Organizational Psychology (Specialty Exam)

(Bass, 1985)

***Relates to Judge & Piccolo (2004) & Avolio, Howell, & Sosik (1999) Laissez-faire leader behaviors Transactional leadership: -Active management-by-exception takes place when leaders focus vigorously on followers' mistakes and failures to meet standards -Passive management-by-exception managers do not actively monitor for mistakes; instead, they wait until the mistakes are of such consequence that they can no longer be ignored. -Contingent reward involves managers setting goals, providing feedback, and ensuring that employee behaviors have consequences, both positive and negative. Transformational Leadership: Idealized influence: these behaviors include providing a vision for the future and creating a collective sense of mission. Inspirational motivation: encourages employees to achieve more than what was thought possible, either by themselves or by those around them. Intellectual stimulation: encourage employees to think for themselves, question their own commonly held assumptions, reframe problems, and approach matters in innovative ways. Individualized consideration: characterizes leaders who pay special attention to employees' personal needs for achievement and development and act as mentors

(Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999)

A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36, and -0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d = -0.15, and —0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. Careful consideration of reward effects reported in 128 experiments leads to the conclusion that tangible rewards tend to have a substantially negative effect on intrinsic motivation, with the limiting conditions we have specified. Even when tangible rewards are offered as indicators of good performance, they typically decrease intrinsic motivation for interesting activities. Although rewards can control people's behavior—indeed, that is presumably why they are so widely advocated—the primary negative effect of rewards is that they tend to forestall self-regulation. In other words, reward contingencies undermine people's taking responsibility for motivating or regulating themselves. When institutions—families, schools, businesses, and athletic teams, for example—focus on the short term and opt for controlling people's behavior, they may be having a substantially negative long-term effect. Main Takeaways: - If it's already something interesting, then tying tangible rewards to it can undermine intrinsic motivation - Main motivational theory in this paper: cognitive evaluation theory - According to CET, receiving verbal feedback increases intrinsic motivation

(Deci, 1971)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: CET asserts that underlying intrinsic motivation are the psychological needs for autonomy and competence, so the effects of an event such as a reward depend on how it affects perceived self determination and perceived competence. Rewards can be interpreted by recipients primarily as controllers of their behavior (decrease satisfaction/need for autonomy/undermine intrinsic motivation) - OR - As indicators of their competence (positively informational, provide satisfaction/need for competence/enhance intrinsic motivation) Task-Noncontingent Rewards: given for something other than engaging in the target activity, such as simply participating in the study Task-Contingent Rewards: given for doing or completing the target activity Completion-Contingent Rewards: dependent upon completing the target task --- rewards are likely to be experienced as even more controlling - BUT - to the extent that the rewards do represent competence affirmation, implicit positive feedback could offset some of the control (however, expected to undermine intrinsic motivation at a level roughly comparable to engagement-contingent rewards) Engagement-Contingent Rewards: dependent upon engaging in the activity but do not require completing it --- predicted to undermine intrinsic motivation Performance-Contingent Rewards: given specifically for performing the activity well, matching some standard of excellence, or surpassing some specified criterion rewards = linked to performance = stronger control (to meet some standard) = a strong tendency for these rewards to undermine intrinsic motivation can also convey substantial positive competence information when the individual does well --- affirming competence, offsetting some negative effects of control.

(Adams, 1963)

Equity Theory: Individuals compare the ratio of their own inputs (e.g., contributions to the job, including effort, skill, ability, and time, among other things) and outcomes (e.g., compensation, rewards, recognition) to the ratios they perceive that referent others have

(Vroom, 1964)

Expectancy Theory: Expectancy is the perceived link between effort and performing at a certain level and reflects one's confidence in attaining a goal Valence is the desirability, attractiveness, importance, or anticipated satisfaction with outcomes associated with goal pursuit Instrumentality is the perceived probability that if the goal is attained, the outcomes will be received

(Lord & Maher, 1993)

Implicit leadership theory (ILT) originates from leadership categorization theory, which suggests that expectations and beliefs about the "ideal leader" serve as standards against which we compare our actual leaders. If a feedback loop exists, then individuals should update their ILTs when they are confronted with contrary evidence.

(Barsky, Kaplan, & Beal, 2011)

In contrast to traditional conceptualizations of organizational justice as representing isolated judgments stemming from a "cold" rational calculus, justice judgments are instead part of a "hot" and affectively laden appraisal process, emerging over time through the interplay of work and nonwork experiences as well as through emotions and moods. The authors' model argues that emotions is/are integral to the process of forming justice judgements, as appraisals of events inform both emotional reactions and justice judgments in a fast and reciprocal fashion, resulting in a phenomenological experience of bidirectionality or even simultaneity. We describe justice-related events as situations in which some external agent (e.g., supervisor, coworker, committee, etc.) acts in a manner that impacts an employee's goals. - integral and incidental emotion refers respectively to affective states that are either directly connected or not directly connected to a focal justice-related event. Incidental affect impacts the generation and nature of the justice judgment process.

(Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001)

In this article, we focus on leader-team dynamics through the lens of ''functional leadership.'' This approach essentially asserts that the leader's main job is to do, or get done, whatever functions are not being handled adequately in terms of group needs. The authors are looking at vertical leadership and not shared leadership here. Functional leadership is distinct from other models of leader-team interactions by focusing on what needs to be done instead of what should be done In this article, we have specified a number of fundamental components of team effectiveness. These are succinctly categorized in terms of cognitive, motivational, affective, and coordination processes We have also suggested that as teams become more experienced and achieve a significant level of expertise, other members take over more of the leadership functions, while designated leaders retain their boundary spanning responsibilities.

(Maertz & Boyar, 2011)

In this review, the authors differentiate work-family (WF) research that conceptualizes and measures conflict as a consolidated level versus as a conflict event or episode. overwhelming majority of empirical studies focusing on people's "levels" of work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FMW) and relationships between these levels and other constructs Theoretical Implications: First, there are two theoretically and empirically distinct research approaches to the W-F interface (levels vs. episodes). Neither approach is inherently superior, but researchers must match their approach to their research objective. Second, there is clearly construct proliferation with several highly conceptually overlapping constructs around enrichment (e.g., enhancement), whereas balance has varying meanings and measurements under a purportedly single construct Third, it seems that levels and episodes conceptualizations must be reconciled and integrated in some systematic Way and not simply accepted as completely independent ways of looking at conflict, enrichment, and balance. Practical Implications: First, managers can help employees prevent or avoid conflict episodes in the first place, perhaps through providing several key forms of flexibility or support. Second, managers can help employees resolve conflict episodes that do arise more effectively. The key is for future WF research to determine the relative efficacy of conflict resolution and prevention methods. In turn, these methods could be counseled or trained Third, managers may be able to create the potential for enrichment episodes to occur in the workplace.

(Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

Job Characteristics Model (JCM): This model assumes that all jobs can be described along five core dimensions: (a) skill variety, or the degree to which a job requires a person to perform different activities; (b) task identity, or the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work; (c) task significance, or the degree to which the job has a positive impact on the lives of others; (d) autonomy, or the degree to which the job provides freedom and discretion in performing the work; and (e) feedback, or the degree to which the individual receives feedback on his or her performance. Deci 1999- Task significance, autonomy and feedback relate well to intrinsic motivation, b/c autonomy, and an affirmation of competence (task significance) increase intrinsic motivation. These five job characteristics impact employee outcomes (e.g., motivation, performance, satisfaction) through three psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results) and combine to determine the motivating potential of a job The model postulates that an individual experiences positive affect to the extent that he learns (knowledge of results) that he personally (experienced responsibility) has performed well on a task that he cares about (experienced meaningfulness) Skill variety, task identity, and task significance contribute to experienced meaningfulness; autonomy contributes to experienced responsibility; feedback contributes to knowledge of results The potential of a job to enhance internal work motivation is highest when: 1) Job is high on one of the 3 dimensions leading to experienced meaningfulness 2) Job is high on autonomy 3) Job is high on feedback Higher correlations btw attitudinal states and employee outcomes than btw job characteristics and outcomes ---> more distal outcomes Outcomes: high internal work motivation, high quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work, low absenteeism and turnover.

(Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012)

Main Takeaway: In the past, trust has only been considered from the individual level. The authors propose that it is important to consider the impact of trust at different org. levels (i.e. individual, team, and org), and taking into account different referents (i.e trust in leaders, trust in teams, and trust in organizations). The authors also discuss antecedents and consequences of trust at each level for each referent and offer suggestions for future research.(can link to org commitment at diff levels, leader, department, and org: Becker et al. 1996. from A&V)

(Colquitt et al., 2012)

Main Takeaway: The authors created a comprehensive model of trust mediation which included procedural, interpersonal, and distributive justice. These forms of justice predicted affect-based and cognition-based trust (with these forms of trust predicting uncertainty-based and exchanged-based mechanisms). The authors found that trust variables mediated the relationship between org. Justice dimensions, and job performance (affect-based trust drives the exchange-based mediation; cognition-based trust drives the uncertainty-based mediation).

(Ferguson & Peterson, 2015).

Main Takeaway: The authors were interested in trust spirals in small groups. They found that diversity to propensity to trust had affective and cognitive consequences related to trust, which in turn decreased intragroup trust early in the trust development process. This process continued over time and led to greater relationship conflict and lower group performance.

(Bauer et al., 2007)

Organizational socialization refers to the process by which newcomers make the transition from being organizational outsiders to being insiders. Results of a meta-analysis show that role clarity, self-efficacy, and social acceptance (these are newcomer adjustment) mediate the relationship between newcomer information seeking and organizational socialization tactics and socialization outcomes, including newcomer performance, work attitudes, and turnover. Moreover, whether school-to-work or work-to-work transitions are studied and whether variables are measured at the same time or with a time lag have implications for the relationships.

(Colquitt et al., 2005)

Outlined four waves of organizational justice research: 1) distributive justice, dealing with the subjective process involved in judging equity and other allocation norms; 2) procedural justice, focusing on rules that foster a sense of process fairness; 3) interactional justice, dealing with interpersonal treatment; & 4) the integrative wave.

(Judge et al., 2002)

Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review: Meta Purpose of article: provide quantitative review of relationship between personality and leadership Authors estimate personality-leadership relations according to two criteria: 1) Leader emergence: whether an individual is viewed as leader by others 2) Leadership effectiveness: leader's performance in influencing and guiding activities of unit toward achievement of goals Results: Emergence: extraversion and conscientiousness showed strongest correlation. Openness to leader emergence also generalized across studies Effectiveness: neuroticism, extraversion, openness showed correlations that generalized across studies Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness were significantly correlated with the combined criteria of leadership emergence and effectiveness. Relatively strong multiple correlation between Big Five traits and leadership criteria. Suggests Big Five typology is fruitful basis for examining dispositional predictors of leadership Extraversion emerged as most consistent correlate of leadership. ---> Suggests extraversion is most important trait of leaders and effective leadership. ---> Results confirmed extraversion more strongly related to leader emergence than leader effectiveness. Conscientiousness and openness strongest and most consistent correlates of leadership after extraversion. ---> Conscientiousness more strongly related to leader emergence. ---> Openness most controversial and least understood. Agreeableness predictive of just emergence in negative direction ---> Agreeableness least relevant of Big Five traits Big Five traits predicted student leadership better than leadership in government or military settings ---> Extraversion only trait that generalized across all three settings Overall, the authors found support for trait theories of leadership

(Maslach & Jackson, 1981)

The Burnout Model Three dimensions of burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment. 1) Emotional exhaustion describes feelings of being emotionally overextended; 2) Depersonalization refers to cynical and detached responses to others 3) Reduced personal accomplishment refers to a decline in efficacy and feelings of competence and productivity The three dimensions of burnout are part of a theoretical process whereby exhaustion leads to actions that distance the individuals from elements of their work that are stressful, resulting in cynicism and depersonalization. Overtime, these actions and withdrawal result in decreased experiences of efficacy. The causal sequence among dimensions has been controversial

(Hobfoll, 1989)

The Conservation of Resources Model The conservation of resources (COR) approach to stress proposes that people fundamentally seek to obtain, retain, protect, and restore resources. Resources describe a wide range of objects (e.g., shelter), personal characteristics (e.g., self-esteem), conditions (e.g., status), or energies (e.g., knowledge) that are important for adaptive functioning Resources are valued in their own right or because they lead to other valued resources. Strain results from the threat of resource loss, the actual loss of resources, or failure to gain sufficient resources.

(Lavelle, Rupp, & Brockner, 2007)

The authors proposed the target similarity framework, which takes a multi-foci approach to studying justice. Employees form justice perceptions about multiple parties Second, we acknowledge that justice evaluations, made by employees about a particular party, will impact the level of social exchange between the employee and that party. Third, employees will react to felt justice and social exchange by directing their attitudes and behaviors toward the focal party. The multifoci model of organizational justice argues that it is necessary for research to explicitly specify the source of justice. Main Takeaway: it is important to look at each foci when looking at justice. Overall, the pattern of relationships revealed across these studies indicates that psychologically proximal justice and social exchange variables (i.e., those with a supervisor or team focus) are better predictors of in-role performance than are more psychologically distal justice and social exchange variables (e.g., those with an organizational focus). In conclusion, we hope this review and our target similarity framework encourages researchers to continue the recent trend of integrating multifoci perspectives across relevant organizational behavior constructs to provide a more complete representation of the employee experience at work.

(Locke & Latham, 2002)

The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. Relationship of goal difficulty to performance: - Positive, linear function - Specific, difficult goals consistently have led to higher performance than "do-your-best" goals - Goal specificity does not necessarily lead to high performance because specific goals vary in difficulty - it does however reduce variation in performance by reducing the ambiguity about what is to be attained. Moderators: - Goal Commitment - the goal-performance relationship is strongest when people are committed to their goals - Feedback - revealing the progress of goal attainment is more effective than goals with no feedback - Complexity - specific, difficult learning goals may be best for complex tasks - Satisfaction - people with high goals produce more b/c they are dissatisfied with less - the bar for their satisfaction is set at a high level Practical Applications: - Productivity & Cost Improvement - setting a specific difficult goal leads to significant increases in EE productivity (significant correlation b/w goal setting & org. profitability) - Performance Appraisal - higher performance and satisfaction with performance appraisal process when specific high goals were set(possible connection with procedural justice) - Selection - situational judgment tests - Self-Regulation (i.e. Control Theory) - the cyclical process of (a) setting a goal, (b) striving to reach the goals, (c) monitoring progress toward the goal, (d) using performance feedback to modify behavior & set new goals, and (e) proving self-rewards or punishments after goal striving - The High Performance Cycle - explains the lack of direct connection b/w job satisfaction and productivity; a puzzling issue psychologists have long been facing; satisfaction is the result of high performance, not the cause.

