Personality 3: Phenomenological-Humanisitic, Social-Cognitive, Integration as a Whole

What is an overlooked source of stability in the personality system?

Unique ecology is an overlooked source of stability. A significant part of personality are the "doors" that we open, the objective situation and our chosen construals. We need to view personality as the entirety of the system.

Distinguish between individualist and collectivist cultures.

Individualism involves a sense of the self as autonomous, devoted to the pursuit of personal goals, and relatively independent and self-focused. In contrast, collectivism is defined by closer connections to groups and family. People at this pole of the typology are sensitive to the goals of the family and groups with which they are connected, and in their social relationships, values, and goal pursuits. In the collectivist culture, individuals focus less on the self and self-enhancement and more on relationships, social obligations, and roles in comparison with those in an individualistic culture

What are individualistic vs. collectivist cultures? What are some of the core values of each? How is the self defined within the social context in each? How do these values influence personality?

Individualistic cultures are mainly Western cultures, and people in these cultures predominantly have an INDEPENDENT view of the self. An independent view of the self is a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, unique characteristics, and separate identities. Members of individualist cultures learn to define themselves as quite separate from other people. The value independence and uniqueness. When asked to complete sentences beginning with "I am...," they are more likely to refer to their separate identities and characteristics, such as their jobs or personal attributes: researcher, patient person, film buff, feminist. Collectivist cultures are mainly Eastern cultures and people predominantly have an INTERDEPENDENT view of the self, which is a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people and social groups. In collectivist cultures, connected and interdependence between people are valued. When asked to complete sentences beginning with "I am...," they are more likely to refer to their social groups, such as their family or institutions they are affiliated with: a researcher at Cornell, Turkish, only child, member of feminist organization.

What is self-perception theory? Describe the basic principles.

Individuals come to "know" their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/or the situation in which this behavior occurs. Thus, to the extent that internal cues are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable, the individual is functionally in the same position as an outside observer, an observer who must necessarily rely upon those same external cues to infer the individual's inner states.

As per the data collected in their study, who used the social constraint strategy and why?

Individuals who "solved" their problem of feeling socially undesirable and ineffective by taking their lead from the behaviors of other people when in social situations. They exhibited a pattern of other-directedness in social life: lacking confidence in their own social skills and used judgments of others to view themselves.

What are the characteristics of George Kelly's personal constructs? What does it mean when he says that personal constructs are bipolar? In what way is a construct permeable?

Personal construct theory tries to see how the person sees and aligns events on his or her own dimensions. Instead of scoring oneself on a scale that's predetermined, Kelly wants to see a more holistic, subjective perspective of one. Different people may construe the same event different and that every event can be construed in alternative ways. Constructs are bipolar in that each construct contains a pair of characteristics that are psychological opposites for the person but not necessarily logical. The bipolarity if made up of the explicit pole, the side of the construct that is applied in a characterization, and the implicit pole, the side of the construct that is NOT applied in a characterization. A construct is permeable in that it can deal with and include a wide range of possibilities for one characteristic. For example, one can be "good" regardless of sexual orientation, SES, religious views (@ conservatives)

Distinguish between temporary and chronic discrepancies. What are correlates of chronic self-discrepancies?

Temporary discrepancies are state-level and are less severe than chronic discrepancies, or trait-level. Greater chronic self-discrepancy predicts greater emotional distress, dejection for actual-ideal discrepancy, agitation for actual-ought discrepancy, lower self-esteem and lower motivation, lower environmental mastery.

What are the three possible sources that contribute to happiness covered in class? How much do each of the three sources contribute to happiness?

Objective life circumstances, such as SES, demographics, religiosity, and martial status contribute 10% to happiness. Genetics, such as biological predispositions and temperament, contribute 50% to happiness. Behavioral/intentional activities, such as activities, behaviors, thought patterns, and habits, contribute 40% to happiness.

What is observational learning? What is required for observational learning to occur？

Observational learning, or modeling, is the process of learning through observation of a live or symbolic model and requires no direct reinforcement. Observational learning occurs when people watch others or when they attend to their surroundings, to physical events, or to symbols such as words or pictures.

What feelings do people feel when there is a discrepancy between the actual-self from one's own vantage point and the ideal-self from a significant other's vantage point?

One feels shame and embarrassment for not fulfilling their parents' wishes, for example

What are two types of self-regulatory goals? Provide an example for each.

One type of self-regulatory goal is to stop doing something in instances of thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. Some examples include smoking, excessive eating, drinking. Another type if to start doing something in instances of thoughts, behaviors, and feelings, such as starting to write a paper, going to the gym, taking medication, and starting the savings account.

Define social identity.

Our social identities are a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s), as groups give us a sense of social identity, a sense of belonging to the social world, and this makes up a major part of who we are (our sense of self, our personality).

How do people shape their own situations?

Over the course of time, the characteristics of the personality system change the stable psychological environment the individual tends to experience. This is why there is an arrow from perceptions and reactions that leads back to consequences of behaviors, reactions, perceptions. That way, people make their own situations and select and create many of the situations they experience.

Explain the overjustification effect through the lens of self-perception theory.

Overjustification effects are non-dissonance phenomena. The Jewish shopkeeper example posits that in World War II, there were these Nazi children that came to yell insults at him. At the end of the day, the shopkeeper rewarded them money for these insults. The next day, the children yelled insults again and the shopkeeper says that they had even better insults this time but he can only reward them 10 cents. The day after that, the children yelled insults again, but the shopkeeper had no money left to pay them. The children found this blasphemy, and went home, thinking that they can't just do this for nothing. At first this behavior was intrinsic, but the monetary reward made the children's behavior extrinsic. Once the reward stopped, so did the behavior. In the magic marker study, children were split into three groups. In the first, they were told that they were given a reward for drawing with magic markers. The second group didn't know about the rewards until they received them. The third group was the control and received no rewards but purely played with markers as intrinsic motivation. The first group's interest with these markers quickly became extrinsic motivation and they lost interest in playing with the markers.

What are the psychological mechanisms that enable us to experience subjective continuity in the self-schema?

People tend to reduce cognitive inconsistencies and in general, simplify and integrate information so that they can deal with it. People also know a good deal of their if-then signatures and would indicate patterns over just one situation.

What are permeable boundaries?

