Penn Foster A&P Exam 2

CBC: Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration

(MCHC) Another paramater that is clinically helpful to evaluate the erythrocytes in the presence of anemia. It measures the ratio of the weight of hemoglobin to the volume of red blood cells.

CBC: Platelet

(PLT) measures the total number of platelets (thrombocytes) in a specific volume of blood sample. Thrombocytosis and thrombocytopenia are used to describe a higher than normal or lower than normal platelet count, respectively. In cats, there may be a false thrombocytopenia due to platelet clumping in the blood sample and/or platelets overlapping with red blood cells, making the two indistinguishable by an automated blood analyzer.

CBC: Red Cell Distribution Width

(RDW) is a numerical exression of variation in red blood cell size. The variation in size from cell to cell in a blood sample is called anisocytosis. Marked anisocytosis can be seen in cases of severe anemia where the bone marrow is pumping RBCs out at such as high rate they dont have time to mature fully. These immature RBCs are large than a fully mature RBC already in circulation.

CBC: Reticulocyte

(RETIC) is a count of the number of immature forms of the red blood cells per a specific total of red blood cells. This count is used to characterize the type of anemia.

CBC: Total Plasma Protein

(TP) measures the amount of protein in the plasma portion of a specific volume of blood. It can be measured by an automated blood analyzer or by using a hand held refractometer.

Secondary Functions of the Respiratory System

-Voice Production (phonation) -Body Temp. regulation -Acid-Base balance regulation -Sense of smell -Maintain an airway for ventilation -filter and clean incoming air -warm and moisten incoming air -recapture the heat and moisture of outgoing air

Segments of the Small Intestine

1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum

Structure of Teeth

: consists of root (embedded portion), neck, and crown (exposed portion)

Innate Immunity: Chemokines

A chemical secreted by blood vessel endothelium and monocytes during an immune response to attract phagocytes to an area.

Active Immunity

A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.

Function of Blood: Defense

Blood carries white blood cells to tissues exposed foreign invaders. These cells contribute to an animals immune system to help keep the animal healthy. Blood carries platelets to sites of vessel damage to aid in hemostasis so that animal does not bleed excessively.

Innate Immunity: Cytokines

Cytokines provide communication between leukocytes and other cells and among leukocytes themselves. They are signaling proteins that are secreted by certain cells in the body. Cytokines can be autocrine (they act on the cell that secreted them), paracrine (they act on cells near the cell that secreted them), or endocrine (they travel to other parts of the body and act on cells in that location). Often their role is to mediate the immune or inflammatory response by attracting immune cells to a specific site.

CBC: Total Leukocyte Count

Expresses the number of white blood cells in a specific volume of blood. The number of each type of white blood cell is also counted either by an automated blood analyzer or by evaluating a stained blood smear.

CBC: Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin analysis measures the concentration of hemoglobin contained in the red blood cells in a specific volume of blood.

Immune System: Organs and Tissues

If a pathogen manages to penetrate the physical and chemical barriers there are internal organs with immunological functions; the largest of which is the spleen. The spleen is composed of white and red pulp. White pulp is made of lymphoid tissue and os the portion of the spleen with immunologic functions.

Passive Immunity

Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.

Abomasums

In animals, the fourth of several stomach compartments. Also referred to as the true or real stomach.

Innate Immune System

Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate system does not recognize specific pathogens, rather macrophages recognize common structures shared by large groups of pathogens. These Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) are found on the surface of invading pathogens. The membrane of the macrophage or dendritic cell has receptors called Pattern-Recognition Receptors (PRRs) that fit the PAMP on the pathogen's cell membranes.

CBC: Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)

Measures the average volume or size of individual red blood cells. It is a helpful way to evaluate the erythrocytes in the sample, especially when anemia is present.

Internal Respiration

Occurs all over the body. Exchange of gases between cells of the body and the blood.

chemical digestion

Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use

IgM antibodies

Produced when an animal is first exposed to an antigen. Temporary-disappears within 2-3 weeks after initial infection and is replaced by IgG. The largest antibody. Is found in blood and lymph fluid and is the first immunoglobulin made by newborn animals.

cell-mediated immune response

The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.

The Immune System

The immune system is a complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances. The first line of defense of the immune system is the external barriers. The second line of defense includes cellular and chemical components. Together they make up the innate immune system. If a pathogen evades the first and second lines of defense, the third line of defense, also known as the adaptive immune system, will be activated.

Mature Red Blood Cells Function

The three main functions of RBCs are 1. Transporting oxygen to tissues. RBCs are able to perform this function using hemoglobin, a protein that is formed during RBC development. 2. Transporting carbon dioxide to the lungs. 3. Maintaining cell shape and deformability.

