedents of Turnover
Affective responses - job satisfaction - org committment Job market perceptions are predictive of intentions to search, general, preparatory, and active job search. And not highly correlated with job sat, autonomy, security, role conflict and ambiguity - ease of movement (job market, skill set) - desirability of movement (attractiveness of alternatives) - networking (knowing other people) - crystalization of alternatives (actual offers) - Mobility (external constraints)
Demand Control Support model
By comparison with the JD-R, the DCS model maintains demands, control, and sources of support are separate predictor entities - A central tenet of COR is that individuals seek not only to conserve personal resources (i.e.,to avoid the stressful experience of resource loss), but to accumulate or gain more resources---Gain spirils - Consequently, the causal relationships between work-related factors that are job resources should be reciprocal—resources in one domain (e.g., job control) can secure resources in another (e.g., supervisor support)and vice versa. The demand-control model asserts that job control can come in two broad forms: 'skill discretion' and 'decision authority'. Skill discretion refers to the level of skill and creativity required on the job and the flexibility an employee is permitted in deciding what skills to use (e.g. opportunity to use skills, similar to job variety). Decision authority refers to the organisationally mediated potential for employees to make decisions about their work (e.g. opportunity to make decisions, similar to autonomy)
Challenge and Hindrance Stressors
Challenge stressors refer to job demands that are viewed by employees as rewarding work experiences that create opportunity for personal growth. Examples of challenge stressors include workload, time urgency, job responsibility, and job complexity Hindrance stressors, on the other hand, refer to job demands viewed as obstacles to personal growth or demands that interfere with or hinder one's ability to achieve valued goals. Examples of hindrance stressors include red tape, role ambiguity, role conflict, and hassles. - One discovery is that both challenge and hindrance stressors are positively related to psychological strains, such as emotional exhaustion, depression Challenge Stressors lead to: Attentiveness->OCB Anxiety->CWB Direct effects: OCB and CWB -COR theory explanation: By experiencing challenge stressors (e.g., job tasks), employees gain certain resources, such as knowledge and abilities. According to the conservation of resources model, individuals would strive to obtain and protect these experiences, as they offer the potential to expand personal resources. Thus, individuals should be less likely to engage in certain behaviors, such as counterproductive behaviors, that put them at risk of losing opportunities to obtain these resources and more likely to engage in other behaviors, such as citizenship behaviors,that increase the potential for gaining future resources.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive evaluation theory suggested first that external factors such as tangible rewards, deadlines, surveillance, and evaluations tend to diminish feelings of autonomy, prompt a change in perceived locus of causality (PLOC) from internal to external, and undermine intrinsic motivation. In contrast, some external factors such as providing choice about aspects of task engagement tend to enhance feelings of autonomy, prompt a shift in PLOC from external to internal, and increase intrinsic motivation
Five Factor Model of personality
Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement against measures or outside expectations. Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity/situations, and energy creation from external means. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves. The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things.
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is employee behavior that goes against the legitimate interests of an organization - Workplace revenge are behaviors by employees intended to hurt another person who has done something harmful to them. - Workplace aggression consists of harmful acts that harm others in organizations 5 Dimensions: abuse, production deviance, sabotage, theft, withdrawal - It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who is high on trait anger (tendency to experience anger) is more likely to respond to a stressful incident at work (being treated rudely by a supervisor) with CWB. Correlates, predictors, moderators and mediators - Affect, age, cognitive ability, organizational constraints, justice, personality, self control, personality of victim. - Stressor-emotion model of CWB (Spector &Fox, 2005), negative emotions play acrucial role in triggering CWB. Negative emotions arise when people appraise a situation as a threat or loss with regard to goals - moral virtue model (justice)- people care about unjust behavior such as CWB because they have a basic respect for human dignity and a commitment to ethical standards. Proposing that justice is beyond personal interest, this model suggests that people who observe or are informed about the occurrence of CWB feel antipathy toward the perpetrator and experience an urge to punish him or her. - witnessing CWB may trigger negative emotions, depleting resources, reduces self-control - org constraints->CWB-O-I CWB-I-> experienced incivility/constraints experienced incivility did not predict CWB
Distributive justice
