Ottoman Empire Final

Gazi--title (possible short answer)

"Holy warrior," Ottoman raiders in the early period - After the emergence of Islam, it took on new connotations of religious warfare By Mehmed II's reign, ghazis started to become an irrelevant group in the Ottoman Empire. With the change in capitals from Edirne to Istanbul, there was an increase in production of slave troops for military and political purposes. Raids were becoming less religious and more secular, and the political power of ghazi families decreased by the 15th century. Additionally, there was alienation between the ghazi families, Turkish notables, and Turkmen as Mehmed II and his successors began to rely more on the kapikulu than the Turks. - However, they remained a part of the 'askeri and were included within the imperial household

Rumeli--regions & cities (possible short answer)

"Land of the Romans" (Byzantines), referring to the southern Balkans Significance: Rumeli refers to the lands conquered by the Ottoman Turks from the Byzantine Empire. Starting from the second half of the 14th century under Murad I (who consolidated the Ottoman Empire in the southern Balkans) to the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453 by Mehmed II, the land remained primarily populated by Christians. Early Ottoman Sultanate economic and imperial power was centered in Rumeli. The land was divided and administered by cavalry officers and local notables who converted to Islām shared in the administration. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Rumeli functioned as a reservoir of the devşirme (levy of Christian boys), who held the highest posts in the Ottoman army and government. With the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul), Mehmed moved the capital from Edirne to Istanbul and imperial palaces were built here, and the best of the kapikulu trained at the palace. Mehmed II captured the remaining important Greek cities of the Byzantine Empire such as Galata, Trebizond, Crimea, etc. By the end of Mehmed II's reign, the Empire reaches the full boundaries of the Byzantine Empire.

Shahzade--title

"Son of the Shah," an Ottoman crown prince - Turkish form of the Persian title Shahzade and refers to male descendants of Ottoman sovereign in the male line - This title equivalent with "prince" in English.

Re'aya--misc.

"The 99% class" or the sheep to be tended by the Ottoman elites The 'askeri thought the commoners were unfit to rule themselves and impose their own power structure of the re'aya Some are powerful and extremely wealthy but don't have access to certain rights the 'askeri have There is social mobility (even if not in your lifetime, but in your children's children)—not common though - Unlike feudalism, there was more social mobility for non-Muslims than for Muslims (especially for the Devshirme system)

'ilmiye--misc.

"people of knowledge"-- judges, jurists, law professors (not considered military) They propagate the Muslim religion, to ensure that Islamic law, or sharia law was enforced properly within the courts, as well as to ensure that it was interpreted and taught properly within the Ottoman school system.

Caliph--title

("Successor") Supreme spiritual and political leader of the Muslim community Eventually claimed by the Ottomans after the annexation of the Mamluk Sultanate. A caliph is someone claiming authority over Muslims, and the area ruled by a caliph is called a caliphate. - The first caliphs were the heirs to Muhammad, the founder of Islam

The French invasion of Egypt (1798)--important events

(1798-1801) Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in the Orient, proclaimed to defend French "trade" interests, undermine Britain's access to India, and to establish "scientific" enterprise in the region. It was the primary purpose of the Mediterranean siege of 1798, a series of naval engagements that included the capture of Malta.

Shabetai Tzvi--individuals [ca. 1600-1700]

A Sephardic Rabbi who claimed to be the long-awaited Jewish Messiah. He was the founder of the Sabbatean movement.

Tehcir Law and the Armenian Genocide (1915)

A law passed by the Ottoman Parliament in authorizing the deportation of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population. The resettlement campaign resulted in the deaths of anywhere between 800,000 and over 1,800,000 civilians in what is commonly referred to as the Armenian Genocide. The law expired in 1916

Celali rebellions--important events

A series of rebellions in Anatolia of irregular troops led by provincial administrations known as celalî, against the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. They were brought to an end during the reign of Murad IV. These rebellions had a serious impact on the levying and collecting of the taxes and taken a heavy toll for its Turkmen civilians.

akçe--misc.

A silver coin that was the chief monetary unit of the Ottoman Empire. In the 17th century, the Empire encountered a monetary crisis in part due to the New World bullion and inflation. Along with a debasement of value, counterfeit currency from Europe (worthless coinage, mostly zinc that appears as a silver coinage) was common in exchanging

The Greek Revolution (1821)--important event (possible short answer)

A successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832 against the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were later assisted by several European powers, while the Ottomans were aided by their vassals After a long and bloody struggle, and with the aid of the Great Powers, independence was finally granted by the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. The Greeks were thus the first of the Ottoman Empire's subject peoples to secure recognition as an independent sovereign power.