Tidal Volume (TV)

amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions

Residual Volume (RV)

amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

Reticulum (honeycomb)

filter/forces roughage back to the mouth for rumination & further breaks down the feed

Cardiac Output (CO)

measurement of the amount of blood ejected per minute from either ventricle of the heart. Determined by stroke volume and heart rate. CO=SVxHR

electrocardiography

the noninvasive process of recording the electrical activity of the myocardium P wave QRS Complex T wave

Blood flow through the heart

1-Superior & Inferior Vena Cava, 2-Rt Atrium, 3-Tricuspid Valve, 4- Rt Ventricle, 5-Pulmonary Valve, 6-Pulmonary Artery, 7- Lungs-pick up oxygen, 8-Pulmonary Veins, 9- Lt Atrium, 10- Mitral Valve (Bicuspid), 11-Lt Ventricle, 12- Aortic Valve, 13-Aorta, 14- Body

oogenesis process

1. IN the ovaries of a female fetus, germinal epitherlium cells divide by mitosis to form more diploid cells 2. Diploid cells grow into larger cells called primary oocytes 3. Primary oocytes start the first division of meiosis but stop during prophase I. The primary oocyte and a single layer of follicle ceclls around it form a primary follicle. 4. When a baby girl is born the ovaries contain about 400000 primary follicles 5. Every mentrual cycle a few primary follicles start to develop. THe primary oocyte completes the first diviion of meiosis, forming two haploid nuclei. The cytoplasm of the primary oocyte is divided unequally forming a large secondary oocyte and a small polar cell. 6. The secondary oocyte starts the scond division of meiosis but stops in prophase II. The follicle cells meanwhile are proliferating and follicular fluid is forming 7. When the mature follicle bursts, at the time of ovulation, the egg that is released is actually still a secondary oocyte. 8. After fertilization, the secondary oocyte completes the second division of meiosis to form an ovum (this already the haploid nucleus) and a second polar cell/body. The 1st and 2nd polar bodies do *not* develope, and eventually *degenerate*

Spermatogenesis process

1. Outer layer called germinal epithelium cells divide endlessly by mitosis to produce more diploid cells 2. Diploid cells grow into larger cells with more cytoplasm and become primary spermocytes 3. Each primary spermocyte carries out the first division of meiosis to produce two secondary spermatocytes 4. Each secondary spermatocytes carries out the second division of meiosis to produce two spermatids 5. Spermatids become associated with nurse cells, called Sertoli cells, which help spermatids to develop into spermatozoa. This is cell differentiation. 6. Sperm cells detach from sertoli cells annd eventually are carried out of the testis by the fluid in the cenre of the seminiferous tubule.

Cardiac Conduction System Steps

1. SA node fires 2. Excitation spreads through atrial myocardium 3. AV node fires 4. Excitation spreads down AV bundle 5. Purkinje fibers distribute excitation through ventricular myocardium

inspiration steps

1. The intercostal muscles contract and pull the ribs away from the lungs 2. Diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards away from the lungs 3. This causes a drop in air pressure inside the lungs which means that there is lower air pressure inside the lungs compared to outside the body. This causes air from the body to rush into the lungs to try to balance the pressure difference between inside the lungs and the air outside.

Expiration steps

1. The intercostal muscles relax and fall back against the lungs beginning to squash them 2. The diaghram relaxes and moves upward pushing against the lungs 3. Steps 1 & 2 cause a rise/increase in air pressure in the lungs compared to outside the body. This causes air to rush from the lungs to the outside to try to balance out the pressure difference between inside the lines and outside

Monogastric Stomach

4 parts= Esophageal region- non glandular, Cardiac Region- smallest part, produces mucous, Fundic Region-"true stomach" largest part (in the middle) produces mucous, enzymes, pepsinogen & gastrin, (Body-a distensible area situated in the middle portion of the stomach.) Pyloric Region- inner folds = Rugae, food is mixed w/secretions & food is turned into Chyme-pH = acidic

Hemoglobin Molecule Structure

A hemoglobin is made up of four heme units associated with one globin chain. The heme unit is the pigmented portion of the hemoglobin. Each heme unit contains an iron atom (Fe2+) to which one oxygen molecule can attach. Therefore one hemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen molecules.

Intravascular Hemolysis

About 10% of normal RBC destruction takes place by intravascular hemolysis, or destruction that takes place within blood vessels. While in circulation, a RBC may be exposed to many oxidative stresses, which can result in RBC fragmentation and or destruction. When the RBC ruptures within a vessel, hemoglobin is released directly into the bloodstream. The unconjugated hemoglobin is quickly picked up by a haptoglobin, a transport protein in plasma, to form haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex.

Specific Immunity

Acquired or adaptive immunity: recognize specific agents, adapt/respond and target these agent

Immune System: Red Bone Marrow

Although not strictly an u=immune organ is responsivle for the production of all white blood cells, the soldiers of the immune response

Digestive enzymes

Amylase-Enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in starches Lipase-pancreatic enzyme necessary to digest fats Gastrin-become active at low pH when mixed with stomach acid Pepsin/Pepsinogen-the chief digestive enzyme in the stomach, which breaks down proteins into polypeptides. Prostaglandins-a glycoprotein constituent of mucus Bicarbonate-the most important buffer in human blood. It is responsible for keeping the pH of blood at 7.4 Secretin-A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer. Cholecystokinin (CCK)-A hormone secreted by the samll intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas,and reduces stomach motility. Proteases-enzymes that break down proteins

Innate Immune System: External

Anatomic barriers that include structures on the surface of the body that prevent disease provide external innate immunity. The skin, the largest organ in the body, has a thick layer of keratinized epithelial tissue that is impermeable to a majority of pathogens. The keratinized epithelial cells have antimocrobial properties that inhibit bacterial growth. When the layer of dead keratinized cells is sloughed off the skin it takeswith it any microorganisms that were clinging to the cells. Mucus membranes of the epithelium that line the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems also have unique structures that provide innate immunity.