Distributive justice is conceptualized as the fairness associated with decision outcomes and distribution of resources. The outcomes or resources distributed may be tangible (e.g., pay) or intangible (e.g., praise). Perceptions of distributive justice can be fostered when outcomes are perceived to be equally applied
Equity theory
Equity theory focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. Equity is measured by comparing the ratio of contributions (or costs) and benefits (or rewards) for each person - The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. - Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute to their jobs, a concept referred to as the "equity norm" - Employees determine what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their coworkers. This concept is referred to as "social comparison" - Employees who perceive inequity will seek to reduce it, either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds ("cognitive distortion"), directly altering inputs and/or outcomes, or leaving the organization
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory proposes an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. - at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements - It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. - "This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients." Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. 1. Self efficacy- the person's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieve their goals. 2. Goal difficulty- when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are unattainable. 3. Perceived control - Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is low. Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given. Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies: •Trusting the people who will decide who gets what outcome, based on the performance, •Control of how the decision is made, of who gets what outcome, •Policies understanding of the correlation between performance and outcomes. Valence: the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome. Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome
Goal Setting Theory
Goals that are deemed difficult to achieve and specific tend to increase performance more than goals that are not. A goal can become more specific through quantification or enumeration (should be measurable), such as by demanding "...increase productivity by 50%," or by defining certain tasks that must be completed. - better than saying "do your best" Moderators: - goal commitment - attainability - self-efficacy - feedback - task complexity - goal orientation - framing of goal Setting goals affects outcomes in four ways: Choice: goals narrow attention and direct efforts to goal-relevant activities, and away from perceived undesirable and goal-irrelevant actions. Effort: goals can lead to more effort; for example, if one typically produces 4 widgets an hour, and has the goal of producing 6, one may work more intensely towards the goal than one would otherwise. Persistence: someone becomes more likely to work through setbacks if pursuing a goal. Cognition: goals can lead individuals to develop and change their behavior
Circumplex Model of Emotion
Hedonic Tone and Intensity Positive and Negative affect should be independent constructs but is not true when state affect is measured.
Hogans Personality
Idenitity - personality from the view of the actor. What you think you are Reputation - personality from the view of an observer Best predictor of future behavior is past behavior (reputation is a summary of past behavior) Adjustment: confidence, self-esteem, and composure under pressure Ambition: initiative, competitiveness, and desire for leadership roles Sociability: extraversion, gregarious, and need for social interaction Interpersonal Sensitivity: tact, perceptiveness, and ability to maintain relationships Prudence: self-discipline, responsibility, and thoroughness Inquisitive: imagination, curiosity, and creative potential Learning Approach: achievement orientation, valuing education
Informational justice
Informational justice relates to the adequacy of the explanations given in terms of their timeliness, specificity, and truthfulness. "focuses on explanations provided to people that convey information about why procedures were used in a certain way or why outcomes were distributed in a certain fashion"
Interactional justice
Interactional justice refers to the treatment that an individual receives as decisions are made and can be promoted by providing explanations for decisions and delivering the news with sensitivity and respect. A construct validation study by Colquitt (2001) suggests that interactional justice should be broken into two components: interpersonal and informational justice. referent cognitions theory, adequate explanations help victimized parties place their under compensation in perspective by getting them to understand that things could have been worse.
Interpersonal justice
Interpersonal justice refers to perceptions of respect and propriety in one's treatment while. "reflects the degree to which people are treated with politeness, dignity, and respect by authorities and third parties involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes
Job demands
Job demands: physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job, that require sustained physical and/or psychological effort or skills. Therefore, they are associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs. Examples are, work pressure, emotional demands.