Permeable boundaries are the boundaries between the person and the psychological environment and between the life space and the physical world. They can be crossed easily.

Explain Higgin's conceptualization of prevention and promotion focus.

Promotion focus is attention directed to potential accomplishments and rewards rather than to possible threats, risks, and losses. Prevention focus attends not to the possible rewards to be gained but to the possible threats, losses, negative outcomes. From the biological level, promotion focus activates BAS, and prevention focus activates BIS. From the trait-dispositional level, promotion focus have higher extraversion.

What is the best way to find out about another person's internal experience? Explain with evidence

The best way to find out about another person's internal experience is simply to ask, but also to focus on the person's individual behavior rather than on stereotypes and generalizing their behaviors to others'. Also, self-reports are a good measure for internal experience. In this way, we can predict other behavioral tendencies that another may have.

Explain how the two views of personality (biological vs. contextual) view the causal relationship between culture and personality.

The biological view, or traditional view, sees that personality (traits) stem from genetic makeup and are relatively insensitive to contextual differences, so they are fixed. The contextual view, or revisionist view, sees personality (traits) as they reflect continuous interactions between context and person, and changes as a result of social roles. Cross-cultural differences reflect differences in personality and vice versa

How does self-perception explain misattribution of arousal?

The bridge experiment is where the variable was the stability of a bridge. On the rocky, unstable bridge, the experimenter, an "attractive" woman, stopped men in the middle of the bridge and asked them to fill out a piece of paper for the experiment, telling them to write a story. Men walking through a stable bridge were asked to do the same task. Then, the stories were encoded for vanilla or sexual content, and found that those who were on the rocky bridge wrote more stories of arousing content because they misattributed their adrenaline from the scariness of the bridge to their attraction to the experimenter.

Describe all parts of the integrative personality system discussed in class (the figure), and covered in the textbook.

The cognitive affect personality system (CAPS) diagrams that consequences of the behaviors, perceptions, and reactions lead to situations experienced, which goes into our CAPS network, with a rewind arrow indicating rumination and retrieval of the thought, which then leads to Type I and Type II behavioral consistencies, which are behavior patterns in varying situations, which lead to perceptions and reactions by observers and the self, which color how we would act next to consequences of the behaviors, perceptions, and reactions again.

What is culture?

"Customs, habits, beliefs, and values that shape emotions, behavior, and life patterns" (Tseng, 2003) "Psychological attributes of groups" (Funder, 2007) "Design for living, dealing with social situations, thinking about the self and social behavior" (Triandis, 1989) Culture is a schema. The analogy is that culture with society is like memory with the individual. Following cultural customs saves mental energy and time.

How does Triandis define culture?

"Design for living, dealing with social situations, thinking about the self and social behavior" (Triandis, 1989)

Maslow argues for clearly differentiating self vs. not self to fully understand a self-actualizing person. He then offers five points to support his claim. What are these five points?

1. Maslow seems to dislike the notion that people are detaching themselves to become more independent so that they look within themselves for answers 2. listen to the self, meditate, to be aware of the self and recover the intra-psychic 3. shift the perception of the unconscious as evil to benevolent, as it expands on creativity in art, music, poetry 4. expressive behavior is intra-psychic and it has motivation 5. selecting which tasks to focus on isolates the focus from other equally important things, so we should cease the focus and view the tasks as a whole

What are the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd forces within psychology? How does this new (3rd) force of psychology differ from the other two?

1st: behaviorism 2nd: psychodynamic 3rd: phenomenology the third force differs from the other two in that it is a more holistic view of the individual, sees the human mind as aware, self-reflective, and able to envision different possibilities

What is a downside of high self-esteem?

A downside to HSE is overconfidence, as one sets oneself up for failure because expectations and standards are too positive.

What is a paradigm? Compare and contrast paradigms covered in class.

A paradigm is a distinct set of thought patterns or concepts that all involve their own research methods and assumptions. In class, we learned about the trait-dispositional paradigm, biological, psychodynamic-motivational, behavioral-conditioning, phenomenological, and social cognitive.

What does within-person variability in self-esteem mean? How is an individual's level of variability in self-esteem related to outcomes?

A person's level of self-esteem can vary across time. Some individuals show more fluctuations than others. Both mean (trait) levels and higher fluctuations (less stability) in self-esteem linked to unhealthy behaviors and poorer adjustment in several domains, for instance binge eating.

According to Maslow, should a person's mental health be assessed in terms of extra-psychic success or intra-psychic health? Explain his argument.

A person's mental health should be assessed not only in terms of extra-psychic success but also intra-psychic health, which was lacking at his time. To only use the extra-psychic success would be only viewing oneself based on solely what others have said about oneself rather than taking an introspective view and reflection on one's own subjective experiences.

Define a personal goal.

A personal goal is a thing or action that someone desires and can be achieved through systematic processes and intentional implementations.

What is a "role" as defined by Kelly? How can role-taking be used therapeutically?

A role is an attempt to see another person through the other's glasses, to look at the person through their constructs, and to structure one's actions in that light. Role-playing, by seeing through another person's perspective, is a good therapeutic measure in that it helps clients gain new perspectives and generate more convenient ways of living.

Explain the "accumulative advantage" and why birth date matters.

A school grade includes children in the range of one year. The oldest child in the grade has an accumulative advantage over the youngest child because they have had more development due to their age, and they would therefore perform better academically and athletically. Younger children are more often diagnosed with ADHD but in reality they just aren't up to speed with their older peers yet.

Define the behavioral/intentional bases of happiness and three types discussed in class (activities, behaviors, ways of thinking).

A significant factor in happiness is rooted in behaviors that people actively and effortfully choose to engage in, such as activities, behaviors, and ways of thinking, which may represent a promising route to lasting happiness.

What is self-esteem?

Affective self-esteem involves feelings about yourself, what you like and dislike, whether you're worthy or unworthy, accepted or rejected

What is transference according to Susan Andersen? How is Andersen's conceptualization of transference similar and different from Freud's?

According to Andersen, when one develops relationships with new people, transference readily occurs. The degree that representations of significant others in memory activated by the newly encountered person.

Why do we have self-esteem? What function does it serve? Describe the sociometer theory of self-esteem.

According to the sociometer theory, the eyes of others assesses how we are doing, and self-esteem is a reflection of perceived relational worth, which monitors for any signs of exclusion or low value. Exclusion triggers feelings of low(er) self-esteem. Gauging oneself on the sociometer leads one to take appropriate action. Social acceptance has survival and reproductive value.