(Wang, Waldman, & Zhang, 2014)

Title: A meta-analysis of shared leadership and team effectiveness. Shared leadership - an emergent team property of mutual influence and shared responsibility among team members, whereby they lead each other toward goal achievement Results: - Overall positive relationship (r= .34) btw shared leadership and team effectiveness - What is actually shared among members appears to matter with regard to team effectiveness ---> Shared traditional forms of leadership (e.g., initiating structure and consideration) show a lower relationship (r= .18) than either shared new-genre leadership (e.g., charismatic and transformational leadership; r= .34) or cumulative, overall shared leadership (r= .35) - Shared leadership tends to be more strongly related to team attitudinal outcomes and behavioral processes and emergent team states, compared with team performance. ---> performance is more distal, so we would expect this - Effects of shared leadership are stronger when the work of team members is more complex. - Our findings further suggest that the referent used in measuring shared leadership does not influence its relationship with team effectiveness and that compared with vertical leadership, shared leadership shows unique effects in relation to team performance. - The authors found that new-genre leadership was more strongly related to team effectiveness than was shared traditional leadership. *** Shared leadership has unique effects on team outcomes above and beyond vertical leadership

LePine et al. (2008)

Title: A meta-analysis of teamwork processes: Tests of a multidimensional model and relationships with team effectiveness criteria Draws from Marks et al. (2001) - 10 teamwork processes load onto 3 higher-order dimensions, which load onto a teamwork process factor All 10 processes are positively associated with team performance and member satisfaction ---> these relationships were consistent across types of processes and levels of process specificity Moderators: Task interdependence & team size: - Relationships btw teamwork processes and team perf tended to be stronger in studies where teams had higher task interdependence and where the teams were larger in size - Neither task interdependence nor team size were statistically significant for teamwork process-member satisfaction relationship Teamwork processes and emergent states were positively correlated ---> this relationship does not vary as a result of the process in question Implications: - Findings regarding team process-outcome relationships, in general, appear to be consistent w/ Marks et al. (2001) framework - Applied perspective: results attest to importance of team processes as related to important outcomes

Mathieu et al. (2014)

Title: A review and integration of team composition models: Moving toward a dynamic and temporal framework Team composition research - attributes of team members & the impact of the combination of such attributes on processes, emergent states, and outcomes ---> inputs side of the IMO model Aggregation processes: 1. Compositional: simple combination rules (e.g. average competencies representing human capital) 2. Compilational: complex combination of diverse lower-level contributions (e.g. team performance being influenced by the least (or most) competent individual) 4 models of team composition effectiveness: 1. Traditional personnel-position fit model: treats each position in a team as though it is an individual job in an organization ---> ignores team context ---> more talented members on a team the increased likelihood of success 2. Personnel model w/ teamwork considerations: consider members contributions to the team as a collective ---> team effectiveness is enhanced to the extent that members all possess generic team-related competencies ---> Marks et al. (2001) taxonomy & LePine et al. (2008) 3. Team profile model: indexes composition with descriptive statistics of members' KSAOs, focusing on the distributional features of member composition ---> value in some balance of some attribute in the team that is not tied to position requirements ---> diversity research 4. Relative contribution model: compilation model; focuses on attributes such as competencies of weakest or strongest member noting that particular individuals can carry or undermine the entire team effort ---> Humphrey et al. (2009) - experiences and skills of members occupying "core" team roles have a greater influence on team outcomes ---> Barrick et al (1998) - one neurotic team member can sink the whole team Looking at team composition over time is important b/c there are numerous models that say that teams change over time

Porter et al. (2003)

Title: Backing up behaviors in teams: The role of personality and legitimacy of need ***Relates well to Judge et al. (2002) - personality and leadership Investigated the interaction between legitimate need and personality in predicting backup behavior Backing up behaviors: discretionary provision of resources and task-related effort to another member of one's team that is intended to help that team member obtain the goals as defined by his or her role when it is apparent that the team member is failing to reach those goals Legitimate need: when a team member is faced w/ a higher level of task demands, but has not been compensated w/ extra resources, this creates a legitimate need for back up Model of backup behavior: based on IPO model ---> Team inputs: (a) characteristics of the team's task (using the extent to which the nature of the task is one that legitimately calls for some members of the team to back up other members of the team); (b) characteristics of the team's composition (using FFM of personality here) as it relates to both back up recipients and providers Results: - Strong support for the role of the legitimacy of the need for back up as an important predictor of backing up in teams - Extraverted individuals are more likely to request backup - Conscientious people will both ask for/receive backup - We need to think about team composition and workload in a team b/c it influences backup

Boswell et al. (2009)

Title: Changes in newcomer job satisfaction over time: Examining the pattern of honeymoons and hangovers Tested the temporal nature of work attitudes ---> Specifically how job satisfaction changes across the 1st year of employment for a sample of organizational newcomers Satisfaction with the present job was found to be higher initially than satisfaction with the prior job (i.e., honeymoon) but declined over time (i.e., hangover) Reason for the job change did not moderate the pattern of job satisfaction ---> voluntary job change was not associated with a stronger peak (i.e., honeymoon) and a stronger decline (i.e., hangover) in job satisfaction Satisfaction with the prior job partially moderated the pattern of job satisfaction, such that lower satisfaction with the prior job was associated with a stronger peak (i.e., honey- moon) and a stronger decline (i.e., hangover) in job satisfaction Perceived fulfillment of commitments and extent of socialization (i.e. knowledge of the organization, department, and job role) did not moderate the change in job satisfaction

(Schneider, Salvaggio, & Subirats, 2002)

Title: Climate strength: A new direction for climate research Climate strength moderates the relationship btw employee perceptions of service climate and customer satisfaction Climate strength - within-unit variability in employee perceptions of service climate ---> developed based on two literatures: compositional models and culture strength Harrison & Klien 2007 - Too much disparity in view points is bad. Service climate - employees' shared perceptions of the policies, practices, and procedures that are rewarded, supported, and expected concerning customer service Results: - Service climate predicted customer perceptions of service quality when climate strength was strong - Managers have a more direct and immediate impact on employees than do the other climate constructs

(Gonzalez-Roma & Hernandez, 2014)

Title: Climate uniformity: Its influence on team communication quality, task conflict, & team performance Definitions: - Climate uniformity - pattern of climate perceptions of org support within the team - Uniform climates - single-modal pattern with a single grouping of climate perceptions comprising all members - Non-uniform climates - multimodal (highly skewed) patterns involving arrays that exceed a single grouping of climate perceptions - Strong dissimilarity non-uniform patterns - distinct subgroupings within the team are observed - Weak dissimilarity non-uniform patterns - only one subgroup is distinct from all others; members not in this subgroup do not form a coherent cluster General hypothesis: Climate uniformity is indirectly related to team performance through its relationship with quality of team communication and team task conflict Results: - Weak Dissimilarity --- directly related to task conflict + team communication quality and indirectly related to team performance ---> Teams with weak dissimilarity (non-uniform) climate patterns had lower levels of team communication quality, higher levels of task conflict, and lower levels of team performance than teams with uniform climate patterns - No sig findings for the strong dissimilarity pattern (range restriction) Practical Implication: - Team managers should be aware of the disruptive consequences associated with some nonuniform patterns of climate perceptions of organizational support

(De Dreu, 2011)

Title: Conflict at work: Basic principles and applied issues Discusses three origins of conflict (i.e. where conflict comes from): 1. Outcome interdependence 2. Diversity 3. Justice Main Takeaway: Conflict arises for a number of reasons; the extent to what that does on different outcomes depends on type of conflict and management strategies

(Gelfand et al., 2012)

Title: Conflict cultures in organizations: How leaders shape conflict and their organizational-level consequences 3 types of conflict cultures were examined: - Conflict culture - socially shared and normative ways to manage conflict 1. Collaborative - collective constructive dialogue, negotiation, and joint problem solving 2. Dominating - org members collectively seek competition and victory 3. Avoidant - org members collectively suppress and withdraw from conflict Results: - Collaborative conflict cultures were pos. related to viability - Dominating conflict cultures were neg. related to viability - Avoidant conflict cultures were negatively related to unit-level creativity Implications: - There should be policies that support the collaborative cultures ---> Leaders' behaviors influence those cultures; train leaders to promote the norms for how we handle conflict - ASA model - b/c orgs attract and select individuals with different personalities, they develop distinguishable conflict cultures