IgE antibody

Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils. It also protects against some parasitic helminth.

Function of blood: Regulation

Blood aids in the regulation of body temperature. Body temperature regulators are located in the brain and are partially influenced by the temperature of the blood that passes through or over them. Blood plays a part in tissue fluid content. The composition of body tissue fluid is kept as constant as possible. If an animal is low in tissue fluid, some of the plasma will leave the bloodstream and enter the body tissues in an effort to compensate for the fluid loss. This leaves less plasma in the bloodstream, and the cells become more concentrated. If an animal has too much body fluid the excess fluid will enter the bloodstream. This extra fluid in the plasma dilutes the number of cells. Blood aids in the regulation of blood pH. Normal blood falls in a range of 7.35 to 7.45, with the ideal being 7.4. Blood must be maintained within this narrow range for the animal to remain healthy. The pH must remain slightly alkaline to buffer the acidic waste products of cellular metabolism that it carries. The pH of arterial blood is slightly more alkaline than that of venous blood because most of the acidic waste products are carried in venous blood, resulting in lower pH.

Lymph Formation

Blood capillary filtration pushes plasma (minus proteins) into interstitial spaces & then into lymph capillaries. The tiny lymph capillaries join together to form larger and larger lymph vessels and eventually form a thoracic duct, which empties lymph into the vena cava just before this large vein enters the heart. On the way to the thoracic duct a lymph vessel passes through at least one lymph node, where it picks up lymphocytes.

Composition of Blood: Whole and Peripheral blood

Blood is a fluid connective tissue that flows throughout the entire body. Whole blood is blood contained in the cardiovascular system. Periphreal blood is whole blood circulating through the in blood vessels carrying oxygen, nutrients, and waste materials. Grossly blood is an opaque deeply red fluid. Microscopically whole blood is is a clear liquid, plasma, in which many cellular components are suspended. Plasma is primarily water in which various solutes are dissolved. The cellular components of blood are: Red blood cells (erythrocytes), White blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). There are 5 types of white blood cells: Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.

lower respiratory tract

Bronchial tree-branched airways that lead from the trachea to the microscopic air sacs called alveoli Alveoli- tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood Lungs- two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration Thorax- pleural cavity, chest

Describe catabolism and anabolism

Catabolism: The sum total of all processes in an organism which break down chemicals to produce energy and simple chemical building blocks. Anabolism: The sum total of all processes in an organism which use energy and simple chemical building blocks to produce large chemicals and structures necessary for life.

Function of Blood: Transportation

Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells (RBCs) contain hemoglobin which carries oxygen to every cell in the body. Nutrients and other essential elements are dissolved in blood plasma and are also transported to tissues via arteries and capillaries. Blood carries waste products from cellular metabolism via veins to the lungs and kidneys where the waste products are eliminated from the body. Blood transports hormones from endocrine glands to target organs; it also transports white blood cells to various sites of activity where they participate in defending the body from infection. Blood transports platelets to sites of damage in blood vessel walls to form a plug that will control bleeding; this is a mechanism known as hemostasis. Platelets are also involved in activation of the blood-clotting cascade.

Fat Digestion

Fat and fat soluble vitamins are also digested in and absorbed from the small intestine.

Vein structure and function

Function - return blood to the heart, slowly w/ low pressure. Thin muscle layer - not necessary to control flow back to heart. Thin elastic layer - pressure too low to create recoil. Thin wall overall - pressure too low for risk of bursting. (allow veins to be compressed by body muscles). Valves throughout - prevent backflow of blood.

capillary structure and function

Function - to exchange materials between blood and cells. Blood flow is slow (allows more time for exchange of materials). No outer layer, muscle layer or elastic layer - shortens diffusion distance, not necessary (low blood pressure). Endothelial layer - one cell thick (short distance) Numerous and branched - large surface area. Narrow diameter - can permeate tissues, short diffusion distance. Narrow lumen - forces red blood cells to squeeze flat against side of the capillary (shorter distance). Space between endothelial cells - white blood cells can exit.

Nonspecific Immunity

General defense mechanisms that provide animals with protection from infection and disease but are not targeted at a particular pathogen.

