PACT 4-8 Social Studies

Genghis Khan

founder of the Mongol empire; born Temujin. He took the name Genghis Khan ('ruler of all') in 1206 after uniting the nomadic Mongol tribes, and by the time of his death his empire extended from China to the Black Sea.

Indus Valley

Urban civilization; developed concept of zero in mathematics, practiced early form of Hindu, and developed a caste system which is still prevalent in India today.

Requirements for Civilization

Use of metal to make weapons Written language Defined terrirotial state Calendar

Effects of the Viking Invasions on the Culture of England and Europe

Vikings invaded Northern France in the tenth century, eventually becoming the Normans. Vikings were accomplished seafarers with advanced knowledge of trade routes. With overpopulation plauging their native lands, they began to travel. Vikings invaded and colonized England in several waves, including the Anglo-Saxon invasions that displaced Roman control. By 900, Vikings settled in Iceland. Then procedeed to go to Greenland and eventually North America centuries before the Spanish and British.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

War between Japan and Russia over Manchurian territory; resulted in the defeat of Russia by the Japanese navy.

Lower Paleolithic

Beginning two-three million years ago; early humans used tools like needles, hatchets, awls, and cutting tools.

Renaissance

"rebirth"; following the Middle Ages, a movement that centered on the revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome. Art, literature, music, science, and philosophy all burgeoned during the Renaissance. Began in Florence, Italy with Medici family. Education for upper class included law, math, reading, writing, and classical Greek and Roman works.

Peloponnesian War

(431-404 BCE) The war between Athens and Sparta that in which Sparta won, but left Greece as a whole weak and ready to fall to its neighbors to the north.

Battle of Thermopylae

(480 B.C.E.) Battle where Spartan king, Leonidas, and his army of 300 Spartans [and other Greeks] fought the large Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae. The Spartans held the Persians off for several days, but Persia defeated the Greeks and captured an evacuated Athens.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

1. Began his career as an assistant to the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe 2. Formulated three laws of planetary motion 3. Proved that planetary orbits are elliptical rather than circular

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

1. French philosopher and mathematician 2. Used deductive reasoning from self-evident principles to reach scientific laws Famously wrote "I think, therefore I am". He believed strongly in logic and rules of observation.

Hittites

1600-1200 BCE Centered in what is now Turkey, but their empire extended into Palestine and Syria. Conquered the Babylonian civilization, but adopted their religion, laws, and literature. Hittites tended to tolerate other religions & absorbed foreign gods into their own belief systems rather than forcing their religion onto peoples they conquered. Eventually conquered by the Assyrians.

Maurya Empire

322 - 185 BCE; Large empire in India; ruled by Chandragupta Maurya after the withdrawal from India of Alexander the Great. - Standardized economic system - Waterways - Private corporations - Trade with the Greeks; included silk, exotic foods, and spices. Rise of Buddhism and Jainism. Protected not only civil and social rights of the citizens, but also protected animals, establishing protected zones for eceonomically important creatures such as elephants, lions, and tigers. Taken over by Demetrius to form the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

Cro-Magnon Man

40,000-10,000 years ago. Name for earliest modern European humans. During upper-paleolithic.

Humans and near-humans have existsted for around _____________ years.

600,000

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

A French philosopher who wrote "The Social Contract" and believed that the government existed by the agreement of the people, and that the government was obligated to protect the people and their basic rights. His ideas influenced John Locke and Thomas Jefferson.

David Hume (1711-1776)

A central figure in Edinburgh, who emphasized civic morality and religious skepticism. Believed truth can only be found in direct experience, and that what others said to be true was always suspect.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs. Church doctrine governed scientific beliefs, but during the Scientific Revolution, astronomers and other scientists began to amass evidence that challenged the church's scientific doctrines.

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions. Philosophers and scientists began to rely more on observation rather than building on beliefs that church instilled. Focus on ethics and logic.