Humphrey, Morgeson, & Mannor (2009)

Title: Developing a theory of the strategic core of teams: A role composition model of team performance ***Relates well to Summers et al. (2012) - Team member, flux in coordination, and performance Role composition approach - investigates how the characteristics of a set of role holders impact team effectiveness Strategic core - the role or roles on a team that: a) encounter more of the problems that need to be overcome in the team b) have a greater exposure to the tasks the team is performing c) are more central to the workflow of the team ---> The more that a role meets the above criteria, the more "core" the role is to the team Results: - The relationships between experience, job-related skill, and performance are stronger when the characteristics are possessed by core role holders as opposed to non-core role holders Implications: - Strategic core matters: resource allocation in many organizations may be inefficient and firms may benefit from reallocation of investments toward strategic core roles - Managers should place emphasis on the core roles when they build/change teams

(Podsakoff, Lepine, & Lepine, 2007)

Title: Differential challenge stressor-hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis A 2-dimensional work stressor framework is used to explain inconsistencies in past research with respect to stressor relationships with retention-related criteria (meta-analysis) Definitions: Challenge stressors - those that people tend to appraise as potentially promoting their personal growth and achievement - Examples: high levels of workload, time pressure, job scope, and responsibility and was labeled challenge-related stressors Hindrance stressors - those that people tend to appraise as potentially constraining their personal development and work-related accomplishment - Examples: role ambiguity, organizational politics, and concerns about job security Results: Hindrance stressors - negatives relationships with job satisfaction and org commitment ---> positive relationships with turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal Challenge stressors - positive relationships with job satisfaction and org commitment ---> negative relationships with turnover intentions Challenge stressors have incremental variance above and beyond hindrance stressors ---> it makes sense to break them down and talk about them separately Results also suggested that the differential relationships between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors and the more distal criteria (withdrawal behavior and turnover) were due, in part, to the mediating effects of job attitudes Implication: Hindrance stressors tend to have a larger negative impact and should thus be avoided in the workplace

(Ordóñez et al., 2009) (initial)

Title: Goals gone wild: The systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting - Authors argue that goal-setting should be presented in "doses" with a warning label and close supervision rather than a one-size-fits-all approach Examples of goals gone wild: - i.e. Sears - auto service overcharged and made unnecessary repairs in order to meet high sales goals - i.e. Ford Motor Company - failed to perform necessary safety checks regarding the creation of a new vehicle, that would be competitive in the market, in order to meet a tight deadline How Goals Go Wild: 1) Goals that are too specific - Narrow focus (blind people from important issues that appear unrelated to the goal) - Too many goals - Inappropriate time horizons 2) Goals that are too challenging - Risk taking (adopt riskier strategies, choose riskier gambles) - Unethical behavior (goal setting can promote unethical behavior) - Interplay between organizational culture & goal setting (goal setting impedes ethical decision making by making it harder for employees to recognize ethical issues and easier for them to rationalize unethical behavior) - "Postulate that aggressive goal setting within an organization increases the likelihood of creating an organizational climate ripe for unethical behavior"

(Locke & Latham, 2009)

Title: Has goal setting gone wild, or have its attackers abandoned good scholarship? Claim that the argument made by Ordóñez et al. (2009) is flawed in the nature of "good scholarship" Poor Scholarship: - Making causal inferences on the basis of anecdotal stores - Ignoring confounding variables - Citing unrepresentative studies from a research domain - Misreporting results - Using emotionally laden language to garner reader support rather than writing dispassionately and striving to remain objective ***Locke and Latham (2009) assert that Ordóñez et al. (2009) made all of the above mistakes in their article Criticisms of the Ordóñez et al. (2009) Article: - Their language is a flagrant appeal to emotion - Drawing causal inferences improperly - Misquoting/Quoting out of context - Treating anecdotes as evidence - Failure to gather evidence, document effect sizes (No scientific evidence to backup claims) - Reporting/citing selective and irrelevant sources (Failure to recognize recent, logical, compelling, and empirically scientific research; Selectively reported only negative studies) - Use of metaphors to garner attention (Flawed logic) - Lack of theoretical, valuable, and unique contribution to the literature - Use of extreme statements, unverified assertions, unrepresentative references, and scare tactics ***"The tone of their article and the presentation of the content do not suggest an objective search for truth."

(Avolio, Howell, & Sosik, 1999)

Title: Humor as a moderator of leadership style effects. Leadership style was moderated by the use of humor in its relationship w/ individual and unit-level performance. Results: - Use of humor was pos related to individual and unit-level perf - Transformational leadership and contingent reward leadership were both positive related to use of humor, but laissez-faire was neg related - Transformational had positive relationship w/ performance. Contingent, neg relationship w/ performance Moderation: - Contingent reward leadership was more neg related to perf when leaders used humor more - By using humor, laissez-faire leaders may have been able to reduce the neg effects usually associated w/ their lack of leadership, including neg impact on perf - Humor is good for laissez-faire but not for contingent-reward - Not sure why moderating effects were diff for diff performances for transformational A possible limitation of this study was that the sample was mostly male. Implications for organizations: - You could test the workplace and see what type of leadership style is being used; look at makeup of the company and training them to be transformational

(Dunford et al., 2012)

Title: Is burnout static or dynamic? A career transition perspective of employee burnout trajectories Relates to Boswell et al. (2009) in that they tracked newcomers' job satisfaction over time They advance existing burnout theory by articulating how the 3 burnout dimensions should differ in their pattern of change over time as a result of career transition type: organizational newcomers, internal job changers (e.g., promotions or lateral moves), and organizational insiders (i.e., job incumbents) Burnout was relatively stable for organizational insiders but slightly dynamic for organizational newcomers and internal job changers Burnout defined: - Emotional exhaustion - feeling of "being over-extended and depleted of one's emotional resources" in response to "chronic interpersonal stressors on the job" - Depersonalization - "negative, callous, or detached response to various aspects of the job" - Reduced personal accomplishment - "decline in one's feelings of competence and successful achievement in one's work" They also found that the dimensions of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were more sensitive to career transition type than reduced personal accomplishment Implications: - When interpreting and designing interventions to minimize burnout, managers should consider career transitions - Newcomers and internal job changers make better candidates for burnout interventions than do org insiders, particularly around the first year after the change when emotional exhaustion and depersonalization are expected to peak. However, it is important to note that even then, burnout levels may be only slightly elevated and this increase is temporary.