Describe the process of Glycolosis, the Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport

Glycolosis: One ATP is invested in the process of adding a phosphate molecule to glucose which results in the formstion of Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) (phosphorylation). G6P is rearranged to form fructose-6-phosphate. Phosphorylation occurs again using one more ATP molecule to form fructose-1,6-diphosphate which in phase 2 is cleaved into a pair of three-carbon molecules. They can be one of two reversible isomers: bishydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate. They change back and forth. Phase 3 has six steps that result in the formation of 4 ATP molecules and 2 pyruvic acid molecules. Krebs Cycle: Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria from the cytoplasm by passing through both the tour Electron Transport:

Kidney Anatomy Gross and Microscopic

Gross: Bean shaped in most animals and covered in a fibrous connective tissue capsule called the renal capsule. Indented area is the hilus this is the area where blood and lymph vessels nerves and the ureters enter and leave the kidney. If the kidneys are cut in half longitudinally through the hilus youll find a funnel shaped area inside the hilus which is called the renal pelvis. The outer portion is called the renal cortex which is a reddish brown color and has a granular appearence. Microscopic: The kidney are packed with microscopic filtering reabsorping and secreting units called nephrons.

IgD antibody

Has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells but its exact mechanism is unknown

Components of the Female Reproductive system

Ligaments Oviducts Uterus Vagina Vulva

The Skeleton of the Heart

Located between the atria and ventricles -4 dense fibrous connective tissue rings Four primary functions: Seperates the Atria and Ventricles Anchors he heart valves Provides a point of attachment for the myocardium Provides some electrical insulation between he atria and ventricles

List the common macrominerals, microminerals, and trace elements found in the body.

Macrominerals: Calcium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Sodium. Micromineral: Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Selenium, and Zinc Trace Elements: Chromium, Cobalt, Fluorine, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Sulfur, and Vanadium

List and describe the functions of the kidneys

Maintaining homeostasis Blood filtration, reapsorbtion, and secretion Fluid balance regulation Acid-base balance regulation Hormone production Blood pressure regulation

Mature Red Blood Cells Structure

Mature red blood cells (RBCs) also known as erythrocytes are highly specialized cells that lack a nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes, but contains water, hemoglobin, and other structural elements. When viewed microscopically mature RBCs appear as non nucleated, biconcave discs with a central zone that is thinner and therefore appears lighter on a stained blood smear. Since they have no mitochondria, erythrocytes utilize glucose from plasma for energy. Different species have differently sized red blood cells. Functions: Transporting oxygen to tissues using hemoglobin. Transporting carbon dioxide to the lungs Maintaining cell shape and deformability

CBC: Red Blood Cell Count

Measures the number of red blood cells in a specific volume of blood. It is reported as the RBC count.

Difference between meiosis and mitosis

Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and cellular division while mitosis only has one of each. In meiosis homologous chromosomes separate leading to daughter cells that are not genetically identical. In mitosis the daughter cells are identical to the parent as well as to each other.

Monoestrus,diestrous, polyestrous, and seasonally polyestrous

Monoestrus: One cycle per year Diestrous: Only two cycles per year Polyestrous: Having more than one cycle per year Seasonally Polyestrous: Repeated cycles at certain times of the year

Four Categories of Lipids

Neutral Fats-fats as a solid and oils as a liquid, Phospholipids Steroids Other lipoid substances

Difference between fetal and newborn blood circulation

Newborns receive oxygen through its own lungs, and a fetus receives oxygen from the blood of its mother, specifically the placenta an organ containing a network of tiny blood vessels that allows oxygen exchange between fetal and maternal circulation. The oxygenated blood from the mother flows from the placenta into the fetus through the umbilical vein.

Extravascular Hemolysis

Ninety percent of the destruction of senescent RBCs occurs by extravas, or destruction of RBCs outside the cardiovascular. The RBCs are removed from circulation by macrophages located primarily in the spleen. The membranes of the phagocytized. The membranes of the phagocytized cells are ruptured and hemoglobin is released and degraded into amino acids, iron, and heme. Amino acids are returned to the liver, iron is transported to the bone marrow. Heme will be further broken down into free or unconjugated bilirubin.

Components of the upper respiratory tract

Nostrils- paired external openings of the respiratory tract Nasal Passages- The hollow spaces in the nose through which air flows from the nostril to the pharynx, responsible for filtering, moistening and warming air. Pharnyx- the throat, Air from the nose and mouth warms up here before entering the trachea Larnyx- upper part of the trachea contains vocal chords - 3 bands of tissue stretched across the opening of trachea Trachea- windpipe, a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe.

External Respiration

Occurs in the lungs. Exchange of gases between lungs and blood.

Platelets

On a blood smear platelets appear non nucleated round to oval shaped with clear cytoplasm that contains small blue to purple granules. They have many functions in the body but they are most important for hemostasis which is the process by which blood is prevented from leaking out of damaged blood vessels.

Innate Immune System: Internal

Once a pathogen has made its way past the physical barriers of the innate immune system, the body tries to control the spread of the infection through acute inflammation. Phagocytes, natural killer cells, interferons, complement receptors, and PRRs play a key role in the inflammatory response. Inflammation is the body's localized reaction created by the innate system in response to trauma, infection, chemical exposure,, or excessive heat. The four cardinal signs of inflammation are: redness, swelling, heat, and pain. Loss of function is another tribute and is sometimes considered a fifth sign. During pathogen invasion, tissue cells are damaged. This triggers the release of various chemicals from specific cells, such as mast cells, that mediate the inflammatory response and result in the signs above. These chemicals include histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and cytokines.