Mehmed Ali Pasha of Kavala--individuals [ca. 1700-1900] (possible short answer)

An Ottoman Albanian commander in the Ottoman army, who rose to the rank of Pasha, and became Wāli, and self-declared viceroy of Egypt and Sudan with the Ottomans' temporary approval Founder of the dynasty that ruled Egypt from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th. He encouraged the emergence of the modern Egyptian state. He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms in the military, economic and cultural spheres that he instituted.

Shaykhulislam--title

An honorific title used for outstanding scholars of the Islamic sciences. Later it became a prestigious position in the Ottoman Empire, that governed religious affairs of the Muslims.

Grand vizier--title

Chief of viziers and the holder of the Sultanic seal - The prime minister of the Ottoman sultan, with the absolute power of attorney and, in principle, dismissable only by the sultan himself - He held the imperial seal and could convene all other viziers to attend to affairs of the state

Young Turks--misc. (possible short answer)

Coalition of various reform groups that led a revolutionary movement against the authoritarian regime of Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II, which culminated in the establishment of a constitutional government. After their rise to power, the Young Turks introduced programs that promoted the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and a new spirit of Turkish nationalism. Their handling of foreign affairs, however, resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman state. They favored the replacement of the absolute monarchy of the Ottoman Empire with a constitutional monarchy. The "Three Pashas" among the Young Turks exercised absolute control over the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1918, bringing the country closer to Germany, signing the Ottoman-German Alliance to enter the Empire into World War I on the side of the Central Powers and carrying out the Armenian Genocide.

Balkan Wars (1912-13)--important events (possible short answer)

Consisted of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war and Bulgaria suffered defeat in the second war. The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples. The war set the stage for the Balkan crisis of 1914 and thus served as a "prelude to the First World War"

The millet system--misc.

Developed to protect the rights of the "tolerated clients of the Muslim community" e.g., the people of the book After the Ottoman Tanzimat (1839-76) reforms, the term was used for legally protected religious minority groups, similar to the way other countries use the word nation

janissaries--misc.

Elite kul ("state slave") infantry troops of the Ottoman household. The Janissaries helped to strengthen the Ottoman military forces and replaced Turkmen as high ranking political officials (e.g., grand vizier, the pasha, etc) However, Mahmud II eliminated the janissary corps

Bursa--regions & cities

First capital of the Ottomans in Anatolia

Ibrahim Pasha of Parga--individuals [ca. 1500-1600]

Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire appointed by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Ibrahim remained in office for the next 13 years, but in 1536, he was executed on Suleiman's orders and his property was confiscated by the state. He eventually fell from grace after an imprudence committed during a campaign against the Persian Safavid empire during the Ottoman-Safavid War (1532-55) - These incidents launched a series of events which culminated in his execution

Padishah--title

Imperial titles adopted by the Ottoman rulers in the classical period, which means ("Great Shah,") or "Great King" in Persian E.g., Sultan Mehmed II also took the title of Pâdişah, a Persian title meaning "Master of Kings" and ranking as "Emperor", claiming superiority among the other kings.

Khanate of Crimea--political entities (possible short answer)

In the 17th century, the Khanate of Crimea, one of the successor states of the Golden Horde and a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, played a critical role in aiding the Ottoman's military campaigns against the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth (PLC) and later against the growing power of Russia. For the Ottomans, the Crimean Khanate was particularly helpful in securing the northern frontier of their empire, as well as being a reliable source for skilled cavalry to supplement the Ottoman army on campaign. The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in the balance of power in Eastern Europe

Safavid Empire--political entities (possible short answer)

Iran underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty from the 1500s until the early 18th century. The Safavid Empire covered all of Iran and parts of Turkey and Georgia. The Safavid ruling dynasty was founded by Shāh Ismāil I In the seventeenth century, the Ottoman threat to the Safavids declined because the military forces became less effective. In the 1720s Afghan tribes who penetrated deep into Iran destroyed the ruling dynasty Meanwhile, Persia's imperial rivals, the Ottomans and the Russians, took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize more territory for themselves - By these events, the Safavid dynasty had effectively ended. In 1724, conform the Treaty of Constantinople, the Ottomans and the Russians agreed to divide the newly conquered territories of Iran amongst themselves - Russo-Ottoman Alliance (fall of Safavid State precipitated brief alliance)

The promulgation of the Constitution (1876)--important events

It was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire and was introduced after a series of reforms were promulgated during the Tanzimat era. The goal of the Tanzimat era was to reform the Ottoman Empire under the guidance of Westernization

timar--misc.