(Colquitt et al., 2001)

Title: Justice at the millennium: a meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research Main Takeaway: - The results demonstrate the overall and unique relationships among distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice and several organizational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, evaluation of authority, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal, performance). Definitions: - Distributive justice - fairness of outcome distributions or allocations (i.e. equity theory) - Procedural justice - fairness of the procedures used to determine outcome distributions or allocations (i.e. Are performance appraisals fair for everyone's pay?) - Interpersonal justice - degree to which people are treated with politeness, dignity, and respect by authorities - Informational justice - the explanations provided to people that convey information about why procedures were used in a certain way Distributive justice had high correlations with outcome satisfaction, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, trust, agent-referenced evaluation of authority, and withdrawal Distributive justice had moderate correlations with system-referenced evaluation of authority, OCBs-organization referenced (OCBOs), and negative reactions Distributive justice was weakly related to OCBs-individual referenced (OCBIs) and performance Procedural justice had high correlations with outcome satisfaction, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, trust, and agent-referenced evaluation of authority Procedural justice had moderate correlations with system-referenced evaluation of authority, OCBOs, withdrawal, negative reactions, and performance Procedural justice had weak correlations with OCBIs Interpersonal justice was strongly related to agent-referenced evaluation of authority and moderately related to job satisfaction, system-referenced evaluation of authority, OCBIs, and negative reactions Interpersonal justice was weakly related to outcome satisfaction, organizational commitment, withdrawal, and performance Informational justice was strongly related to trust, agent-referenced evaluation of authority, and system-referenced evaluation of authority, and was moderately related to outcome satisfaction, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, OCBIs, withdrawal, and negative reactions Informational justice was weakly related to OCBOs and performance

(Reay et al., 2006)

Title: Legitimizing a new role: Small wins and microprocesses of change 4-year investigation of the introduction of a new work role (nurse practitioner) into a well-established health care system in Alberta, Canada Embeddedness - degree to which actors and their actions are linked to their social context ---> Actors used their embeddedness as a pos. foundation for implementing desired change Legitimizing a Role: - 3 microprocesses of change plus a series of small wins: 1) Cultivating opportunities for change 2) Fitting a new role into prevailing systems 3) Proving the value of the new role Implications: - Micro-level processes can affect org change - Recognize and encourage middle management involvement in change initiatives

(Ordóñez et al., 2009) (response)

Title: On good scholarship, goal setting, and scholars gone wild They did not intend to review the goal-setting literature in their "Goals Gone Wild" article; rather, their aim was to highlight the possibility of systematic harm resulting from goal setting Points of Contention: - Locke and Latham's (2009) characterization of Ordóñez et al.'s (2009) view of scholarship is incorrect - Ordóñez et al. (2009) continue to believe that anecdotes, case studies, & journalistic accounts inform important research questions. - Aim was not to report new results, rather the goal was to "make information about empirical research in management accessible to the nonexpert" - Ordóñez et al. (2009) believe that Locke and Latham's 2007 paper fell short in examining the downsides to goal setting; slightly opposite of the authors perception - Locke and Latham (2009) described Ordóñez et al.'s (2009) practice of citing out of context --- Ordóñez et al. (2009) believe that they were then also cited out of context when Locke and Latham (2009) quote their "assertion" that "goals should be used only in the narrowest of circumstances" Good Scholarship: - Must ask interesting questions that address important issues and/or challenge existing beliefs - Must generate new knowledge (Locke and Latham (2009) prove that Ordóñez et al. (2009) did not do this based on many years of previous research dating all the way back to nearly half a century ago) - Sound empirics (not done by Ordóñez et al. (2009)) - Generating implications - Broadly disseminated and widely consumed

(Kerr, 1975)

Title: On the folly of rewarding A, while hoping for B Illustrations are presented from society in general, and from organizations in particular, of reward systems that "pay off" for one behavior even though the rewarder hopes dearly for another - i.e. Military: rewarding disobedience, while hoping soldiers would obey orders - i.e. Universities: society hopes that teachers will not neglect their teaching responsibilities but rewards them almost entirely for research and publications - i.e. Business: reward systems which reinforce behaviors not desired by top management Four general factors may be pertinent to an explanation of why fouled up reward systems seem to be so prevalent (1) Fascination with an "objective" criterion --- Desire to establish simple, quantifiable standards which can be measured and thus objectively rewarded (2) Overemphasis on highly visible behaviors (3) Hypocrisy - hollow statements ; say you want something, but you actually want something else (4) Emphasis on morality or equity rather than efficiency Three possible remedies (1) Selection - employ only those individuals whose goals and motives are wholly consonant with those of management ---> ASA model - bring people in who match company values (2) Training (3) Altering the Reward System ---> We need to identify if it is actually rewarding the right behavior; if not, then adjust accordingly

(Hartnell, Ou, & Kinicki, 2011)

Title: Org culture and org effectiveness: A meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework's theoretical suppositions Competing values framework was used to meta-analyze the relationship btw culture types and org effectiveness criteria: - 3 underlying dimensions include focus, structure, and means-ends (competing core values that "represent what people value about an organization's performance") - Culture types are expected to relate to different org effectiveness indicators Effectiveness criteria: EE attitudes, operational & financial effectiveness ---> Clan, adhocracy, and market cultures are pos. associated with the effectiveness criteria Culture Types: 1. Clan - human affiliation - satisfaction & commitment (attitudes) 2. Adhocracy - change - innovation 3. Market - achievement - increased market share, profit) Avg. correlation among the culture types was .54 ---> a lumping approach would be more appropriate

Bauer & Erdogan (2011)

Title: Org socialization: The effective onboarding of new employees Presented a model for the process of socialization Inputs: 1. New employee characteristics - proactive personality, extraversion, openness, Veteran employee 2. New employee behaviors - info seeking, feedback seeking, relationship building 3. Organizational efforts - socialization tactics, formal orientations, recruitment/realistic job previews, organizational insiders Mediator (just like in Bauer et al, 2007): 1. Adjustment - role clarity, self-efficacy, acceptance by org insiders, knowledge of org culture Outcomes: 1. Satisfaction 2. Commitment 3. Turnover 4. Performance

(Martins, 2011)

Title: Organizational Change and Development (OCD) There are several general conclusions that this chapter makes that can be cited. - Lewin's model: change implementation progresses thru unfreezing, moving, & refreezing - OCD - creating or responding to differences in the states of individuals, groups, orgs, and collectives over time Very difficult to study OCD because we're only taking a snapshot; we need to change our methods to a more dynamic approach ---> We don't have very good methods for tracking that change ---> Each snapshot has different theoretical underpinnings - there is not a unified one in the OCD literature Episodic v continuous change - Episodic - change is intentional and planned and can be defined by relatively discrete start and end points - Continuous - change is an ongoing process w/o temporal boundaries Deterministic v managerial choice - Deterministic - change is prompted by forces external to the org, and to remain effective orgs must change to conform to changing environmental demands - Managerial - change is prompted by managers intentionally choosing strategies in response to demands Conclusion: - Newer conceptualizations assign EE roles of empowered creators or co-creators of change along with org leaders - Involve the employee more in change efforts - There has been a trend in the research of making manager a crucial agent in Org change.

(Schulte et al., 2009)

Title: Organizational climate configurations: Relationship to collective attitudes, customer satisfaction, and financial performance Investigated three profile characteristics representing climate configurations 1) Elevation - mean score across climate dimensions (do we have shared perceptions of climate and how much?) 2) Variability - extent to which scores vary across dimensions (SD and climate strength) 3) Shape - pattern of dimensions Psychological climate - an individual's perception of the work env Unit/org climate - shared perceptions among employees within work units regarding what the unit is like This study used a configural approach to study org climate Results: - Elevation = related to internal effectiveness outcomes (EE affect, intentions to stay, & EE perceptions of service quality) - Shape = related to external effectiveness outcomes (customer satisfaction and financial performance) - Results were mixed for profile variability Implications: - It's important to look at multiple dimensions of climate b/c they are differentially related to outcomes

Rhoades & Eisenberger (2002)

Title: Perceived org support: A review of the literature POS - employees' general belief that their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being 3 major categories of beneficial treatment received by employees were associated with POS: 1. Fairness 2. Supervisor support 3. Organizational rewards and favorable job conditions These relationships depended on processes assumed by organizational support theory - employees' belief that the organization's actions were discretionary, feeling of obligation to aid the organization, fulfillment of socioemotional needs, and performance-reward expectancies Fairness had the greatest relationship with POS, followed by supervisor support, with rewards and favorable job characteristics having the weakest relationship Person characteristics and demographic variables were weakly related to POS POS and affective commitment had a strong, positive relationship, whereas POS and continuance commitment had a small, negative relationship. Organizational support theory - employees' belief that the organization's actions were discretionary, feeling of obligation to aid the organization, fulfillment of socioemotional needs, and performance-reward expectancies ---> employees 1st figure out if the org cares about their well-being and develop expectancies about the org fulfilling their needs Orgs should treat employees fairly; don't select people based on demographic characteristics