Compare the coping strategies of helpless and mastery-oriented children.

After a failure, helpless children did worse, thinking that their failure was due to a lack of ability, whereas mastery-oriented children did better because they thought that their failure was due to the lack of effort. When helpless children get stuck on an issue, they start giving up, attributing this issue as stemming from a fixed mindset. On the other hand, mastery-oriented children have a growth mindset and opt to slow down to think things through.

Define possible selves and working self-concept.

All of the possible selves converge to create on unified self. Possible selves are potential ways of being, schemas that are all available and relatively accessible in memory. Which of these selves someone is depends on which one is primed in any given situation. Working self-concept are the concepts of the self that the person can access easily, which derives from various self-conceptions that are present in thought and memory. Possible selves could also include past and current selves.

What is an attitude? What are Implicit Attitudes? How are they different from explicit attitudes?

An attitude is the evaluation of some concept. Implicit attitudes are when an event influences judgments in a manner not introspectively known by the actor. They are different from explicit attitudes in that explicit attitudes are known by the actor and possibly expressed outwardly to others.

How is an independent view of the self manifested in a collectivist culture vs. an individualist culture?

An independent view of the self is more often manifested in an individualist culture, but if it were manifested in a collectivist culture, then there would be a discrepancy between the norm in the collectivist culture and the individual who started the individualist revolution.

What is the empirical evidence cited in the paper for the psychology of having a malleable theory of the self?

Aronson et al. conducted a study where they taught a group of college students about the malleability of the brain and were told to write to a younger student about the concept. At the end of the semester, they showed greater valuing of academics, enhanced enjoyment of academic work, and higher GPA. Similarly, another group of students learned that the brain is like a muscle that gets stronger with use and that the brain forms new connections every time learning occurs. In another pilot study, students reported picturing their neurons forming new connections as they learned and studied. When a student is praised for their intelligence, they move toward a fixed mindset, but when a student is praised for their effort, they take on a more malleable theory.

For which of the big-five traits have cross-cultural differences been observed?

As seen on the Map of Extraversion, there are differences in Extraversion even in Europe and Asia. Countries in Europe are more extraverted than countries in Asia. Also, Europeans tend to be higher in Openness to Experience and lower in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Chinese are on average emotionally reserved, introverted, fond of tranquility, and considerate than Americans.

Explain the cultural differences in social support seeking and providing with empirical evidence (hint: Taylor et al., 2007)

Asians and Asian Americans report using social support to help them cope with stress less than European Americans because Asian Americans report more concern that seeking support would cause them to lose face, disrupt group harmony, and receive criticism from others. From the Taylor study, European Americans had a negative change in psychological stress when they received explicit support, meaning they felt less stressed by receiving explicit support. They had slight increases in stress when receiving implicit or no support. For Asian-Americans, it was the opposite. Receiving explicit support caused them more stress, while receiving implicit support or no support decreased their stress.

Explain the assumptions, hypotheses, methodologies, interpretations and applications (i.e., approaches for change) of all 6 theoretical perspectives.

Assumptions ask questions like: What are the causes of behavior? What is our human nature? Is there free will? Hypotheses involves what questions are asked, what is examined, and how data are collected and hypotheses are tested. Interpretation asks which is most likely, and application asks which is the most effective therapeutic approach. From the trait-dispositional level, we assume that people differ in how they generally feel, think, and behave. Traits as psychoneuro structures are the primary cause of behavioral differences. Hypotheses ask if there are basic dimensions that capture the primary ways that individuals differ from one another, and do dimensions predict life outcomes. Data, methods, and designs use self-reports of traits and broad outcomes, with correlational and longitudinal studies. We interpret that behavioral stability is across situations and over time, with if-then patterns. From the biological paradigm, the assumption is that individual differences in structure and functioning of neural systems are involved in regulation of social behavior. Hypotheses ask: How does brain structure give rise to experience and behavior? What factors (genetic, environment, behavior) influence neuroanatomy? Data, methods, and designs used are physiological and neuroimaging techniques linked to self-reports. The results are interpreted as individual differences in neuroanatomy and function meaningfully affect how we perceive, experience, and react to our social world. From the psychodynamic-motivational paradigm, we assume that unconsious processes guide behaviors with the conflict between the id, ego, and superego. Hypotheses ask: How do people defend against threats？ How do unconscious influences affect behavior? The data, methods, and designs used are therapy sessions and the analyst's interpretation with stream of consciousness and projective tests and more recently, social cognitive techniques. Interpretation posits that much of behavior is driven by unconscious impulses. From the behavioral-conditioning paradigm, we assume that rewards and punishments in the enviornment are the primary cause of behavior. The hypotheses ask: How do people learn? How do people unlearn undesirable behaviors? How do peole acquire desirable behaviors? What contingencies sustain current behaviors? Data, methods, and designs used are objective, quantifiable indicators of rewards and punishments and of organisms' behavior, experimenting with animals. The interpretation is that behavior is acquired (vs. innate) using learning principles, which doesn't require a self or a mind, which are unobservable and unmeasurable constructs. From the phenomenological-humanistic perspective, we assume that people have agency, thus self is the primary cause of behavior. The basic goal of existence is self-actualization. Hypotheses ask what leads people to feeling fulfilled and satisfied? What conditions allow for self-actualization? Data, methods, and designs use subjective experience, intensive interviews, and qualitative data. We interpret that humans have character strengths and virtues and show resilience. From the social cognitive paradigm, the mind is an information processing system that has limited resources. We have schemas that affect encoding, storage, and retrieval of information and thus responses to situations. We ask: How do we mentally represent the self? How are individual differences in self-schema and self-liking related to perception, reactions, and behaviors？Measures used assess knowledge activation and applicability. Interpretation is that information is processed efficiently, nonconsciously and colors behavior.

What is the difference between automatic and controlled processing?

Automatic processing relies on preexisting schemas and is usually involuntary, unconscious, and requires no motivation to be activated. Controlled processing and conscious thought, as in planning, problem-solving, future-oriented decision making, and self-control contrast with automatic processing.

Describe the concepts of availability, accessibility, applicability, salience, and priming.