Events of Bolshevik Revolution

A worker's strike in Petrograd in 1917 set the revolutionary wheels in motion when the army sided with the workers. Parliament set up a provisional government made up of nobles. Works and military joined to form their own governmental system known as soviets, which consisted of local councils elected by the people. The ensuing chaos opened the doors for formerly exiled leaders Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and Leon Trosky to move in and gain popular support as well as the support of the Red Guard. Overthrowing Parliament, they took power creating a communist state in Russia which ultimately led to a spread in Communism across Eastern Europe and elsewhere.

Political Developments in India Through the 11th Century

After the Mauryan dynasty, the Guptas ruled India. During this time, the Indian people invented the decimal system as well as the concept of zero. They also produced cotton and calico, and developed a complex system of medicine. The Gupta Dynasty ended in the sixth century after the Huns and Hephtalites invaded. Tamerlane expanded India's borders and founded the Mogul Empire which practiced the freedom of religion while also building lots of architecture.

Developments of Chinese and Japanese Governments through the 11th Century

After the Mongols unified the Mongol Empire, China was led by the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and Manchu/Qing Dynasty (1644-1912). Both dynasties were isolationist ending China's interactions with other countries until the eighteenth century. Ming - known for porcelain Qing - farming & road construction Japan developed independtly from China, but borrwed the Buddhist religion, Chinese writing, and other cultural elements. Ruled by daimyo aka Samurai.

Battle of Marathon

Athenian victory over a Persian invasion in 490 B.C.E. Heavily outnumbered greeks managed to achieve victory.

Mesopotamian Cultures

Autocratic - single ruler; head of government and often religious leadership. Often tyrannical.

Upper Paleolithic

Beginning approximately 40,000 BCE - including the Mesolithic and Neolithic eras, textiles, and pottery are developed. Humans of this era discovered the wheel, began to practice agriculture, made polished tools, and had some domesticated animals.

Iron Age

Beginning in 1200/1000 BCE - metal tools replace stone tools as humans develop knowledge of smelting.

Roman Empire and Republic

Began as single town that grew out of Estrucan settlements and traditions. A thousand years later, the Roman Empire covered a signficant portion of the known world, from what is now Scotland, across Europe, and into the Middle East. Hellenization served as an inspiration and a model for the spread of Roman culture. Rome began as a republic ruled by consuls, but after the assassination of Julius Caesar, it became an empire led by emperors. Rome's overall government was autocratic, but local officials came from the provinces where they lived. This limited administrative system was probably a major factor in the long life of the empire.

Middle Paleolithic

Beginning approximately 300,000 BCE; sophisticated stone tools were developed, along with hunting, gathering, and ritual practices.

Bronze Age

Beginning in approximately 3,000 BCE - metals are discovered and the first civilizations emerged as humans become more technologically advanced.

American Revolution vs. French Revolution

Both the American and French Revolution came about as a protest against the excesses and overly controlling nature of their respective monarchs. American Revolution - British colonies had been left mostly to self-govern until the British monarchs began to increase control, spurring the colonies to revolt. French Revolution - The nobility's excesses had led to increasingly difficult economic conditions, with inflation, heavy taxation, and food shortages creating great burdens on lower classes. This revolution did, however, lead to the rise of the dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Ottoman Empire

By 1400, the Ottomans had grown in power in Anatolia and had begun attempts to take Constantinople. In 1453, they finally conquered the capital and named it Istanbul. Ottoman Empire had religious tolerance; believed Jews, Christians, and Muslims could co-exist. Sultan = monarch

Nicene Creed

Byzantine Empire was Christian-based, but incorporated Greek language, philosophy, and literature and drew its law and government policies from Rome. Christianity was relatively new an unnorganized within the region. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea addressed the issue by releasing the Nicene Creed which addressed the Trinity and other basic Christian beliefs.

Athenians

Centered in Attica, where the land was rocky and unsuitable for farming. Their government was a democracy was created by Cleisthenes of Athens in 510 BCE. Athenians excelled in art, theater, architecture, and philosophy.

Ming Dynasty

China, 1368-1644 Established by Zhu Yuanzhang, a Buddhist monk, who quickly became obsessed with consolidating power in the central government. China developed and introduced famous civil service examinations and rigorous Confucian classics. This test determined where ambitious youth would go. The capital was transferred to Nanjing to Beijing. Forbidden City constructed inside capital. Constant expansionary wars & porcelain art.