Land-grant given in exchange for military service (esp. cavalry)

Valide Sultan--title (possible short answer)

Mother of a reigning Ottoman Sultan The Valide Sultan gained prominence during Sultanate of Women period, which began in 1520 during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent and continued on until 1656 ending during the reign of Mehmed IV. In some cases, the valide sultan held extreme power and can be said to have ruled the empire indirectly through being a regent for her son, the sultan. This was often the case when the new sultan coming to power was either too young to rule alone or mentally incapable of ruling. It is important to note, however, that some of the greatest valide sultans were first hasekis Nurbanu Sultan, the mother of Murad III was the first to act politically as valide sultan The most well known valide sultan, Kosem Sultan, came into power in 1623 (wife of Ahmed I)

Kösem Sultan--individuals [ca. 1600-1700] (possible short answer)

One of the most powerful women in Ottoman history, and she was the favorite consort and later legal wife of Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603-1617) She achieved power and influenced the politics of the Ottoman Empire through her husband, then through her sons Murad IV (r. 1623-1640) and Ibrahim (r. 1640-1648), and finally through her minor grandson Mehmed IV (r. 1648-1687) She was Valide Sultan when her sons Murad IV and Ibrahim reigned as Ottoman sultans She was a prominent figure during the Sultanate of Women.

Enver Pasha--individuals [ca. 1700-1900]

Ottoman general and commander in chief, a hero of the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, and a leading member of the Ottoman government from 1913 to 1918.

'Askeri--misc. (possible short answer)

Ottoman ruling "military" class or "the 1% class" This did not refer just to the Ottoman military, the group went beyond the elite military establishment. The 'askeri class includes all of the Ottoman extended household (imperial and the household slaves—the state slaves: grand viziers, viziers, janissaries, etc of the kul) It Includes the traditional Turkish lords (former beys of Anatolia), big land owners and notable Turkish families and ghazi families Don't have to pay any taxes and had the right to bear arms

Mahmud II ("the Infidel Sultan")--individuals [ca. 1700-1900] (possible short answer)

Ottoman sultan (1808-39) who attempted to hold together and rebuild the empire by administrative reforms and to strengthen the central government's powers and widen its sphere of influence. During his reign, Janissaries throughout the empire were destroyed or dispersed. Feudalism was abolished throughout the empire, eliminating the cavalry and recruits provided by local fief holders. To strengthen his army, the Sultan established military schools, sent officers to England to study, and imported Prussian military advisers. The reforms he instituted were culminated into the Decree of Tanzimat

'Abdülhamid II--individuals [ca. 1700-1900]

Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909, under whose autocratic rule the reform movement of Tanzimat (Reorganization) reached its climax and who adopted a policy of pan-Islamism in opposition to Western intervention in Ottoman affairs.

Bayezid I--individuals [ca. 1300-1400]

Ottoman sultan in 1389-1402 who founded the first centralized Ottoman state based on traditional Turkish and Muslim institutions and who stressed the need to extend Ottoman dominion in Anatolia. - He annexed various Turkmen emirates in Anatolia, and these conquests brought Bayezid into conflict with the Central Asian conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who claimed suzerainty over the Anatolian Turkmen rulers and offered refuge to those expelled by Bayezid. - In a confrontation between Bayezid and Timur near Ankara (1402), Bayezid was defeated and died in captivity.

Cizye (jizya)--misc. (possible short answer)

Poll-tax levied on the "People of the Book" (Jews and Christians) A tax imposed on non-Muslims (dhimmi) in a Muslim state, in order them to continue practicing their religion Only the adult men had to pay this since the tax exempted women, children, elders, handicapped, the ill, and the insane. Dhimmis who chose to join military service were exempted from payment as were those who could not afford to pay. Thus, more adult men begin to convert to Muslim while their wives and children remain non-Muslims (mixed families emerge) in order to not pay the tax. By the 17th century, the cizye was collected annually The collection of the cizye almost vanished during the 20th century

Gülhane Decree (1839)--importants event (possible short answer)

Proclamation by Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid I (son of Mahmud II) in 1839 By these enactments it was provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should have their lives and property protected; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil rights. It promised reforms such as the abolition of tax farming, reform of conscription, and guarantee of rights to all Ottoman citizens regardless of religion or ethnic group. The goal of the decree was to help modernize the empire militarily and socially so that it could compete with the Great Powers of Europe. It also was hoped the reforms would win over the disaffected parts of the empire, especially in the Ottoman controlled parts of Europe, which were largely Christian. The Edict of Gülhane was never fully implemented due to the end of the Crimean War.