Availability refers to whether the schema exists or not. Accessibility refers to how easy it is to access the schema. Applicability refers to whether the schema is applicable to the situation. Salience refers to the degree to which a particular social object stands out compared to other social objects in a situation. Priming refers to the process that increases temporary accessibility.

How is the idea of multiple selves illustrated in Baldwin's study of multiple relational schemas? What does it show with regard to within-person and between-person variability?

Baldwin found that despite how people would describe their general attachment styles, the actual percentages of their attachments turned out about the same, with the majority being secure attachment. This shows that each person experiences all styles, so there are lots of within-person variability. For between-person variability, there is a lot similarity across different general attachment styles, but there are also between-person individual differences.

What is the historical context of social cognition?

Behaviorism, the 'first force,' was the dominant paradigm up to the 1950s. Then, the cognitive revolution in the 1950s to '60s took storm by Kelly, Bandura, and Rotter. Now, we see that the cognitive system mediates the relationship between stimulus and response

What are some consequences of being aware and being able to self-reflect? How do existential guilt and existential regret emerge from one's awareness of limited time?

Being self-aware and being able to self-reflect gives rise to existential concerns that involve questions about the purpose, meaning, value of life. Existential guilt is the realization that the limited time is inescapable and it is impossible to fulfill all responsibilities with that limited time. Existential guilt arises from the negative emotion and thoughts of accountability elicited by committing an offense, or the omission of doing something right

What is the two-factor theory of emotion?

Both physiological arousal and situational cues lead to perceived emotion.

Describe Brofenbrenner's ecological systems. How does this system depict social and cultural influences on personality?

Brofenbrenner's ecological systems theory comprises of layers, with each outer layer comprising of a larger social context. Starting from the middle of the concentric circles is the microsystem, direct relationships with family. Then is the mesosystem, relationships among family. Then is the exosystem, social settings. Finally on the outside-most layer is the macrosystem, cultural values and beliefs, which is the focus of Dr. Sakman's lecture. This system shows that there are multi-faceted influences on personality, socially and culturally.

Describe the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS). How can you define the cognitive-affective units (CAUs) that make up the CAPS?

CAPS was originally constructed for the social cognitive paradigm, but it encapsulates all of the paradigms. It aims to integrate many of the ideas from research on social cognition and cognitive neural network models of the mind into a framework for a comprehensive personality system. Cognition-affective units are the mental representations or schemas of the social cognitive person variables identified at the start of the cognitive revolution in psychology.

Define causal attributions and describe two kinds of causal attributions. Which type is more conducive to pride and shame?

Causal attributions are the explanations people make of the causes of events, and they have predictable implications for how they feel about themselves and other people. Two kinds of causal attributions are internal causes and external causes. Pride and shame are maximized when achievement outcomes are ascribed internally, and minimized when success and failure are attributed to external causes.

What are prototypes？

Clear exemplars or best examples make up prototypes that then can be used to quickly make inferences and decisions.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of cognitive detachment in coping with stress? Give one example of each.

Cognitive detachment may be useful through cognitive reappraisal to attain emotional cooling, which provides a basic route for effective emotion regulation. On the other hand, detachment may cause callous, insensitive attitudes and cold-bloodedness toward others. Examples include dehumanization of patients for surgeons, of enemies for soldiers, or even of bloody scenes in movies.

What is cognitive reappraisal versus suppression? How can these help us to cope with emotionally distressing situations?

Cognitive reappraisal rewires the individual's brain for a milder contrual. It is similar to cognitive detachment. Suppression is the conscious hiding of negative feelings. In terms of coping with emotionally distressing situations, cognitive reappraisal is more useful as it produces fewer feelings of disgust and less physiological activation.

What are cognitive transformations and how can they alter behavior after receiving the same stimuli?

Cognitive transformations involve cognitively transforming one's perception of a stimuli by a distinguishing quality. For example, a child can alter their perception of a marshmallow to increase the time of delay by imagining the marshmallow as a "cool" object, that it's a cloud.

In the CAPS system, what are cognitive-affective units (CAUs)? (textbook)

Cognitive-affective units are diverse mental representations or schemas within the CAPS network, which include construals of people, self, and situations. They are the toolkit in which people access when a stimuli occurs.

Discuss the side effects and sacrifices of strategies.

Combatting defensive pessimism may lead to emotional wear and tear and diminished intrinsic motivation, and they experience emotional letdown after success. For outcome-based strategists, reassurances turned into counseling sessions, which dampened the enjoyment of the social situations. Although social constraint worked for those with social anxiety at first to cross the socialization threshold, it didn't help improve their social lives in the long run.

What are encounter groups, such as human-relations training group (T-group) or sensitivity training group?

Compared to therapy groups, where patients sit in a circle and talk about their issues, encounter groups emphasize more doing, not just talking. They do activities such as body exercises, wordless meetings, group fantasy, and physical "games." In this, they learn about themselves and how their actions can affect others.

What are the big 5 existential concerns? Describe and provide an example of each concern

Concerning death, there is the conflict of the desire for continued existence vs. the awareness of the inevitability of death. ex: YOLO Isolation mediates the conflict of the need to feel connected to others vs. the experiences of isolation and realization that one's subjective experience of reality can never be fully shared. ex: FOMO Identity concerns the conflict of having a clear sense of who one is and how one fits into the world vs. uncertainties about identity or conflicts between self-aspects. ex: intersectionality Freedom has the conflict of the experience of free will vs. external forces driving behavior, and the burden of responsibility for one's choices in response to a complex array of alternatives. ex: actual-self vs ideal-self vs ought-self Meaning is the desire to believe life is meaningful vs. events and experiences that appear random or inconsistent with one's bases of meaning. ex: religion, philosophy

What Big 5 personality trait most closely maps onto self-regulation?

Conscientiousness

Are the consequences of discrepancy between actual-self and ideal-self versus actual-self and ought-self different? Explain with examples.

Consequences of discrepancies between actual-self and ideal-self versus actual-self and ought-self are different in their outcomes. While discrepancy between actual-self and ideal-self leads to feelings of disappointment and dejection, discrepancy between actual-self and ought-self leads to feelings of guilt and self-contempt. For example, if the ideal-self wants to go to Cornell but the actual-self only gets accepted to Dartmouth, then one would feel disappointed in oneself because the ideal-self is self-imposed. On the other hand, if the ought-self wants to go to Cornell with the same actual-self outcome, then one would feel guilty for not fulfilling their parent's wishes.