Ancient India

Civilization that developed into present day India where Hinduism and Buddhism originated. Indo-European languages, including English, find their beginnings in these ancient cultures.

Fluvial Civilizations

Civilizations that were founded near rivers and river valleys

Babylonians

Code of Hammurabi, an advanced law code.

Third Estate (France)

Commons The majority class of France. Paid the most in taxes.

Persians

Conquerors; allowed those they conquered to keep their own laws, customs, and religious traditions in exchange for their allegiance. Alphabet. Zoroastrianism and Mithraism.

Renaissance Scientific Developments

Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler, who challenged the geocentric philosophies of the day by proving the earth was not the center of the solar system.

Hebrew

Culture developed into the monotheistic religion that eventually developed into modern Judaism and Christianity.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Danish astronomer who effectively synthesized the Copernican & Ptolemaic systems of the universe. Catalogued astronomical observations. Hired Johannes Kepler.

Isaac Newton

Discovered gravity, studied optics, calculus and physics, and believed the workings of nature could be studied and proven through observation.

Development and Growth of the Chinese Empires

Divided into a series of dynasties; most famous is the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE). Accomplishments of the Chinese Empires: - Great Wall of China - Numerous inventions: paper, paper momney, printing, and gunpowder - High level of artistic development - Silk production

Maya

Emerged in southern Mexico and now Central America as early as 2,600 BCE. They developed a written language and a complex calendar.

Iconoclasm and Conflict between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches

Emperor Leo III ordered the destruction of all icons throughout the Byzantine Empire. Images of Jesus were replaced with crosses, and images of Jesus, Mary, or other religious figures were considered blasphemy on grounds of idoltry. Pope Gregory II called synod to discuss; synod deemed images weren't heretical. Leo tried to kill Pope Gregory, but plan failed.

Factors that Led to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Germanic Tribes controlled most of Europe; the Roman Empire faced major opposition on that front. Increasing size of Roman Empire made it harder to manage. Germanic tribe refused to adhere to Nicene Creed, instead following Arianim, which led the Roman Catholic Church to declare them heretics. In 768, Charlemagne became king of the Franks. These tribes waged several wars against Rome. Rome lost control of certain areas of the Empire, and eventually Rome was invaded.

Feudalism in Europe in the Middle Ages

Feudalism developed as a way to ensure European rulers would have the wherewithal to quickly raise an army when necessary. Vassals swore loyalty and promised to provide military service for lords, who in return offered a fief, or a parcel of land, for them to sure to generate their livelihood. Vassals could work the land themselves or have it worked by peasants or serfs - workers who had few rights and were little more than slaves. King legally owned all land, but promised to protect vassals from invasion and war. An income tax was also in place.

First and second phases of the Industrial Revolution.

First Phase: 1750-1830 Textile industry experienced major changes as more and more elements of the process became mechanized. Mining benefited from the steam engine. Transportation became easier and more widely available. Second Phase: 1830-1910 This is when the Industrial Revolution expanded to USA and Japan. Industries grew more efficient and new industries such as photography, various chemical processes, and electricity became more widely available to produce new goods or new, improved versions of old goods. Petroleum and hydroelectricity became major sources of power.

The major civilizations of Mesopotamia resided in what is now called the ______________ __________

Middle East

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

He believed in self-examination and observation, and that the root of morality lay within human beings. Greatest German philosopher of Enlightenment-separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge-science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality. Wrote Critique of Pure Reason.

Renaissance Authors

Humanist authors: Petrach, Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, and Boccaccio. Believed man should focus on the reality rather than on the ethereal. Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Dante followed in their footsteps.

Upper Paleolithic

Humans began to develop specialized tools, wear clothes, organize in groups with social structures, and practice art.