Barrick, Stewart, Neubert, & Mount (1998)

Title: Relating member ability and personality to work-team processes and team effectiveness Used IPO framework Methods of operationalizing team composition: 1. Mean score of individual measures 2. Variability of individual characteristics 3. Highest or lowest individual-trait score for the team (max or min) Taxonomy by Steiner (1972): 1. Additive tasks (mean level) - require summing of resources for performance 2. Compensatory tasks (variance) - require that individual inputs be averaged together to arrive at a team outcome 3. Conjunctive tasks (minimum)- require each group member to perform at a minimally acceptable level for the team to succeed 4. Disjunctive tasks (maximum) - require only one team member to perform well Results: - Conscientious teams (mean, variance, and min.), high GMA teams (mean), more agreeable teams (mean) and emotionally stable teams (mean) had higher performance - Teams with higher GMA (mean), extraversion (mean and min), and emotional stability (mean) had higher levels of team viability - Social cohesion mediated the relationship between extraversion (mean) and emotional stability (mean) and viability What would we tell organizations? - GMA and different personality factors affect performance - Don't just look at the mean ---> variability in conscientiousness created problems for team performance - Minimum level of extraversion was related to performance (it only takes one really introverted person to bring down the team)

(Swider, Zimmerman, & Barrick, 2015)

Title: Searching for the right fit: Development of applicant person-organization fit perceptions during the recruitment process Decision-making theory (differentiation-consolidation theory - decision makers positively or negatively adjust and update preferences and attitudes toward individual alternatives as they gather more information over time) Participants in this study were students enrolled in a combined graduate degree program in accounting at a large southwestern university ---> Surveys were given out throughout the recruitment process for a total of 8 times This study shows that the higher and more differentiated an applicant's PO fit perception is throughout the recruiting process for a specific organization, the stronger the relationship with later job choices. It is important for each organization to actively manage the information they make available to applicants, including the information shared right at the start of the recruiting process

(Halbesleben, 2006)

Title: Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the COR model COR model proposes that stress is the result of a threat to resources ---> Related to burnout, it assumes that resources are differentially related to burnout dimensions Burnout - psychological strain that is a response to chronic work stress In this paper, I provide a meta-analysis of the social support and burnout literature ---> Social support, as a resource, did not yield different relationships across the 3 burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment), challenging the COR model Source of social support (work vs. nonwork) as a moderator: ---> Work-related sources of social support, because of their more direct relationship to work demands, were more closely associated with exhaustion than depersonalization or personal accomplishment ---> Nonwork-related sources of social support were more closely associated with depersonalization and personal accomplishment than exhaustion

(Griffin & Clarke, 2011)

Title: Stress and well-being at work Review article of stress literature. Work stress is not a single event or a specific psychological state. Rather, work stress describes a general process in which individuals respond to and manage demands to meet multiple goals over time. ---> stressors -> stress -> strain A basic distinction between stressors (e.g., excessive workloads) as the primary drivers of this process and strains (e.g., anxiety and depression) as its primary outcomes has proved useful for building a more complete picture of the stress process Integrating Framework: The framework highlights two key processes of work stress: 1) a transactional process linking the person and environment and 2) a dynamic process that unfolds over shorter time periods. Primary Interventions: often focus on the reduction of stressors in the workplace and take place at an organizational level (i.e. job design; level of autonomy) ---> Job design - think Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson (2007) ---> Autonomy - think Hackman & Oldham (1976) & Humphrey et al. (2007) - Job Characteristics Model Secondary Interventions: operate by developing individuals' skills in identifying and managing stressors, and by improving their coping strategies and/or replacing maladaptive coping styles with more successful ones. ---> Coping can be broken down into problem- and emotion-focused strategies Tertiary Interventions: Try to fix the strain; act to mitigate individual stress outcomes ---> i.e. helping individuals to cope with their anxiety through stress counseling ---> i.e. organizations often provide workers with access to employee assistance programs (EAPs) in order to help those who are experiencing stress outcomes. If the problem can be resolved thru primary intervention, then secondary and tertiary are unnecessary Future Directions: We propose three questions to be considered: (a) What is the time lag of effects? (b) How does reciprocal causation operate? and (c) What is the link between short-term and long term processes?

(de Jonge & Dormann, 2006)

Title: Stressors, resources, and strain at work: A longitudinal test of the triple-match principle Two longitudinal studies investigated the issue of match between job stressors and job resources in the prediction of job-related strain. ---> Triple match principle was used Job stressors - degree to which the work environment contains stimuli that require sustained cognitive, emotional, or physical effort Job resources - similar to coping options; energetic reservoir that an individual taps when he/she has to cope with job stressors Strains - negative effect that a stressor has on physical, emotional, or cognitive well-being Researchers have proposed that specific stressors and specific resources should match to show the moderating effects in the prediction of strain ---> Referred to as the matching hypothesis - if the type of available resources corresponds to existing stressors, then those resources are best able to mitigate the effects of those stressors, and less strain Triple match grid: 1) Emotional - stressor = irate customers; resource = training or encouragement; strain = anxiety/burnout 2) Physical - stressor = lifting heavy machinery; resource = safety equipment; strain = back pain 3) Cognitive - stressor = intense mental processing; resource = ability to set one's own goals; strain = no motivation to learn new things The likelihood of finding moderating effects was linearly related to the degree of match, with 33.3% of all tested interactions becoming significant when there was a triple match, 16.7% when there was a double match, and 0.0% when there was no match. Findings were most consistent if there was an emotional match or a physical match

De Dreu & Weingart (2003)

Title: Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis Conflict - process resulting from the tension between team members b/c of real or perceived differences ---> Examples of relationship conflict - personal taste, political preferences, values ---> Examples of task conflict - distribution of resources, procedures, and policies Info processing perspective - both types of conflict interfere with team perf IVs: relationship vs. task conflict Moderator: task type DVs: team perf and team member satisfaction Group tasks were categorized using McGrath's (1984) group-task circumplex: Planning-production tasks, decision-making tasks, project tasks, and mixed tasks Results: - Task conflict had a weaker neg relationship with team member satisfaction than did relationship conflict - Task and relationship conflict had almost equal neg relationship on team performance (lends support to the info processing perspective) - Conflict had stronger negative relations with team performance when tasks were more complex (in other words, stronger neg relations for project & decision making task types compared to production tasks) - Relationship conflict worse for decision-making teams Main Takeaway: both types of conflict are bad

Mathieu et al. (2008)

Title: Team effectiveness 1997-2007: A review of recent advancements and a glimpse into the future Team - collectives who exist to perform organizationally relevant tasks, shared one or more common goals, interact socially, exhibit task interdependencies, maintain and manage boundaries Team Effectiveness Framework: 1. IPO - input-processes-outcomes (does not account for time) 2. IMO - input-mediators-outcomes (includes processes & emergent states) 3. IMOI - emphasis on cyclical nature of team functioning Team Outcomes: Team Performance (org level perf, team level perf and outcomes, role based perf, & perf composites) & Members' Affect and Viability Mediators: Team Processes (taskwork vs. teamwork; Marks et al., 2001 taxonomy) ---> Emergent States - i.e. team confidence, climate, trust, cohesion, collective cognition ---> Blended mediators - i.e. team learning and TMSs Team Composition Inputs: 1. Composition: simple combination rules, such as averaging lower level units to represent a higher level construct (Approaches: mean value and diversity) 2. Compilation: higher-level phenomenon is a complex combination of diverse lower-level contributions (e.g. team perf may be unduly influenced by the least/most competent member) (Approaches: complex combinations) Team Level Inputs: 1. Interdependence 2. Team Training 3. Team Leadership