What is the "personality puzzle" metaphor? How can you use this metaphor to think of each theoretical paradigm?

Different paradigms are akin to different pieces of the puzzle. Each is incomplete on its own. Collectively, the paradigms paint a more complete picture of personality, and these paradigms are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as they are integrative approaches.

What is a cultural meaning system? Describe the units of culture that are shared within the meaning system of a particular community.

Culture is a shared meaning system, which includes distinctive views about what the world is like and what difference situations and behaviors mean and call for. The units of culture that are shared within the meaning system of a particular community may include basic goals, values, emotions, standards, self-regulatory rules, and scripts for appropriate and inappropriate interpersonal behavior and control strategies in goal pursuit.

What is defensive pessimism? Explain the pattern of thoughts, affects, and behaviors that characterize a defensive pessimist.

Defensive pessimism is an anticipatory strategy used by individuals who have typically done well on important tasks, academic or social, but who lack confidence in their own abilities to handle task-relevant challenges because they create anxiety. These anxieties happen before the task, and to improve, they're asked to think of all the possible outcomes with cognitive tasks.

What are dejection-related emotions? What are agitation-related emotions?

Dejection-related emotions come with the discrepancy between actual self and ideal self with feelings of disappointment, embarrassment, and shame. Agitation-related emotions come with the discrepancy between actual self and ought self with feelings of guilt, self-contempt, threat, fear.

Why is the delay of gratification situation a self-control dilemma? Describe the delay of gratification situation. Explain dual motive conflicts.

Delay of gratification is a conflict between two motives: smaller, more concrete, and proximal rewards, the now vs. the larger, more abstract, and distal reward, the later. The dual motive conflict is the "hot" and "cool" systems, respectively.

How do delayers and terminators differ in attention deployment throughout the delay task?

Delayers think of the representation of rewards (construals), not objective situation. Delayers increase accessibility of cool features of rewards, as they keep desired goal in mind, but not appetitive aspects that lead to the impulsivity. They believe that "will power" is available to all and can be increased.

How does distraction influence the ability to delay gratification?

Distraction increases the delay time significantly. When there's no distraction, the subject gets impatient quickly, with only the reward in mind, so the delay time is no time at all. When there's a toy as a distraction, the delay time is significantly longer. When the distraction is to think fun, the delay time is even longer.

What biological factors (neural systems) and big-five traits contribute to happiness?

Dopaminergic, opiate systems involved in reward processing contribute to happiness. Those who are more extraverted, high on BAS, meaning they're more sensitive to rewards, and less neurotic tend to have more feelings of happiness. On the other hand, depression is associated with deficit in reward processing. Teen traits are a predictor of adult happiness. If a teen had high extraversion and low neuroticism, they may experience more happy outcomes. The example Prof. Z gave in class was of her younger nephew, compared to her older nephew. Her younger nephew was more outgoing and optimistic. When asked about his social life in high school, he responded that the situation wasn't the best because people tended to be cliquey, but he reiterated that it could've been worse, having a positive outlook on the situation. On the other hand, her older nephew might have reacted more negatively if he were in the same situation because of potentially lower extraversion and higher neuroticism.

How does CAPS account for trait-like differences in personality?

Each person has a unique cognitive system that mediates the effect of the situation on behavior. The thoughts and reactions that become activated at a given moment in a person's network are determined by principles of knowledge activation and spreading activation. In individual differences, available constructs and accessibility of constructs are different from person to person, as are patterns of associations among constructs, namely spreading activation

What is Rogers' self-theory? How is behavior influenced by the subjective world? What are Rogers' need for positive regard, organismic evaluation, and condition of worth?

Each person lives in the subjective world and has unique experiences in life. The way you see and interpret the events in your life determines how you respond to them. Emotions are beneficial to adjustment, as it enhances the organism. People need positive regard, love, from others and the self. Organismic evaluation determines whether the experiences are positive or negative, depending on whether it is enhanceful or not. The condition of worth is placed by other people as conditions to be worthy of being loved. For instance, you can't express anger toward loved ones and expect to still love you afterwards.

Trait-dispositional level: What are ego control and ego resilience?

Ego control is the degree of impulse control in such functions as inhibition of aggression and the ability to plan. Ego resilience is the individual's ability to adapt to environmental demands by appropriately modifying his or her habitual level of ego control, which allows "elasticity" and "permeability."

What are the mechanisms that modern social cognition studies by which people understand the social world? Know encodings, beliefs, attitudes, expectations, goals, and strategies.

Encodings, beliefs, attitudes, expectations, goals, and strategies help people understand the social world. We select and encode information, retain and store information, and then access, retrieve, and apply information as a way to compartmentalize enormous amounts of socially relevant information encountered in daily life.

Describe Dweck's conceptualization of incremental and entity theories. What are the consequences of adopting entity versus incremental theories on children's outcomes?

Entity theory is a more fixed mindset, only choosing goals that seem readily achievable for short-term self-esteem boost, motivated by the desire to avoid unfavorable judgments and to gain approval about their competence. Incremental theory is a growth mindset, choosing goals motivated by the desire to increase competence, seeking opportunities to learn new things and enhance mastery. In regards to outcomes, those with the incremental theory mindset improved more in grades than the entity theorists

What is existentialism? In what historical context did existentialism emerge?

Existentialism is the reconnection with the experience of being alive and aware. The concept emerged in the late 1700s with the founding philosophers being Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre

Define self-fulfilling prophecies.

Expectations lead one to behave in such a way that those expectations become reality. For example, if a teacher wants a student to do well, they would call on the student more in class and offer more one-on-one, possibly even mention a spurt that occurs in the student's learning to ensure success.

What are the principles behind family therapy? What is the role of the unconscious and conscious experience?

Family therapy, or systems therapy, analyzes the transactions in a relationship, helping each partner to see the viewpoint of the other. According to Rogers, the unconscious experience stems from the "inner organismic processes" which should be congruous with the conscious experience for a integrated, unified self.

What is Lewin's field theory? What is life space? What is the principle of contemporaneity?

Field theory posits that they way in which an object is perceived depends on the total context or configuration of its surroundings. What is perceived depends on the relationships among components of a perceptual field rather than on the fixed characteristics of the individual components. Life space is the totality of facts that determine the behavior of an individual at a certain moment. B = f(P, E) The principle of contemporaneity posits that Lewin will only take in what is contemporary into his life space, devoid of the past or of the future.