Innate Immunity: Natural Killer cells (NK cells)

Part of both the innate and adaptive immune system. These granular lymphocytes are able to identify and kill virus infected cells, stressed cells, and tumor cells. They differ from phagocytes in that they do not ingest the target cell. Instead they bind to the cell and induce apoptosis (programmed cell death)

mechanical digestion

Part of digestion that uses movement and muscles to break down food

peristalsis and segmentation

Peristalsis: Adjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food along the tract distally Segmentation: Nonadjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food forward then backward. Food mixing and slow food propulsion occur

blood pressure

Pressure exerted by the blood upon the walls of the blood vessels, especially arteries, usually measured by means of a sphygmomanometer and expressed in millimeters of mercury. The highest number the systolic blood pressure is produced by ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the systemic circulation by way of the aorta. The second lower number is diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure remaining in the artery during left ventricular diastole when the ventricle is relaxing and refilling

ovarian cycle

Proestrus Estrus Metestrus Diestrus Anestrus

IgA antibody

Protect body surfaces from foreign substances.Play an important role in preventing diseases caused by antigens that may enter the body through mucosal surfaces. Intranasal applications such as those used in intranasal vaccination, create this type on antibody.

Protein Digestion

Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the action of an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin is the active protein-digesting enzyme of the stomach. When pepsin acts on the protein molecule, it breaks the bonds that hold the protein molecule together, called peptide bonds. When these bonds are broken, you get chains of amino acids linked together called polypeptides. These polypeptides then move into your small intestine, where digestion will be completed by additional enzymes. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes that we previously learned about, called trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase, begin breaking down the polypeptides. These enzymes enter the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These pancreatic enzymes are helped by the brush border enzymes. We previously learned that the brush border enzymes are special enzymes found on the microvilli of the small intestine that complete digestion. The peptide bonds holding the polypeptides together continue to be hydrolyzed, or broken down, and result in smaller units called peptides. Peptides are simply defined as two or more amino acids linked together. Enzymes continue to break down polypeptides and peptides into amino acids.

Interleukins

Proteins (cytokines) that stimulate the growth, differentiation, and activation of B and T lymphocytes during an immune response.

Innate Immunity: Interferons

Proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help to limit the cell-to-cell spread of viruses

IgG antibodies

Smallest but most common antibody. Produced and released by plasma cells and found in blood and extracellular fluid when the animal has been exposed to an antigen for an extend period of time. Elevated levels can indicate chronic infections. The only antibody capable of passing the placenta to provide passive immunity to the fetus. Involved in fighting bacterial and viral infections. Production is relatively slow so the animal may become sick from initial exposure before the immune response can neutralize the antigen.

Cellular Metabolism steps

Stage 1 G.I. Tract: Digestion of food occurs in the stomach and inn the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum, where acids and emulsifiers work together to break down the nutrient molecules into fundamental nutritional units. Carbohydrates, proetins and fats are further broken down or catabolized before being absorbed. Hydrolosis is the first part of catabolism. A large sugar molecule such as a polysaccharide can be broken down into disaccharides which in turn v=can then be hydrolyzed into smaller sugar molecules called monosaccharides. Proteins can be broken down into amino acids, carbohydrates into monosaccharides and fats into fatty acids. Once hydrolysis is complete the smaller nutrient molecules are taken up by absorptive cells that line the small intestine and are transported through the cell away from the lumen of the intestine. Stage 2 The Cytosol: Stage 3 The Mitochondria:

Carbohydrate Digestion

Starts in the mouth with amylase converting polysaccharides to disaccharides, continues with pancreatic amylase, finishes with sucrase/maltase/lactase from the small intestine converting disaccharides to monosaccharides (glucose/fructose/galactose)

Three Categories of Carbohydrates

Sugars-monosaccharides and disaccharides that come from fruits, sugar cane, honey, milk, and sugar beets Starches-polysaccharides that come from grains, root vegetables, and legumes Cellulose-polysaccharides that are found in most vegetables

Components of the male reproductive system and accessory structures

Testes-Male gonads Scrotum Spermatic Cord-Tunics, Capsule, semineferous tubules, duct system Vas Deferens- Urethra- Accessory- Seminal Vescicles, Prostate Gland, bulborethral gland Penis-

Immune System: Skin and Mucous Membranes

The body's first line of defense against potential pathogens consist of physical barriers that prevent pathogen from entering the body. Skin which covers the entire body surface is the first physical barrier that protects vital organs. In addition to this the skin supports a variety of resident microorganisms that recognize and destroy potential invaders. Unless thre is a break in the skin most pathogens are destroyed before they can enter the body. Additionally the acidic pH and fatty acid content of sweat inhibit bacterial growth. The openings in the body, such as the respiratory, urinal, and gastrointestinal tract, have several protective measures to prevent pathogens. The respiratory system uses a combination of cilia and mucus to trap and remove potential pathogens away from the respiratory tract. The digestive system uses the acidity of the stomach to kill the many microbes that gain entry through ingestion. In addition fluids such as tears, saliva, nasal discharges, and urine flush pathogens from thr body.

humoral immune response

The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

The complete blood count or CBC is also known as the hemogram. It is used to evaluate plasma proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The CBC is one of the most useful clinical evaluations performed on a purpose on a patient. The health status of an animal and clues as to what may be causing a pathologic condition are commonly reflected in the results of a CBC.