(Summers, Humphrey, & Ferris, 2012)

Title: Team member change, flux in coordination, and performance. Effects of strategic core roles, information transfer, and cognitive ability Flux in coordination - Emergent state; period btw the action and transition phases (Marks et al., 2001) ---> Member change --> jolt to coordination patterns --> thrusts team out of equilibrium - IVs: information transfer and strategic core - Mediator: Flux in coordination - Moderator: New member cognitive ability - DV: Task performance Results: - More strategically core the team role experiencing member replacement, the higher the level of flux in coordination - When a core member goes from high to low cog. ability, you have the most flux - Information transfer neg. related to flux - Flux in coordination neg. related to team task performance Implications: - Proper socialization of new team members will help them learn group norms and share information (info transfer)

(Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith, 1995)

Title: The ASA framework: An update We review the current literatures that are relevant to the issues of attraction, selection, and attrition regarding two central propositions of the ASA model: (a) the role of founders and top management in determining organizational goals and the ASA cycle. The authors found empirical and anecdotal support for the contention that organizations (their structure, process, and culture) are a reflection of their founders, leaders, and top managers. (b) homogeneity of personality attributes within organizations as a consequence of the ASA cycle. The authors found support for the tendency for organizations to become homogeneous with regard to person types which can POSSIBLY (no actual support for negative outcome) be dangerous for long-term organizational effectiveness. This was based on direct and indirect evidence. Attraction process: people's preferences for an organization depend on implicit estimation of the similarity between own personal personal characteristics and the attributes of potential work organizations. Selection refers to the formal and informal procedures used by organizations in the recruitment and hiring of people with the attributes the organization desires. Attrition process refers to the idea that people will leave an organization they do not fit ASA is an alternative to the situationally dominated theories currently accepted in the field, i.e. situationist perspective and interactional psychological models

Jehn, Rispens, & Thatcher (2010)

Title: The effects of conflict asymmetry on work group and individual outcomes Took a multilevel approach to studying conflict asymmetry and its effect on outcomes - Outcomes were performance, creativity, and satisfaction with a team - Mediators: group atmosphere and social processes Definitions: - Individual conflict asymmetry - individual-level aspect of conflict asymmetry; whether a member perceives more/less conflict than other group members - Group conflict asymmetry - group members perceive different levels of conflict (not just the mean conflict level) Results: 1. At the group level... - Task conflict asymmetry was neg correlated with creativity ---> no significant effect of task conflict asymmetry on perf - Relationship conflict asymmetry was neg correlated with perf ---> no sig effect of relationship conflict asymmetry on creativity 2. At the individual level... - Task conflict asymmetry and relationship conflict asymmetry were neg correlated with satisfaction - Only task conflict asymmetry was neg correlated with performance 3. Members who perceived more conflict than others in their group experienced a less positive group atmosphere and thus decreased satisfaction 4. When members perceive more conflict than others, they experience less positive social processes (communication and cooperation) and thus decreased satisfaction and performance Theoretical Implications: - Usually the focus is on mean levels; that may not give the whole picture - Variability in individual and group perceptions of the level of conflict can have serious consequences Managerial Implications: - Everyone must recognize that their perception of what is occurring in the group is not likely to be shared by all - Conflict resolution - bring the conflict into the open so that everyone can either agree that there is a certain level of conflict

(Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004)

Title: The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research Meta-analysis Definitions: - Consideration - degree to which leader shows concern for followers, looks out for their welfare, and expresses appreciation/support - Initiating structure - degree to which leader defines/organizes roles, is oriented toward goal attainment, and establishes well-defined channels of communication Hypotheses: 1) Consideration will be positively related to: - Follower satisfaction (leader satisfaction, job satisfaction) - Leader performance or effectiveness (leader job performance, group-organization performance, leader effectiveness) ***Supported! 2) Initiating structure will be positively related to: - Follower satisfaction (leader satisfaction, job satisfaction) - Leader performance or effectiveness (leader job performance, group-organization performance, leader effectiveness) ***Supported! 3) Compared with initiating structure, consideration will be more strongly related to follower satisfaction whereas compared with consideration, initiating structure will be more strongly related to leader performance or effectiveness ---> Contrary to hypothesis 3, consideration more strongly related to leader effectiveness 4) Validities of consideration and initiating structure will vary by measure ---> supported 5) There will be a significant (nonzero) correlation between consideration and initiating structure ---> mixed results 6) Intercorrelation of consideration and initiating structure will vary by measure ---> supported Results: - Results reveal that both consideration and initiating structure have important main effects on numerous criteria that most would argue are fundamental indicators of effective leadership - Consideration was more strongly related to leadership (collapsed across outcomes and measures). The study-level moderators were as follows: Criteria (which of the six criteria was used in the study), Measure (which of the five measures [LBDQ, LBDQ-XII, LOQ, SBDQ, other] was used in the study), Research Design (cross-sectional or longitudinal), Independence of Data Sources (same source or different source), Study Setting (business, college, military, public sector), and Level of the Leader (supervisory or mid- to upper-level leaders). - Nonsignificant correlations of consideration with leader job performance and correlation of initiating structure with follower job satisfaction - Measure used in leadership studies did moderate validity of both consideration and initiating structure ---> measures matter! Main Takeaway: What we are arguing is that it is inadvisable, at this point, to abandon Consideration and Initiating Structure in leadership research.

Rousseau (2011)

Title: The individual-organization relationship: The psychological contract Psychological contract is an individual's system of beliefs, based on commitments expressed or implied, regarding an exchange agreement with another. Psychological contract - an employee's understanding of what they owe that employer and what they expect of that employer over time ---> An individual's beliefs about a commitment with another Contracts come about through higher level routine processes using schemas and scripts as well as lower level processes attending to new experiences Individual differences (i.e. personality) influence the likelihood that an individual's contract will contain certain beliefs ---> Conscientious people will be better performers ---> Neurotic people will be more likely to see violation b/c they attribute unmet obligations to the organization doing something that is willingly wrong (breach) ***Relates to Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt (2002) and Barrick, Stewart, Neubert, & Mount (1998) and Locke et al. (2017) 4 things can occur within a contract: fulfillment, breach, violation, and change Breaches (extent to which a party falls short in upholding an obligation) come before violations (emotional response to the breach) Our conceptualizations and measurements of psychological contracts are very messy

(Seo et al., 2012)

Title: The role of affect and leadership during org change Looked at affect, commitment to change, and transformational leadership Affective events theory - events occur in org that have immediate affective consequences for their EEs ---> relates to episodic change Affective commitment to change - feel that it will be advantageous for you; want to Normative commitment to change - ought to; reciprocate pos. treatment received by org Results: - EE positive and negative affective experiences both positively and negatively predict their commitment to change - Managers' transformational leadership shapes EE affective reactions and commitment to change ---> Relates to Judge & Piccolo (2004) Implications: - Managers should consider actively promoting positive affective experiences and minimizing negative ones for their employees in order to increase the likelihood of building enduring, long-term commitment and support for organization change - Employees' direct managers may play a critical role in promoting positive affect among employees, as well as reducing their negative affect during the organizational change by displaying transformational leadership

(Ployhart, Weekley, & Baughman, 2006)

Title: The structure and function of human capital emergence: A multilevel examination of the Attraction-Selection-Attrition Model We integrated multilevel theory and the ASA model to clarify the structure and function of homogeneity, and hence human capital, at individual, job, and organizational levels The authors examined the structure of personality homogeneity emergence. They examined the functional relationships between job- and organization-level personality and individual-level job satisfaction and performance. Measured personality homogeneity as job average personality and organizational average personality. They looked at the unit variances as well. They found when units have the same favorable mean, those with less variance have more satisfied and better-performing individuals In all cases, individuals and jobs composed of individuals with more emotional stability, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion were associated withmore satisfaction and performance. During the selection phase, managers must recognize that it is not better to hire or tolerate otherwise competent individuals who differ markedly from the unit average personality, because these people can disrupt the performance and satisfaction of coworkers. The implication is that selection should not only be based on job specific factors, but also on the match between an applicant's personality and that of coworkers in the job and organization.