Lower Paleolithic

Humans used crude tools

Events and Figures of French Revolution

In 1789, King Louis XVI faced with a huge huge national debt, convened parliament. The Third Estate, or Commons, a division of the French parliament, then claimed power and the king's resistence led to the storming of the Bastille, the royal prison. The people established a consitutional monarchy. When King Louis XVI and Marie Antionette attemped to leave the country, they were executed on the guillotine. From 1793 to 1794, Robespierre and the extreme radicals, the Jacobins, instituted a Reign of Terror, executing tens of thousands of nobles as well as anyone considered an enemy of the revolution. Robespierre was then executed, as well, and the Directory came into power, leading to a temporary return to bourgeois values. This governing body proved incompotent and corrupt, allowing Napoleon Bonaparte to come to power in 1799, first as dictator and then as emperor. While the French Revolution threw off the power of a corrupt monarchy, its immediate results were likely not what the original perpetrators of the revolt intended.

Battle of Plataea

In 479 B.C. The Spartans and the Athenians unite and the Persians flee. This is the last battle. This ended the invasion of Greece.

West vs. East Tenth Century Events

In Europe, the years 500-1000 CE are largely known as the Dark Ages. Dark Ages, AKA Middle Ages, asserts that a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire. By the eleventh century, Europe would rise again into the High Middle Ages beginning with the Crusades. In China, wars also raged. This led the Chinese to make use of gunpowder for the first time in warfare. In the Americas, the Mayan Empire was winding down while the Toltec became more prominent. Pueblo Indian Culture was also at its zenith.

Causes and Progression of the Russian Revolution in 1905

In Russia, rule lay in the hands of the Czars. The overall structure was feudalistic. Beneath the Czars was a group of rich nobles, landowners whose lands were worked by peasants and serfs. The Russo-Japanese War made conditions much worse for the lower classes. When peasants demonstrated outside the palace, guards shot fire at them. Many unions and political parties blossomed in response to the massacre. When the economy came to a halt, Czar Nicholas II signed a document known as the October Manifesto which established a consitutional monarchy and gave legislative power to parliament; however, the Czar violated the manifesto which ultimately led to the Bolshevik Revolution.

Development of Byzantine Empire

In the early fourth century, the Roman Empire split with the eastern portion becoming the Eastern Empire, or the Byzantine Empire. In 330 CE, Constantine founded Constantinople, which became the center of the Byzantine Empire. Influenced by Mesopotamia and Persia. Byzantine's position gave it an advantage over invaders from the west and the east, as well as control over trade from both regions. Code of Justinian, which collected Roman Law into a clear system. Fell to the Ottomans in 1453.

October Manifesto (1905)

Issued by Tsar Nicholas II in the aftermath of the "Bloody Sunday" revolt, it granted Russians civil liberties and agreed to create a legislative assembly, the Duma

Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642)

Italian Astronomer who defended the heliocentric theories of Copernicus and Kepler, discovered four moons of Jupiter, and died under house arrest by the church, charged with heresy.

Alexander the Great

King of Macedonia; conquered Egypt, the Achaemenid/Persian Empire, a powerful empire founded by Cyrus the Great that spanned three continents, and he traveled as far as India and the Iberian Peninsula. Hellenism resulted from Alexander's expansion; trade in goods, ideas, culture, and beliefs. Died at 32 from malaria.

Assyrians

Known as a warrior people who ruthlessly conquered neighboring countries; developed horse drawn chariots, ladders, daggers, and an organized military.

Kushites

Kush, or Cush, was located in Nubia; once the largest empire of the Nile River. Kushites lived in villages with buildings made of mud bricks. Settled rather than nomadic. Practiced hunting and fishing. Cultivated grain. Herded cattle. Matrineal descent of their kings. They heads of state, the Kandake or Kentake, were female. Polytheistic. Conquered by the Aksumite Empire in the 4th century CE.

Khubilai Khan

Last of the Mongol Great Khans (r. 1260-1294). Ruled the Mongol Empire from China and was the founder of the Yuan Empire in China after defeating what was left of the Song Dynasty.

Political, Social, and Economic Side Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Led to widespread education, a wider franchise, and the development of mass communication in the political arena. Economically, conflicts arose between companies and their employees, as struggles for fair treatment and fair wages increased. Unions gained power. Government regulations over industries increased. Growing businesses fought for the right to free enterprise. In the social sphere, populations increased and began to concentrate around centers of industries. Citites became larger and more densely populated.