What is flexible attention?

Flexible attention is the ability to adaptively self-regulate by temporarily thinking of the "hot" strategies to stay motivated and then quickly switching back to the "cool" strategies to avoid excessive arousal and frustration. Knowing when the switch is effective in self-regulation.

Name five different steps/strategies that enable the process of self-regulation.

Goal-setting: Which goals will you pursue? Planning: How will you achieve your goals? Doing: Implementing plans Maintaining: Protecting goals from competing concerns Evaluate feedback: Deciding whether to continue or abandon goals following success or failure feedback

Explain the assumptions of free will from a biological perspective, behaviorism/learning perspective, psychodynamic approach, and phenomenological/humanistic approach.

From a biological perspective, there is not that much free will, as everything is determined through genetics and the environment so that we do not have much agency. From a behaviorism perspective, there is not much free will either, as everything is determined by the conditioning mechanisms which don't even attribute to individuality. From a psychodynamic approach, there is a little more free will, but our id is the unconscious driving force for impulses and motives, proving that we may have less free will. In addition, the superego suppresses free will so that we are in accordance to the norm. Finally, from a phenomenological/humanistic perspective, free will is essential to the core of the human being, as it views the human as a being with agency, self-reflection

What is missing from previous approaches to personality that we've covered? In other words, what are the new contributions/focus of the phenomenological-humanistic approach?

From this perspective and on, life suddenly becomes more meaningful. Topics from phenomenology are central and unique to the human experience and cover the self, identity, possibilites, awareness, agency, life and death. This is the main topic of pop psychology today.

What is Allport's functional autonomy principle? Contemporaneity of motives?

Functional autonomy says that a habit is not tied to any earlier motive of infancy. In fact, autonomous motives are a sign of maturity. Contemporaneity of motives says that motives are to be understood in terms of their role in the present regardless of their origins in the past. "here and now"

What is the fundamental attribution error? How is it relevant to understanding the source of behavioral consistency?

Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to focus on dispositions as causal explanations of behavior. With this view, it assumes that if one event occurs, it will occur again because of habit and disregards if-then situations and variability of situations.

What is Gestalt therapy and what is its aim?

Gestalt therapy aims to expand human awareness and to achieve "joy" and true communication in the pursuit of "peak experiences" and "self-actualization." At first the therapy was more confrontational but recently it is slower so that the patient can come to terms on their own.

Define Global Self-Esteem (GSE) and self-evaluations. How are they related (or not)?

Global self-esteem involves general feelings of like or dislike toward the self. On survey questions, an item may be "on the whole I'm satisfied with myself." One who has high self-esteem (HSE) has a general fondness or love for oneself. One who has low self-esteem (LSE) has mildly positive or ambivalent feelings about oneself. Self-evaluations are evaluations of specific attributes. GSE and self-evaluations are related, but not the same. Self-evaluations are more specific whereas GSE is more general.

What are group versus individual experiences? What are the advantages of each?

Group experiences for enhancing self-awareness can come in many forms, such as encounter groups (above) or simply therapy groups. Individual experiences for enhancing self-awareness can take form of taking LSD or other mind-altering drugs. But also, people can take these drugs as a group. Individual experiences may also include meditation, running, "self-care" activities. In groups, one can use self-disclosure, which is more beneficial than rumination on one's own. That way, one can talk about issues to others so that their voices can be heard. Individually, one can have more time to reflect and have a more idiographic approach to improvement.

What is happiness and how is it defined?

Happiness is a state of mind of feeling characterized by contentment, love, satisfaction, pleasure, or joy

How is pursuing happiness (eudaimonia) different from hedonic pursuits?

Happiness is more than just pleasure. Pursuing happiness, or eudaimonia, is a greater, lasting fulfillment that contributes to well-being. Hedonic pursuits are short-lived, immediate, temporary. They are in the lower-level needs, such as food and sex.

What is the downside of self-regulation?

High delay individuals have a tendency of being avoidant and withdrawn. Too much delay leads to the loss of purpose, meaning there is too much of the cool system that the hot system is not needed, proving that the hot system, though not good in excess, is still essential for the balance in healthy delay.

What are hot and cool systems? What are their influences on self-regulation? (e.g., fight or flight, the "rational, cool brain") How do the hot and cool systems interact?

Hot systems are the immediate, pressing, concrete aspects of a situation or thing that are emotional, whereas cool systems are the abstract and cognitive aspects. Cool systems are more beneficial on self-regulation, as they generally can help one to transform potentially stressful situations to make them less aversive. Fight or flight reactions activate the hot system, while the rational, cool brain is part of the cool system. Hot systems are based in the amygdala, which is responsible for emotional reactions like fear. Cool systems are housed in the hippocampus and frontal lobe, critical for decision-making, cognitive thought processes. When the hot system is dominant, such as under times of stress and frustration, then there are more negative outcomes. The hot-cool interaction also depends on the person's level of development.

What are humanistic psychology, phenomenology, and existentialism?

Humanistic psychology is a "holistic" psychology that studies the individual as a whole person, focusing on subjective experience and the self rather than on subprocesses like learning or perceiving. Phenomenology is the study of conciousness and the appearances of things and events as the individual perceives and experiences them. Existentialism's central point was that human beings are completely free and responsible for their own behavior.

How and why is hypnosis used?

Hypnosis helps individuals access painful feelings and memories that may become difficult to recall in the aftermath of traumatic experiences. Patients are put into a trance state then reexperience traumatic events in a safe therapeutic setting with the goal of seeing the traumatic event in a new light and for easier accessibility of the memory. In this way, the trauma is seen as a thing of the past rather than a looming, unconscious haunt. However, hypnosis is controversial, as each trauma is unique and will cause different effects and different approaches.

What is "ideal affect"? Which cultural influence of ideal affect did the authors focus on?

Ideal affect is the affective states that people ideally want to feel. The authors focused on individualism-collectivism, predicting that the differences between individualistic and collectivistic contexts in their preferred ways of relating to others may produce cultural differences in ideal affect.

What are the two kinds of identity crisis? Describe and provide an example of each.