Latham, Brcic, & Steinhauer (2017)

Title: Toward an Integration of Goal Setting Theory and the Automaticity Model Assesses the extent to which goal setting theory explains the effects of goals that are primed in the subconscious on task performance 1st experiment: - Examined the effect on performance of three primes that connote the difficulty levels of a goal in the subconscious - Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions where they were primed with either a photograph of a person lifting 20 pounds (easy goal), 200 pounds (moderately difficult goal), or 400 pounds (difficult goal) - Participants who were primed with the difficult goal exerted more effort than those who were primed with the moderate or easy goal 2nd experiment: - Examined whether choice of goal difficulty level can be primed - Those primed with a difficult goal consciously chose to set a more difficult goal on a brainstorming task than those who were primed with an easier goal - Similarly, their performance was significantly higher - Conscientiousness predicted more difficult goal-setting, which in turn predicted job performance ---> Could be related to Judge et al. (2002) & Barrick et al. (1998) with personality

(Judge & Piccolo, 2004)

Title: Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Transformational leaders - offer a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on higher order intrinsic needs ---> Transactional leaders - focus on proper exchange of resources 4 dimensions of transformational leadership: 1) Idealized influence (charismatic leadership) - degree to which leader behaves in admirable ways that cause followers to identify with leader 2) Inspirational motivation 3) Intellectual stimulation 4) Individualized consideration 3 dimensions of transactional leadership: 1) Contingent reward - leader sets up constructive transactions/exchanges with followers 2) Management by exception: a) Active: monitor follower behavior, anticipate problems, take corrective actions before behavior creates serious difficulties; 3) Passive: wait until behavior has created problems Laissez faire - avoidance or absence of leadership Leadership dimensions: Follower satisfaction with leader, Follower motivation, Leader job performance, Leader effectiveness Hypotheses: 1) Transformational leadership will have positive, nonzero relationships with following leadership criteria ---> supported 2) Transformational and charismatic leadership will exhibit similar overall validities ---> supported 3) Contingent reward transactional leadership will have positive, nonzero relationships with the following leadership criteria ---> supported 4) Management by exception-passive and laissez-faire leadership will have negative, nonzero relationships with the following leadership criteria ---> minimal support 5) Transformational leadership will significantly predict leadership criteria controlling for the 3 transactional leadership behaviors and laissez-faire leadership ---> supported Results: Transformational leadership showed highest overall validity, then contingent reward leadership. Laissez-faire had moderately strong, negative average relationship with leadership criteria. Transformational leadership and contingent reward leadership display strongest and most consistent correlations across leadership criteria. Q statistic for transformational and Q statistic for contingent rewards suggested presence of moderators - Effect sizes for transformational leadership not nearly as strong as those in Lowe et al (1996). - Contingent reward leadership appeared to have validity levels comparable with those of transformational leadership. - High correlations between transformational leadership and several dimensions of transactional leadership. ---> makes it difficult to separate unique effects - In predicting outcomes, controlling for other forms of leadership tended to undermine validities of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership Furthermore, when controlling for contingent reward and the other forms of transactional leadership, we found transformational leadership to be generally a stronger predictor of the leadership criteria. It may be more robust (less dependent on access to resources)

(Harrison & Klein, 2007)

Title: What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations Separation (position) - differences in position or opinion among unit members Variety (knowledge) - differences in kind of category, information, knowledge, and experience Disparity (possession) (inequality) - differences in concentration of valued social assets If the specified conceptualization and index of diversity are mismatched, research conclusions may be misleading Measures of perceived diversity should not substitute for measures of actual diversity Implication: - It is important for consultants to conceptualize diversity in these terms b/c diversity means different things at minimum and maximum levels; you wouldn't want to make the wrong recommendation - Researchers must use the correct statistical indices for each type of diversity so as not to make inaccurate conclusions

Harrison & Klein (2007)

Title: What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations Separation (position) - differences in position or opinion among unit members Variety (knowledge) - differences in kind of category, information, knowledge, and experience Disparity (possession) (inequality) - differences in concentration of valued social assets If the specified conceptualization and index of diversity are mismatched, research conclusions may be misleading Measures of perceived diversity should not substitute for measures of actual diversity Implication: - It is important for consultants to conceptualize diversity in these terms b/c diversity means different things at minimum and maximum levels; you wouldn't want to make the wrong recommendation - Researchers must use the correct statistical indices for each type of diversity so as not to make inaccurate conclusions

(Ford, Heinen, & Langkamer, 2007)

Title: Work and family satisfaction and conflict: A meta-analysis of cross-domain relationships A meta-analysis that examines the relations among stressors, involvement, and support in the work and family domains, work-family conflict, and satisfaction outside of those domains Results suggest that a considerable amount of variability in family satisfaction is explained by work domain-specific variables, whereas a considerable amount of variability in job satisfaction is explained by family domain-specific variables, with job and family stress having the strongest effects on work-family conflict and cross-domain satisfaction. Work-family conflict - A one-dimensional, bidirectional construct. It refers to both the influence of work on family and the influence of family on work as part of one dimension WIF had a small, yet significant, effect on family satisfaction, however it was small (.15) The higher the job stress, the more work interference with family (.48) Family interference with work was not significantly related to job satisfaction Work hours and WIF had stronger negative correlations with family satisfaction for employees with children that for those without children. The results suggest work hours are only indirectly related to family satisfaction through reduced work-to-family conflict. Given the changing nature of the workplace, official time spent at work may in the future have even less influence on nonwork satisfaction. The most successful organizational stress interventions with respect to work and family issues would probably aim to address more than one type or source of strain.

(Jackson, & Joshi, 2011)

Title: Work team diversity Diversity - wide range of physical, cultural, psychological, and behavioral differences (not just gender and ethnicity) Unit of analysis: work team 4 different types of diversity: 1. Relations-oriented - distribution of attributes instrumental in shaping interpersonal relationships (i.e. gender, age, personality) 2. Task-oriented - distribution of attributes relevant to the team's work (i.e. education, cognitive ability, tenure) 3. Readily-detected - differences among team members on attributes that are easily discerned (i.e. gender, age, nationality) 4. Underlying diversity - differences among team members on attributes that become known thru interaction (i.e. personality, attitudes, and skills) Theories for viewing diversity: ASA model, organizational demography perspective, social identity theory, information processing perspective, social capital theory, faultlines perspective Empirical Findings: - Task conflict is more productive to the team than emotional - Greater diversity = greater commitment & cohesion and less turnover - Diversity = more availability to be creative and innovative b/c you have those uncommon connections shared by the group - Task-oriented diversity is more beneficial for team performance than relations-oriented

Berdahl & Moore (2006)

Title: Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women Double jeopardy hypothesis - minority women are the primary targets of harassment and discrimination because they face both sexual and ethnic prejudice Two versions of this hypothesis: 1. Additive version - discrimination of sex and race adds together 2. Multiplicative version - sex ties into racial harassment and race ties into sex harassment (interactions) They found support for the additive version Implications: - You have to address both types of harassment - Minority women were disproportionately affected by not-man-enough harassment (i.e. part of being a real man is being white)