Perceived organizational support (POS)
Perceived organizational support (POS) is the degree to which employees believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being and fulfills socioemotional needs. - According to OST, POS strongly depends on employees' ATTRIBUTIONS concerning the organization's intent behind their receipt of favorable or unfavorable treatment - norm of reciprocity/social exchange POS should elicit the norm of reciprocity, leading to a felt obligation to help the organization, as well as the expectation that increased performance on behalf of the organization will be noticed and rewarded. - Perceived organizational support is focused on favorable treatment and the degree to which employees engage in positive reciprocity with the organization, - For employees, organizations serve as important sources of socioemotional resources like respect and care, as well as tangible benefits like wages and medical benefits. - socioemotional needs for esteem, approval, affiliation, and emotional support leads to organizational identification - POS->SocialExchange/Self-Enchancement->Affective commitment - POS->socioemotional->Org ID->AC->OCB,IRP
Perceived contract Breach (cognitive) vs. Violation (affective)
Perceived psychological contract violation (PPCV) is a construct that regards employees' feelings of disappointment (ranging from minor frustration to betrayal) arising from their belief that their organization has broken its work-related promises. - PPCV is focused on unfavorable treatment and the degree to which employees engage in negative reciprocity with the organization - Violation has been described as involving "feelings of betrayal and deeper psychological distress [whereby] ... the victim experiences anger, resentment, a sense of injustice and wrongful harm" - Perceived breach refers to the cognition that one's organization has failed to meet one or more obligations within one's psychological contract in a manner commensurate with one's contributions. - moderated by trust-> effects attributions of locus of control.
Procedural justice
Procedural justice is defined as the fairness of the processes that lead to outcomes. When individuals feel that they have a voice in the process or that the process involves characteristics such as consistency, accuracy, ethicality, and lack of bias then procedural justice is enhanced -more relational -predicts system referenced outcomes (org commitment, rule compliance)
Profiles in Quitting
Process models (How) focus on how individuals arrive at their final decisions to quit - Shocks, Unfolding model Path 1-4 Content models (Why) focus on why individuals quit organizations 8 Motivational Forces Affective: Current affective response to an organization Contractual: Psychological contract obligations to an organization and violations of contract Constituent: Commitment to people or groups in an organization Alternative: Perceived alternatives to a current job Calculative: Anticipated future satisfaction associated with continued organization membership (future oriented, chances of Normative: Pressures to stay or leave an organization derived from the expectations of others Behavioral: Behavioral commitment to an organization (losing investments, avoid costs) Moral: Moral/ethical values about quitting 4 decision types: Impulsive (affect driven) Comparison (rationally compare jobs, affectles) Preplanned ("quit after college acceptance") Conditional ("if happens or if I get another job offer")
Self-Concept Implicit vs Explicit Self-concepts
Self-concept refers to people's self-definitions in relation to others - Individual self-concept involves self-definitions based on people's separateness from others where self-worth is derived - Relational self-concept involves self-definitions based on dyadic relationships where self-worth is derived from high-quality relationships and reflected appraisals from dyadic partners - Collective self-concept involves self-definitions based on group memberships where self-worth is derived from group success and fulfilling group roles - Indirect measures tap cognitive content that respondents are either unaware that they possess, are unaware that measurement outcomes reflect that content, or are unable to control the extent that measurement outcomes reflect that content self-concept may operate at implicit levels and have effects on attitudes and behaviors that occur outside people's awareness and control Implicit Self-concept is better predictor of task, CWB, LMX and OCB than explicit
Negative Affect
Should we partition out NA from research? Relationship between job stressor and job strains The perception mechanism NA->perceptin of stress->Strain The hyper-responsivity mechanism NA->higher strain response The selection mechanism NA->pick stressful jobs The stressor creation mechanism NA->create adverse->objective stressors The mood mechanism Mood affects Stressor/Strain/NA The causality mechanism High stressors make people NA Establishing that a variable is a bias is not a simple procedure. One must show that it relates to one or more measured variables, but that it does not have substantive effects. Multiple methods to assess job stressors and job strains would be needed to help show that NA relates only to self reports. This alone, however, is insucient as NA might relate only to perceptions and reactions that are unmeasurable with techniques other than self-report. The empirical results discussed in this article suggest that the potential biasing effect of NA is high, when both the stressors and strains have theoretical overlap with NA (which is the case for some life events, daily hassles or interpersonal conflict scales), and when measures have an affective tone. How to reduce Bias (1) Try to optimize measures by reducing the affective tone of items. As discussed above, the potential biasing effect of NA is marginal in such cases. (2) Use objective measures (or measures that are more objective than a simple questionnaire, such as peer ratings of stress, observers, supervisors, codings of interview responses, etc.) to assess job stressors. (3) Use multiple measures for stressors, strains or both. A potential biasing eect of NA can be controlled for when dierent measurement methods are used for independent and dependent variables. (4) Use more sophisticated designs such as longitudinal or quasi-experimental studies. (5) Measure concrete environment (workload) rather than abstract (social)
Social exchange theory