Identity deficit, or "motivation crisis" is lacking the guiding commitments to goals and values: "which identity? which path?" It occurs in adolescence, young adulthood, and later in life during midlife crisis. Future identities are incompatible with reluctance to let go of possibility. ex: not sure which major to declare, so just going to double-major to hold on to more possibilities Identity conflict, or "legitimation crisis" happens when commitments prescribe conflicting behaviors. For example, women have different conflicting roles. In their careers, they are independent, competent, and logical. In their roles as mothers, they are warm, emotional, gentle, and helpful.

Describe the Mortality Salience Hypothesis (MS). Cite and describe empirical support for the mortality salience hypothesis.

If CWV and self-esteem buffer against death-related anxiety, then increased mortality salience should motivate people to protect CWV and self-esteem. One would defend in-group CWV and members while denigrating out-group CWV and members. In an empirical study, Christian students were asked to think about their deaths and then think about what they did last Tuesday. Then, they read descriptions of Christian student and a Jewish student and were asked to rate each on positive and negative characteristics. The results found that in the death prime (the situation described above), Christian students rated the Christian student description as more positive, showing the denigration of out-group and bolster of in-group.

What are the if-then behavioral signatures of narcissists?

If narcissists find opportunities to promote the self, then much effort is put out toward proving its superiority over everybody else.

What does it mean if one is schematic (vs. aschematic) on a trait?

If one is schematic, then they think that the characteristic if highly descriptive of themselves and regards it as very important.

How do automaticity and will power interact to influence implementation intentions?

Implementation intentions have detailed, thought-out plans to carry out a goal. Like running code, once trigger cues are situationally salient, the goal pursuit runs like a cascade or a procedure, automatically. They take the "effort" out of "effortful self-control."

How is implicit self-esteem measured? What is the name letter effect?

Implicit self-esteem can be measured with the preference for one's own name to letters that are not in their own names. This occurs without conscious awareness. For example, Prof. Z prefers Vivanno drinks from Starbucks because all of the letters in that drink contain her first name, Vivian.

What is implicit self-esteem?

Implicit self-esteem come from indirect measures, and are evaluations triggered spontaneously in response to self-related stimuli, which may reveal negative aspects of self that one doesn't disclose or isn't aware of. It's not consciously felt, but may still color experience and guide behavior.

For each paradigm, describe their approach for behavioral change。

In biological, medicine such as pharmaceuticals are used for behavioral change. In psychodynamic-motivational, it's psychoanalysis and NeoFreudian's own interpretation. In behavioral conditioning, it' systematic conditioning. In phenomenological-humanistic, it's Rogerian therapy and meditation. In social cognitive, it's CBT.

How does the self-perception theory reinterpret cognitive dissonance research findings?

In induced compliance studies, the Festinger-Carlsmith $1-$20 had Bob do a task, and he was even compensated with $1 or $20, then asked how much he enjoyed the task. In the original study, where the participant actually did the task and received compensation, those who received one dollar were happy whereas those who received $20 were unhappy, and the simulation study also reflected this dissonance. In the forbidden toy experiment, one group of kids were told that if they played with the steam shovel, they would be severely punished. The other group was told that the experimenter would be disappointed in them (a milder punishment). Then, when they were removed of these punishments and told to play freely, the second group was more likely not to play with the steam shovel because of this cognitive dissonance, convincing themselves that it's not worth the disappointment.

In what ways do lab studies differ from what is observed in a person's real life?

In lab studies, experiments say what participants can do, not what they do do. In animal and experimental work, the experimenter controls the environment, whereas in the real world, people do.

What are the two ways that the term self can be used?

In layman terms, the self is how we refer to ourselves, talk about ourselves, evaluate ourselves, using "I," "me," "self." In personality psychology, it relates to self-actualization, self-evaluation, self-regulation, and self-control, therefore viewed as not just a single entity, but as a set of schemas.

What life circumstances (money, unemployment, religiosity, relationships, children) do and do not predict happiness? How might each enhance happiness?

In regards to income, once the basic needs are met, there is a reliable but weak effect on predicting happiness. Within developed countries, happiness has remained flat across time. For those in low-SES groups, social mobility, earning more money, may increase happiness. But even then, after reaching stability, their happiness will plateau. Employment may be a predictor of happiness in whether the employment has any beneficial, self-motivating outcomes for the individual. For psychological processes, there is a question of meaning/purpose, mastery, and self-efficacy. At the macro-level, higher unemployment leads to lower satisfaction, even for the unemployed. Religiosity is a predictor of happiness, in that they found that higher religiosity led to higher well-being and less psychopathology because it correlated with behaviors and intentional activities. Religion influences to perform more prosocial behaviors, create a sense of community, and have more social activities. Marriage is one of the strongest correlates to happiness, as well as parenting, as that gives meaning to life.

For each of the three studies in the Tsai et al. (2007) reading, identify: - hypothesis - methods (including subjects) - results - implication of the results

In the first study, they hypothesized that children would be more likely to prefer the smiles and activities that most closely reflected their culture's ideal affect and that they would be more likely to associate their culture's ideal affect with happiness. Specifically, that European American children would prefer excited (vs. calm) smiles more, would perceive excited (vs. calm) activities more than would TC children. Because AA children were oriented to both American and East Asian cultures, they predicted that their affective preferences would fall in between those of EA and TC children. Participants included EA, AA, and TC children of about the same number and split genders, around preschool age. The children were presented with two smiling faces placed side by side, with one smile being larger than the other, and asked which one was happier. Then, the activity task asked them if they preferred excited or calm activities, such as splashing in the pool vs. floating on the tube. The results showed that EA preferred the larger smile more and TC the smaller smile, with AA in the middle of these groups. The study implies that between-group differences in ideal affect can be observed early in life. The second study was similar to the first study except that there was more of an emphasis on facial expressions within picture books. The third study manipulated ideal affect through exposure to storybooks. Participants were read a story about either an excited or calm character.

How do person-centered and relationship-centered explanations of dependency, trust, and closeness in attachment differ?

Inherent, unchanging, general attachment style is a trait that predicts experiences, but we all have different mental models available to us to make us feel either secure or insecure. A secure person's trusting relationships are no different compared to an insecure person. Experiences related to specific relationship are less to general attachment style. Our experiences are best predicted by the specific relationship rather than something about us in isolation. If we are experiencing insecurity, maybe it's because we are choosing to be with certain people.