Two Major Parts of the Lymphatic System

The first major part of the lymphatic system is composed of a system of ducts and fluid lymph. The second part of the system is composed of lymphoid organs and tissues. The system of ducts picks up some of the fluid leaked from capillaries into interstitial tissue. When the fluid is in a lymph duct it is called lymph. The lymph ducts carry lymph to blood vessels near the heart, where it is processed and returned to systemic blood. Lymph contains very few blood cells other than lymphocytes. The lymphoid organs and tissues are scattered throughout the body and are involved in the immune response to help fight foreign invaders.

Describe the production of urine

The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood in the kidneys. In a healthy human the kidney receives between 12 and 30% of cardiac output, but it averages about 20% or about 1.25 L/min. The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. In the first part of the nephron, Bowman's capsule filters blood from the circulatory system into the tubules. Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients facilitate filtration across a semipermeable membrane. The filtrate includes water, small molecules, and ions that easily pass through the filtration membrane. However larger molecules such as proteins and blood cells are prevented from passing through the filtration membrane. The amount of filtrate produced every minute is called the glomerular filtration rate or GFR and amounts to 180 litres per day. About 99% of this filtrate is reabsorbed as it passes through the nephron and the remaining 1% becomes urine.

External Anatomy of the Heart

The heart has a somewhat rounded cranial base and a more pointed caudal apex. The base is shifted to the right and faces more dorsally and the apex is shifted to the left and sits more ventrally. The heart is contained in a fibrous sac called the pericardium which is divided into two parts: the fibrous sac called the pericardial sac and the serous pericardium which itself is divided into two membranes called the parietal layer and the visceral layer which lies directly on the surface of the heart. The wall of the heart is made of three layers the middle and thickest layer is the muscular myocardium which is made up of cardiac muscle. The epicardium is the outermost layer and lies on the surface of the heart (visceral layer) of the serous membrane. The endocardium is the innermost layer and lies on the internal surface of the myocardium. It is composed of simple squamos epithelium and forms the lining of the heart chambers.

Internal Anatomy of the Heart: Atrioventricular Valve-Bicuspid

The left AV valve only has two cusps and is called the bicuspid valve. It is also known as the mitral valve. It is attached to the chordae tendonae

Internal Anatomy of the Heart: Atria

The left and right atrium are seperated by the interatrial septum that is a continuation of the myocardium. The atria receive blood from large veins that carry blood to the heart. When the atria have filled with blood their walls contract and force blood through one-way valves into the ventricles. The atria are identified on the outside of the heart by their auricles. These are blind pouches that come off of the main part of the atria and look like earflaps.

Internal Anatomy of the Heart: Ventricles

The left and right ventricles are seperated by the interventricular septum, which is a continuation of the interatrial septum.The area of the interventricular septum is visible on the outside of the heart as the interventricular groove. The groove contains coronary blood vessels and is frequently filled with fat. When the ventricles have received blood from the atria the myocardium of the ventricular walls contract and force blood through one way arteries. The right ventricle pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation through the pulmonary artery, the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta. The right ventricle does not have to pump blood very far the wall is thinner than that of the left ventricle. The left ventricle does most of the work pumping blood to the body so its wall os very thick and strong enough to push the right ventricle to the right. The left ventricle makes up the apex of the heart.

Immune System: Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is responsible for collecting and returning excess interstitial fluid to the cardiovascular system. Lymph vessels parallel the vessels of the circulatory system. Lymph Nodes: Located throughout the body lymph nodes are small structures that are responsible for lymph filtration as it travels back to the systemic circulation. Lymph from specific areas of the body will always pass through the same lymph nodes which can help in determining the location of an inflammatory response, infection, or tumor. Although there are lymph nides throughout the body the periphreal nodes can easily be palpated and thus are easiest to assess. They include: submandibular, prescapular, axxillary, inguinal, and popliteal. In addition to the periphreal nodes therea re clusters of lymphoid tissue in various areas throughout the animal's body, referred to as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT). These small lymphatic nodules are located near mucosal surfaces but are not encapsulated like a lymph node. The function of MALT is to identify antigens and mount an immune response against them. There are subcategories of MALT: conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue CALT, nose or nasopharnyx-associated lymphoid tissue NALT, and gut-associated lymphoid tissue GALT. Tonsils: Found in the epithelial tissue in the pharnyx, larnyx, and urinary and repro systems. They are part of the MALT system. Tonsils house lymphocytes to destroy foreign material before it is able to cause disease. Peyer's Patches: Aggregations of lymphoid tissue in the small intestine of animals such as cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, and dogs. The majority of Peyer's Patches are found in the lining of the ileum, the final section of the small intestine. Thymus: Found in young animals as an additional lymphoid tissue located in the mediastinum. The thymus is where T lymphocytes mature before they migrate into other lymphoid tissues and blood, and where T cells are programmed to fight specific antigens.