Osman--individuals [ca. 1300-1400] (possible short answer)

Ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia and regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. - The state, while only a small principality (beylik) during Osman's lifetime, would prevail as a world empire under Osman's dynasty for the next six centuries after his death.

Edirne--regions & cities

Second capital of the Ottomans in Europe

Nizamiye Courts--misc.

Secular courts established by Ottoman state in the 19th century and it replaced the shari'a courts

Shah Ismail--individuals [ca. 1400-1500] (possible short answer)

Shah of Iran (1501-24) and religious leader who founded the Ṣafavid dynasty and converted Iran from the Sunni to the Shi'i sect of Islam. Ismail adopted Twelver Shiism, which helped that there had been twelve infallible imams after Muhammad and illusions are given that he himself was the twelfth "hidden imam". Some Shiites came to believe that he was an incarnation of Allah, which gave Ismail spiritual and temporal authority. Ismail I, founder of the Ṣafavid dynasty in Iran, posed a political and ideological threat to Selim by espousing Shism as opposed to the Sunnī Islām of the Ottomans.

Selim the Grim--individuals [ca. 1400-1500]

Son of Bayezid II and Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. His reign is notable for the enormous expansion of the Empire, particularly his conquest between 1516 and 1517 of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt Selim's expansion into the Middle East represented a sudden change in the expansion policy of the empire, which, before his reign, had mostly been within the Balkans and Anatolia. Through conquering and unification of Muslim lands, Selim became the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina which strengthened the Ottoman claim to caliphate in the Muslim world. Ismail I, founder of the Ṣafavid dynasty in Iran, posed a political and ideological threat to Selim by espousing Shism as opposed to the Sunnī Islām of the Ottomans. Selim subdued the Kizilbash and then launched a major campaign against Ismail who was severely defeated at the Battle of Chāldirān

Süleyman the Magnificent--individuals [ca. 1500-1600] (possible short answers)

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 who not only undertook bold military campaigns that enlarged his realm but also oversaw the development of the most characteristic achievements of Ottoman civilization in the fields of law, literature, art, and architecture. He led campaigns against the Christian powers in Belgrade, Rhodes, and Persia. He is remembered as Kanuni, the Law-Giver and reformed the Ottoman legal system and reformed the tax system. and he instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, and criminal law.

Battle of Ankara (1402)--important events

Tamerlane invaded Anatolia and defeated Sultan Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in 1402 - Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity - Timur's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empirewas the restoration of Seljuq authority - After the Ankara victory, Timur's army ravaged Western Anatolia

Mount Lebanon--regions & cities (possible short answer)

The 1860 Civil War in Syria was the culmination of a peasant uprising, which began in the north of Mount Lebanon as a rebellion of Maronite peasants against their Druze overlords and culminated in a massacre in Damascus It marked the beginning of widespread conflict in the Balid-al Sham

Byzantine Empire--political entities

The Empire fell in 1453 with the siege of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most heavily fortified cities in the world with Sultan Mehmed II, ruler of the Ottoman Turks, leading the assault. - The conquest of the Byzantine Empire by this time was completed

Chief Black Eunuch--title (possible short answer)

The Kizlar Agha (also known as the "Chief Black Eunuch") was the head of the eunuchs responsible for guarding the Imperial Harem The Imperial Harem, existing between 1299 and 1923, was the Ottoman sultan's harem composed of the wives, servants (both female slaves and eunuchs), female relatives, and the sultan's concubines, occupying a secluded portion of the Ottoman imperial household. - This institution played an important social function within the Ottoman court, and demonstrated considerable political authority in Ottoman affairs, especially during the long period known as the Sultanate of Women - The utmost authority in the Imperial Harem was the Valide Sultan, who ruled over the other women in the household and was often of slave origin herself

Mamluk Sultanate--political entities

The Mamluks were dynastic but not a dynasty like the Ottomans/Safavids, they were originally slaves of the Abbasid caliphs. Their power was based in Egypt, and they defeated the last of the Crusaders and repulsed the Mongol invasion of Syria. Toward the end of the 15th cent. the Mamluks became involved in a war with the Ottoman Turks who captured Cairo in 1517. Selim I, put an end to the Mamluk sultanate and established a small Ottoman garrison in Egypt. He did not, however, destroy the Mamluks as a class; they kept their lands, and Mamluk governors remained in control of the provinces.

Osman II--individuals [ca. 1600-1700]

The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1618 until his death on 20 May 1622. A well-meaning young Sultan, Osman II was overthrown in a Janissary-led palace coup after he attempted to abolish the elitist, reactionary corps.

Mimar Sinan--individuals [ca. 1500-1600]

The chief Ottoman architect (Turkish: mimar) and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects, such as schools.