Renaissance Artists

Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo

Spartans

Located in Peloponnesus, practiced farming, disallowed trade for Spartan citizens, and valued military arts. and strict status for many years. Small group of Spartans held off a huge army of Persions at Thermopylae.

Earliest Civilizations in China

Most historians believe Chinese civilization is the oldest uninterrupted civilization in the world; neolithic age in China goes back to 10,000 BCE, with agriculture in China beginning as early as 5,000 BCE. Yellow river served as the center for the earliest Chinese settlements.

Developments in Africa through 11th Century

Much of Africa was difficult to traverse because of desert and inhospitable terrain. Ghana - rose as trade center; 9th century - 12th century, traded gold for Saharan salt Mali - Timbuktu became important trade center later; iron, leather, tin, & agricultural trade Muslim religion dominated and technology advancement was scarce.

History of Islam and Its Role in Bringing Unity to the Middle East

Muhammed (born in 570 CE) began preaching around 613 leading followers to a religion called Islam which means "submission to God's will". Before this time, the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited largely by Bedouins (nomads who battled each other). But by the time Muhammed died in 632. most of Arabia became Muslim. A sense of unity developed. Converted Muslims conquered vast territory, created an empire, and brought advances in literature, technology, science, and art.

Actions of Muhammed

Muhammed conquered Mecca; declared this temple the most sacred of Islam, and Mecca the holy city. He wrote the Koran, or Qur'an. These writings were said to have been divine revelations that had been delivered by him from the angel, Gabriel.

Battle of Salamis

Naval battle during which Greek and Persian ships fought in a narrow channel of water. Outnumbered Greeks managed to achieve victory over the Persians.

Earliest Civilizations

Nile River Valley, Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates River Valley), Indus River Valley, and Huang He River Valley; civilizations which arose in river valleys in Africa and Asia. Civilizations arose between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE.

The Catholic Reformation

Occurred in response to The Protestant Reformation movement, leading to various changes in the Catholic Church. Some provided wider tolerance of different religious viewpoints, but others actually increased the persecution of those deemed to be heretics.

Mycenaeans

People who replaced the Minoans as the chief power. Practiced a religion that grew into the Greek pantheon, worshipping Zeus and other Olympian god. Developed Linear B, a writing system known as the earliest form of Greek. Relied more on conquest than trade. Mycenaean states included Sparta, Athens, and Corinth. History of Civilization, including Trojan War, was written by Homer (poet). Theorized: Mycenaean civilization was eventually destroyed in either a Dorian invasion or attack by Greek invaders from the north.

Norte Chico Civilization

Peru; an agricultural society of up to 30 individual communities. Existed over 5,000 years ago. This culture is also known as the Caral-Supe civilization, and is the oldest known civilization in the Americas.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish astronomer who wrote "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres" arguing the earth revolved around the sun.

The Protestant Reformation

Rose in Germany when Martin Luther protested abuses of the Catholic Church. John Calvin led the movement in Switzerland, while in England King Henry VIII made use of the Reformation's ideas to further his own political goals. The ideas of the Protestant Revolution removed power from the Catholic Church and the Pope himself, playing nicely into the hands of monarchs, such as Henry VIII, who wanted out from under the church's control.

Factors Leading to Bolshevik Revolution

Russia had continued to lag behind other countries in development; continued existence of feudal system, harsh conditions, massive food shortages and increasingly harsh conditions for the majority of the population. The tyrannical rule of the Czars only made it worse. Repeared losses in various military conflicts. Violation of October Manifesto... all led to Bolshevik Revolution

Phoenicians

Skilled seafarers that used stars for navigation, developed a purple dye, and worked with glass and metals. They devised a phonetic alphabet which illustrated sounds.

Neolithic

Social structures became even more complex; family, religion, and government. Domestication of naimals and production of crops. Built houses, fires using friction tools, and weaving.