Oral Cavity Structures

The mouth, or oral cavity, consists of the Lips-a zone of transition from the skin of the face to the mucous membrane (a general term denoting the surface of an organ lubricated by moisture) lining the gums and the inside of the cheeks. Teeth- the most specialized organs in the mouth. They're responsible for the breakdown of food (mastication), which serves to increase the surface area of the food and thus enhance digestion and Gums, Cheeks and surrounding areas, Tongue- a muscular organ used for manipulating food within the mouth. It includes taste buds, which allow you to taste food, Pharynx-a muscular, walled area that opens to both the digestive system and the respiratory system., and associated Salivary Glands-Salivary glands are located throughout the oral cavity—in the tongue, on the inside of the lips and cheeks, below the tongue, and in the walls of the pharynx. Most of these glands are very small, consisting of a cluster of cells that produce saliva and a small tube called a duct. The duct carries the saliva from the secreting cells to the oral cavity's surface.

Erythropoiesis

The process by which red blood cells are created. Unipotential stem cells are stimulated to differentiate into proerythroblasts. The proerythroblasts further divide multiple times through several stages where each stage produces a more mature cell type. At a certain stage the cells will lose their nuclei and stop multiplying. They also start producing hemoglobin. From this stage they have to mature through three more stages to become mature red blood cells.

Hematopoiesis

The production of all blood cells that occurs as a continuous process throughout an animals life. In the fetus it takes place in the liver and spleen. In the newborn animal this process mainly takes place in the red bone marrow.

Thrombopoiesis

The production of platelets begins when a specific stimulant acts on the unipotential stem cells in the red bone marrow causing it to differentiate into a megakaryocyte. Pieces of of cytoplasm from the megakarcocyte are released into peripheral blood as platelets. Thrombopoiesis can take up to 7 days to reach completion.

Leukopoiesis

The production of white blood cells. It starts with the same pluripotential stem cell population that produced proerythroblasts and megakaryocytes. Each specific type of white blood cell has its own stimulus for production. Granulopoiesis is the process by which a pluripotential stem cell differentiated into one of the three types of granulocyte: neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils. Early granulocytes are difficult to distinguish from one another because they all appear as large cells with lots of cytoplasm, large round nuclei and a first set of nonspecific granules. The nonspecific granules are later replaced by specific granules that are unique to each granulocyte type. Lympphocytes and monocytes each develop from a pluripotential stem cell that has been stimulated by a specific stimulus. They do not contain specific cytoplasmic granules so they are known as agranulocytes. Lymphopoiesis is the process that produces lymphocytes some of which develop outside the bone marrow. Monopoiesis is the formation and maturation of monocytes.

Pulse

The rate of alternating stretching and recoiling of the elastic fibers in an artery as blood passes through it with each heartbeat. Pulse points Cat-femoral artery Dog-femoral artery Cow-Coccygeal, Facial artery Horse-Mandibular, posterior digital artery Sheep-femoral Goat-femotral Piglet-femoral Pig-coccygeal

Internal Anatomy of the Heart: Atrioventricular Valves-Tricuspid

The right AV valve consists of three flaps or cusps of endothelium and is called the tricuspid valve. It opens when the pressure from the amount of blood in the right atrium forces it open and allows blood to flow into the right ventricle. When the pressure from the blood in the right ventricle exceeds the pressure in the right atrium the tricuspid is forced shut. The valve is prevented from opening backward into the atrium by collagen fiber cords that are attached to the edge of each cusp to papillary muscles in the wall of the right ventricle. These cords are called the chordae tendonae.

Describe the structures and functions of the ureter and urinary bladder

The ureters are tubes composed of three layers, an outer fibrous layer, a middle muscular layer made up of smooth muscle, and an inner epithelial layer lined with transitional epithelium. The ureters continuously move urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The urinary bladder has two parts; a muscular sac and neck. The size and position depend on the volume of urine. The bladder is lined with transitional epithelium that stretches as the bladder becomes with urine. The function of the urinary bladder is to collect store and release urine.

Describe the structure and functions of the urethra

The urethra is a continuations of the neck of the bladder that runs through the pelvic canal. It is lined with transitional epithelium that allows it to expand. In the female it is shorter and purely for urinary purposes, in the male it is involved in reproductive purposes.

Describe the processes involved in urination

The urinary bladder constantly accumulates urine until the pressure of the filling bladder reaches a certain trigger point that activates stretch reeptors in the bladder wall. Then a spinal reflex is activated that returns a motor impulse to the detrustor mucle and the smooth wall of the bladder wall contracts. This creates the sensation of having to urinate.