The Auspicious Event (1826)--important events (possible short answer)

The forced disbandment of the centuries-old Janissary corps by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826. Most of the 135,000 Janissaries revolted against Mahmud II, and after the rebellion was suppressed, its leaders killed, and many members exiled or imprisoned, the Janissary corps was disbanded and replaced with a more modern military force.

The Young Turk Revolution (1908)--important events

The restoration of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and ushering a multi-party politics in two stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament by the Young Turks movement The Young Turks were mostly Ottoman military officers who had had higher education, were trained in various disciplines of use to military life, and became more and more opposed to the misrule of the sultan and his top officials.

Mehmed II--individuals [ca. 1400-1500] (possible short answer)

The son of Sultan Murad II and Ottoman sultan from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. A great military leader, he captured Constantinople and conquered the territories in Anatolia and the Balkans that comprised the Ottoman Empire's heartland for the next four centuries. Among those areas that fell to Mehmet II were Serbia, Greece, Trezibizond, Wallachia, Karaman, Albania and several Venetian and Genoese maritime establishments. He overthrew the Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople in 1453 as consolidating the Ottoman Empire. Also, under Mehmed II, fraticide was a regularized law. To counter the power of the Turkish aristocracy, Mehmed continued his father's policy of expanding the kapikulu and Janissary infantry corps (the beginnings of slave troops in the mid-14th century under Murad I). These state slaves were made up of young Christians, recruited through the devshirme system, who loyal to and dependent on the sultan. Thus, there were tensions between Turkmen and the kapikulu.

Haseki--title

The title given to the chief consort(s) of the Ottoman Sultan. This title was created in 16th century Hürrem Sultan, principal consort of Suleiman the Magnificent, was the first holder of this title This title reflected power shifts among imperial women, especially during the Sultanate of Women

Hürrem--individuals [ca. 1500-1600]

The wife of Süleyman the Magnificent, and she was his favorite, former concubine She was one of the most powerful and influential women in the Ottoman history and a prominent figure during the Sultanate of Women. - She played an active role in state affairs of the Empire

Istanbul--regions & cities (possible short answer)

Third and final capital of the Ottomans (seized in 1453 from the Byzantine Empire) Once Mehmed II moved the capital to Istanbul, there was a shift in political power from provincial Turkmen notables and feudal lords to the sultan's slaves (kapikulu), and with the imperial palace centered in Istanbul, the best of the state slaves trained there Süleyman the Magnificent completed the task of transforming the previously Byzantine city of Constantinople into Istanbul, a worthy centre for a great Turkish and Islamic empire. There was forced settlement (surgun) of populations (beginning with Mehmed II, we see this new settlement—new neighborhoods to settle down in Istanbul ) There was economic independence (Galata—an independent city under Genoese rule—controlled most of the trade that went out of this region, and after the Ottoman conquest, Galata submitted to Ottoman rule)

Gennadios Scholarios--individuals [ca. 1400-1500]

When Constantinople fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks, Sultan Mehmed II appointed Gennadios patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church and gave him both civil and religious authority over the Christian community - Sought to establish the relationship between the Ottoman Turks and their Christian subjects.

Theodora Kantakouzene--individuals [ca. 1300-1400]

a Byzantine princess, the daughter of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos and the fifth wife of the Ottoman Sultan Orhan - in 1346, to cement her father's alliance with the rising Ottoman emirate and to prevent the Ottomans from giving their aid to the Empress-regent Anna of Savoy during the ongoing civil war, she was betrothed Orhan

Ottoman Public Debt Administration--misc.

a European-controlled organization that was established in 1881 to collect the payments which the Ottoman Empire owed to European companies in the Ottoman public debt.

Ibrahim Müteferrika--individuals [ca. 1700-1900]

a Hungarian-born Ottoman diplomat, Islamic scholar and theologian, and the first Muslim to run a printing press with movable Arabic type

'ayan--misc.

an individual who was recognized as a civic leader in a town or village or, after the 17th century, to a provincial notable, as contrasted with Ottoman officials appointed from Istanbul

qizilbash--misc. (possible short answer)

literally "red-headed," because of the red hats worn by this group. They were missionaries for the Safavid cause, especially among the Turkmens. Their activities were a grave concern to the Ottomans. They accepted that Shah Ismail was the hidden imam or the incarnation of Allah himself. The qizilbash lead Turkmen tribes through propaganda that worked in 2 folds: religious and political After the Battle of chaldiran, the Ottomans annexed northern Iraq for the first time from Safavid Iran, the defeat shattered belief in the shah as a semidivine figure and weakened the hold of the shah over the qizilbash chiefs.