Sumerians

Southern mesopotimia; invented a timekeeping system we still use today. Consisted of a dozen city-states. Each city state had its own god, and the leader of each city-state served as the high priest. Invention of writing Invention of the wheel First library The Hanging Gardens of Babylon First written laws The Epic of Gilgamesh

Anasazi (or Ancestral Pueblo People)

Southwestern United States, emerging about 1200 BCE. Built complex adobe dwellings and were the forerunners of later Pueblo Indian cultures.

Effect of Black Death on Medieval Politics and Economic Conditions

The Black Death, believed to be the plague, came to Europe on fleas carried by rats on sailing vessels. Killed more than a third of the population. Ended feudalism as a governing system. Nation-states grew in power. People started turning away from religion and towards the ideals of ancient Greece and Rome for government and other beliefs.

Influence of the Roman Catholic Church over Medieval Society

The Church extended significant influence both politically and economically throughout medieval society. The church supplied education. To a large extent, the church had filled a power void left by various invasions throughout the former Roman Empire, leading it to exercise a role that was far more political than religious. (Kings were also influenced by the pope)

Progression of the Crusades and Major Figures Involved

The Crusades began in the eleventh century and continued into the fifteenth. Goal of these military ventures was to slow the progression of Muslim forces into Europe and to expel them from the Holy Land, where they had taken control of Jerusalem and Palestine. Alexius I, Byzantine Emperor, called upon Pope Urban II to help whenever Palestine was taken. Pope encouraged all Christians to help the cause. Massive bloodshed. Christians recaptured Jerusalem. Jerusalem changed hands numerous times. Second Crusade resulted in an unsucessful attempt to retake Damascus. Third Crusade attempted to recapture Jerusalem but failed. Fourth Crusade attempted to come into the Holy Land via Egypt. The crusades led to greater power for Pope and the Catholic Church; also opened up numerous trading routes between Europe and the East.

Effects of Industrial Revolution on Society

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 18th Century, bringing coal and steam-powdered machinery into widespread use. As electricity and internal combustion engines replaces coal and steam as energy sources, even more drastic and rapid changes occurred. This led to colonialism; Western European countries sought to take control over portions of Africa and Asia to ensure access to the raw materials needed to produce factory goods. Businesses grew rapidly, creating monopolies, increasing world trade, and developing large urban centers. Even the agricultural world changed, leading to an Agricultural Revolution.

Minoans

The Mediterranean society that formed on the island of Crete. Built large, colorful palaces. Ornate buildings included sewage systems, running water, bathtubs, and even flushing toilets. Their script, Linear A, has yet to be deciphered. Minoans is not the name they chose for themselves, but rather a variation of King Minos (a king in greek mythology). 4000-1400 BCE; fell to Mycenaeans.

Persian Wars

The Persian Empire, ruled by Cyrus the Great, encompassed an area from the Black Sea to Afghanistan, and beyond to Central Asia. Darius I became king in 522 BCE; Persian Empire reached it's zenith under his reign. From 499-449 BCE, the Greeks and the Persians fought in the Persian Wars. The Peace of Callias brought an end to the fighting, after the Greeks were able to repel the invasion.

Contributions of Ancient Greece that still exist today:

Theater Alphabet Geometry Historical writing Philosophy

Nationalism

With _______________, war becomes even more of a possibility.

Bloody Sunday 1905

Workers asking for better working conditions; The czar's general opens fire killing 500+; People lose trust in Nicholas; Outcome: Nicholas II forced to establish the Duma: Russian form of parliament

In ancient China, human civilization developed along the ___________________. These people produced __________, grew ______________, and made ____________.

Yangtze River Silk Millet Pottery

Dorian Invasion

a concept devised by historians of Ancient Greece to explain the replacement of pre-classical dialects and traditions in southern Greece by the ones that prevailed in Classical Greece.

Oligarchy/Oligarchic

a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution. Spartans had an _____________ government

Cross-Cultural Anthropological Research

a specific approach to cultural anthropology, namely, using data from multiple cultures to test hypotheses using statistical methods.

Comparative Research

research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies

Prehistory

the period of time before written records