Social exchange theory posits that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. - social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. According to this theory, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships. When the risks outweigh the rewards, people will terminate or abandon that relationship
Job demands-Resources model
The job demands-resources model or (JD-R) model is an occupational stress model that suggests strain is a response to imbalance between demands on the individual and the resources he or she has to deal with those demands - job resources may buffer the impact of job demands on job strain, including burnout - Job resources particularly influence motivation or work engagement when job demands are high. -Spiral Gains
Norm of reciprocity
The norm of reciprocity is the expectation that people will respond favorably to each other by returning benefits for benefits, and responding with either indifference or hostility to harms. POS-->postive PPCV-->negative
Psychological Contract vs. Implied Contracts
The psychological contract held by an employee (perceived promise) consists of beliefs about the reciprocal obligations between that employee and his or her organization. More specifically, they defined a psychological contract as a set of beliefs about what each party is entitled to receive, and obligated to give, in exchange for another party's contributions - norm of reciprocity/social exchange Impied Contracts - expectations that are commonly understood and shared by others - A contract at the transactional end of the continuum is composed of specific, short-term, and monetizable obligations entailing limited involvement of the parties (More important for Psychological Contract Breach) - A contract at the relational end of the continuum, in contrast, entails broad, open-ended, and long term obligations, and it is based on the exchange of not only monetizable elements (e.g., pay for service) but also socioemotional elements such as loyalty and support - Parties to a psychological contract not only exchange promised goods and services, but they also implicitly promise to execute the exchange according to a set of values, beliefs, and norms
The Job Stress Model
The two major classes of variables in the job stress process are job stressors and job strains. In the present model a job stressor is considered to be a condition or situation that elicits a negative emotional response, such as anger/frustration or anxiety/tension. Perceived stressor refers to the appraisal and interpretation made by an individual of a potential environmental stressor. A job strain is the reaction to the job stressor (Behavioral, Psychological, Physical). In the present model, the psychological job strains occur first. This is the emotional reaction to the job stressor, which happens in many cases immediately. Also included as psychological strains are attitudinal reactions, such as job dissatisfaction.
Turnover
Turnover Criterion Problem - Different types of stayers vs leavers leads to different outcomes - Criterion contamination (employees not reporting actual reason for leaving because of burning bridges) - Criterion deficiency (multiple motives for leaving, but only report one) Turnover Voluntariness - voluntary (employee initiated) - involuntary (employer initiated) - External vs Internal forces Turnover Functionality - good vs bad performers Turnover Avoidability - organizationally avoidable vs unavoidable Employee preference to stay/leave->employer control->Other extrinsic control-> Proximal Withdrawal States: Enthusiastic leaving (voluntary, externally aligned, mutually separated) Reluctant leaving (Coerced, involuntary, resistant) Reluctant stayer (trapped, contractual) Enthusiastic staying (embedded engaged, engaged, slackers) Different leaver/stayers->different outcomes (OCB, CWB, Performance)
Trust
Willingness to be vulnerable - fairness heuristic theory implies that justice perceptions guide formation of trustworthiness perceptions, because information on justice is encountered earlier (and is more interpretable) than information on trustworthiness - the relational model suggests that some combination of benevolence and integrity—whether labeled "benevolence," "trustworthiness,"or merely "trust" informal specifications of the model—acts as an antecedent of justice perceptions
Deviant Behavior
Workplace deviance is behavior at work that violates norms for appropriate behavior. Organizational deviance encompasses production and property deviance. Production deviance is "behavior that violates formally prescribed organizational norms with respect to minimal quality and quantity of work to be accomplished as part of one's job". Property deviance is "where employees either damage or acquire tangible assets...without authorization". This type of deviance typically involves theft but may include "sabotage, intentional errors in work, misusing expense accounts", Workplace-deviant behavior may be expressed as tardiness or excessive absenteeism (Withdrawl). Interpersonal deviance can occur when misconduct "target(s) specific stakeholders such as coworkers". - political deviance - personal aggression Behavior falling within this subgroup of employee deviance includes gossiping about coworkers and assigning blame to them. - Related to Justice, personality, OCB - measurement issues (low report, selecting out- range restriction)
The theory of planned behavior
cold cognitive/instrumental CWB The theory of planned behavior (abbreviated TPB) is a theory that links beliefs, attitudes, norms, control, intentions, and behaviors. -best predictor of behavior is intentions to perform that behavior. - behavior intention consists of two cognitive components: (1) attitude toward the act (due to equity, justice, attributions, and personality factors) and (2) subjective norm (aggregate normative beliefs->social pressure->motivate) and individuals perceived (resources, abilities, opportunity) actual control over the behavior/outcome (self-efficacy, actual control) - cognitive dissonance, equity->attitudes - attraction-selection-attrition/social info processing theory->subjective norm (team level) - perceived behavioral control (locus of control, self efficacy)
Organizational justice
how an employee judges the behaviour of the organization and the employee's resulting attitude and behaviour. (e.g., if a firm makes redundant half of the workers, an employee may feel a sense of injustice with a resulting change in attitude and a drop in productivity).