Minute Volume (MV)

The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort

CBC: Packed Cell Volume or Hematocrit

The volume of packed erythrocytes measured and expressed as a percentage of a total volume of blood. The two methods for determining the PVC are automated analyzes and gross examination of a centrifuged microhematocrit tube. To measure PCV the microhematocrit tube is placed on a special card so the top of the clay line up with the 05 line. The tube intersects the 100% line. The line that intersects the top of the red blood cell layer is the PVC value and is reported as a percentage.

Epithelial and Muscle Layer of Intestines

The walls of the GI tract contain four layers of tissue Mucosa—Consists of epithelium and some loose connective tissue that lines the tube Submucosa—Dense connective tissue layer located just below the mucosa Muscle layer—Thick muscles outside the submucosa Serosa—Consists of a thin, tough layer of connective tissue

External Anatomy of the Heart: Valves of the Heart

There are 4 one-way valves that control blood flow through the heart. The valves close at specific times to prevent backflow of blood into the chamber it just came from. The atrioventricular valves are located between

Transfusion Therapy

Transfusion therapy is used to replace fluid or blood that has been lost or destroyed. The indications for transfusion are include rapid blood loss, severe anemia, coagulation factor deficiency, a lower than normal plasma protein count, and thrombocytopenia. The three goals of transfusion are: to increase oxygen carrying capacity of blood to replace coagulation factors or other factors and to replace blood volume

Internal Anatomy of the Heart: Atrioventricular Valves-Semilunar Valves

Two valves that control blood flow out of the ventricles and into arteries. Named for the three cusps each of which resemble a crescent moon. The right semilunar valve is the pulmonary valve because blood from the right ventricle flows through it into the pulmonary circulation. The left semilunar valve is the aortic valve because blood from the left ventricle flows through it into the aorta, which is the major artery that is the beginning of systemic circulation.

Describe the mechanisms that affect urine volumes

Urine volume is determined by the amount of water contained in the tubular filtrate when it reaches the renal pelvis. Two hormones antidiuretic hormone which is released by the posterior pituitary gland and aldesterone secreted by the adrenal cortex. ADH acts on the DCT and collecting ducts to promote water reabsorption and thereby prevent water loss from the body. Aldesterone increases reapsorbtion of sodium into the bloodstream in the DCT and the collecting duct.

Differentiate between water soluble vitamins and fat soluble vitamins and list their dietary sources and functions

Water soluble vitamins are absorbed through the gut wall when water is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Ex. B and C. B12 is is different it must bind to gastric intrinsic factor before it can be absorbed. Fat soluble vitamins bind to ingested lipids before they are absorbed with the ingesta. Ex. A D E K. Vitamin K is not stored in the body. A C and E are potent antioxidants that disarm free radicals.

Explain the renal mechanisms that help regulate blood pressure

When blood pressure falls a system called the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system responds to bring it back up to a normal level.

General Structure of Proteins

a basic amino group (-NH2) an organic acid group (-COOH) and an R group

venipuncture/phlebotomy

an incision into or puncture of a vein to withdraw blood for testing Dog and Cat-Cephalic vein, femoral vein or sephenous vein Jugular in all species In ruminants and rodents the coccygeal vein may be used.

echocardiography

an ultrasonic diagnostic procedure used to evaluate the structures and motion of the heart

Artery structure

arteries have three layers: a smooth inner layer; a strong, muscular layer; and a thin outer layer; connective fibers in artery walls allow for the elasticity needed for the artery to function; arteries are usually larger than veins

Six Categories of Nutrients

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water

Segments of the Large Intestine

cecum, colon, rectum, anus

Define the terms glomerular filtration, renal threshold, polyuria, polydipsia, urolithiasis and uremia

glomerular filtration: The first step in urine formation in which substances in blood pass through the filtration membrane and the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron. renal threshold: The concentration at which a substance in the blood that is not normally excreted by the kidneys begins to appear in the urine. polyuria: excessive or an abnormally large production or passage of urine polydipsia: abnormally great thirst as a symptom of disease (such as diabetes) or psychological disturbance. urolithiasis: the formation of stony concretions in the bladder or urinary tract. Uremia: a raised level in the blood of urea and other nitrogenous waste compounds that are normally eliminated by the kidneys.

Spermatozoa Structure

head (nucleus); covered by Acrosome (digestive enzymes that help spermatozoan penetrate egg); midpiece (lots of mitochondria in spiral pattern); tail (whiplike movement to propel forward)

Types of teeth in mammals

incisors, canines, premolars, molars

Functions of the Digestive System

ingestion, mechanical processing, digestion, secretion, absorption, excretion

List the main bood vessels related to the kidney

renal artery afferent glomerular arterioles glomerular capillaries efferent glomerular arteriols peritubular capillaries renal vein

Rumen

stomach chamber in cows and related animals in which symbiotic bacteria digest cellulose

Omasum

the muscular third stomach of a ruminant animal, between the reticulum and the abomasum.