Organizational Citizenship behavior
individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization - sportsmanship is defined as a willingness on the part of employees to tolerate less than ideal circumstances without complaining and making problems seem bigger than they actually are - civic virtue is behavior indicating that employees take an active interest in the life of their organization - compliance is behavior indicating that employees accept and adhere to the rules,regulations, and procedures of the organization - Courtesy has been defined as discretionary behaviors that aim at preventing work-related conflicts with others - Altruism defined by discretionary behaviors that have the effect of helping a specific work colleague with an organizationally relevant task or problem. Antecedents: Personality (Conscientiousness, agreeableness, NA, PA) Attitudes (job satisfaction, org commitment, justice) Task characteristics (feedback, routinization, intrinsic satisfaction)
Conservation of Resources Theory (Stress Model)
people are motivated to obtain, retain and protect their resources because they are valuable. - Object resources are valued because of some aspect of their physical nature or because of their acquiring secondary status value based on their rarity and expense. - Conditions are resources to the extent that they are valued and sought after. Marriage, tenure, and seniority are examples of these. - Personal characteristics are resources to the extent that they generally aid stress resistance, specifically, this means seeing events as predictable and generally occurring in one's best interest. -Energies are the last resource category and include such resources as time, money, and knowledge. These resources are typified not by their intrinsic value so much as their value in aiding the acquisition of other kinds of resources. - Hobfoll argues that resource gain acquires its saliency in the context of resource loss. This implies that job resources gain their motivational potential particularly when employees are confronted with high job demands. For example, when employees are faced with high emotional demands, the social support of colleagues might become more visible and more instrumental. - Loss Spiral develop because they lack the resources to offset loss. If resources are used to prevent loss of other resources, such loss would be predicted to lead to further decreases in the likelihood of possessing necessary re- source reserves
Job resources
physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that are either or: functional in achieving work goals; reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological cost; stimulate personal growth, learning, and development. Examples are, career opportunities, supervisor coaching, role-clarity, and autonomy. -Resources motivate
Organizational Commitment
the individual's psychological attachment to the organization Affective Commitment is defined as the employee's positive emotional attachment to the organization. An employee who is affectively committed strongly identifies with the goals of the organization and desires to remain a part of the organization. This employee commits to the organization because he/she "wants to". Continuance Commitment is the "need" component or the gains verses losses of working in an organization. An individual may commit to the organization because he/she perceives a high cost of losing organizational membership Normative Commitment is when the individual commits to and remains with an organization because of feelings of obligation. The employee stays with the organization because he/she "ought to". But generally if an individual invest a great deal they will receive "advanced rewards." Normative commitment is higher in organizations that value loyalty and systematically communicate the fact to employees with rewards, incentives and other strategies. Normative commitment in employees is also high where employees regularly see visible examples of the employer being committed to employee well-being.
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation involves people doing an activity because they find it interesting and derive spontaneous satisfaction from the activity itself. - Extrinsic motivation, in contrast, requires an instrumentality between the activity and some separable consequences such as tangible or verbal rewards, so satisfaction comes not from the activity itself but rather from the extrinsic consequences to which the activity leads