What are three strategies that enable delay of gratification? Define each strategy and how each differs from one another.

Inhibition of behavior/Self-control begins with evaluation of a treat or reward, it activates the limbic system as the affective reaction, and then the behavioral response is impulsive and reflexive. The goal is to inhibit impulsive, reflexive-like behaviors. The affective response is activated, and the behavioral response needs to be inhibited for the sake of the long-term goal. This strategy is the most difficult and effortful. The strength model of self-control focuses on effortful inhibitory control. A good analogy for self-control is muscle power: if used too much, it will be depleted and there's only a limited amount we can use. Distraction/Purposeful isolation also first involves evaluation as a threat or a reward, but there's less attention towards temptation. It also activates the limbic system but this time for the emotional reaction. Then, a behavioral response is exhibited, as impulsive or reflexive. It lessens exposure to situations that are tempting. Thus, initial instances of effortful control lead to situations that are objectively less tempting and easier to regulate. Construals/Cognitive reppraisal starts with the evaluation of cognitive appraisal. Activation of the limbic system for the affective reaction, then the behavioral response as impulsive and reflexive. Situation perceived as less of a threat or reward and decreases affective and subsequent behavioral response. The initial manipulation of construal requires effort. But, this strategy leads to less effort necessary to inhibit thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

What are the influences of neural mechanisms in impulsive violence?

Initially, threatening behaviors are sent to the amygdala. threatening stimuli -> amygdala activation -> response Those who have abnormalities in the frontal brain regions have more impulsive violence.

What does it mean when it's said that we are "cognitive misers"?

Instead of the people as scientists metaphor, people are instead cognitive misers. The mind has a limited amount of resources for processing. It applies rules and strategies to process information with little deliberate, effortful thought.

What are ways of thinking that can contribute to happiness?

Intentional behaviors that people actively and effortfully choose to engage in is not only a way of thinking, but a way of doing that can have positive outcomes. Having positive self-esteem, a sense of perceived control, and optimism will contribute to happiness. To the extent that we can choose how to think, engaging in positive mental habits should increase happiness. For example, in two scenarios: Imagine you received a C on the prelim but a classmate received a D, you would feel better about yourself even though objectively a C is not a good grade. But, if you received an A- but a classmate received an A+, you would feel worse about yourself even though objectively it's a good grade.

How does motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) relate to satisfaction and well-being?

Intrinsic motivation leads people to be more satisfied, for they are doing things for the sake of doing things rather than for a reward or incentive. Extrinsic motivation can be useful for short-term goals. For instance, getting into med school is the extrinsic motivation for getting good grades. However, in the long run, intrinsic motivation helps individuals get more meaning out of life that improves their well-being.

What is the overjustification hypothesis? Be familiar with the study by Lepper et al. with regard to the effect of external rewards on children's intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation may decrease by providing external reason for engaging in activity. In the study by Lepper et al., children showed instrinsic interest at the baseline. If they expected an award for playing the target activity, they would use less time, since they intrinsic motivation was decreased even immediately. However, when they didn't expect a award, in the no award and unexpected award conditions, children would play for more time, since they had more intrinsic motivation.

In Killingsworth & Gilbert's (2011) study on what makes people happy, what is the methodology behind the study, and the implications of the study for understanding happiness?

Killingsworth and Gilbert's study measured participants' happiness levels throughout the day. Several times during the day, participants would receive text messages asking them how they're feeling on a scale of 0 (bad) to 100 (good) and what they're doing at the present moment, along with if they're thinking about something other than what they're doing. If the answer to the latter was yes, they were then asked to rate the task as pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant.

What are the components of a strategy?

Life task strategies include setting expectations, anticipating outcomes, monitoring behavior as events unfold, and retrospectively understanding what happened and why.

What is a life task? What are life task strategies?

Life tasks are culturally mandated goals. They constitute the "problems" that individuals work toward solving in daily life. For example, in Western cultures, being independent from one's family follows adolescence. "Adulting" is a life task to be solved by figuring out how to live on our own for the first time, managing finances, cooking, and such. Life task strategies are patterned ways toward solving life tasks that are not necessarily grandiose but about how one responds to the challenges of a task.

What are life tasks? (in terms of goal-pursuit)

Life tasks are projects to which individuals commit themselves during particular periods. For instance, the transition from high school to college, from home to campus environment. Life tasks are milestones in a person's life, as it defines who they are, giving meaning to one's life, and provides organization and direction for smaller, concrete goal pursuits.

How does self-regulation relate to dual process models?

Like the negative feedback loop, there is the "hot" and "cool" system. Self-regulation relates to regulating yourself according to "hot" or "cool." "Hot" features include the concrete, the now, things that arouse emotions, things that are action-oriented, the "yummy." "Cool" features include the abstract, later things, cognitive things, informational, like "puffy clouds"

What are some of the consequences associated with high and low self-esteem?

Low self-esteem leads to negative affect, depression, substance use, aggression, social anxiety, feelings of rejection, less satisfying relationships, illness and poor health. LSE feels negative feelings of self-worth, like shame, embarrassment, humiliation instead of just feeling sad or disappointed. LSE is also susceptible to appraising one's self negatively in response to negative events (personal/stable attribution vs. situational/changeable). On the other hand, HSE are more persistent in face of failure and have higher aspirations.

What is transcendental meditation? Why is it used? Does everyone agree on its effectiveness?

Meditation produces an alteration in consciousness, shifting away from the active, outward-oriented mode and toward the receptive and quiescent mode, shifting from the external focus of attention to an internal one. TM specifically is a state of restful alertness from which one is said to emerge with added energy and greater mind-body coordination. It is practiced twice in 20 minutes where the meditator repeats a mantra mentally with eyes closed. People currently consciously use meditation to reduce stress, lower blood pressure, alleviate addictions, and increase energy and powers of concentration, but other physiological effects include decreased rate of metabolism and slower brain-wave patterns. The effectiveness of TM is controversial in that it is biased from the meditators' perspectives. Each has their own subjective experience with meditating. Hypnosis can also produce increased alertness, so it's not unique to meditation.

What are the potential issues to consider when we interpret results from cross-cultural research studies?

Members of different cultural groups differ in the availability and chronic accessibility of concepts. Some self-report measures may get lost in translation, since some concepts are culture specific or don't exactly translate. There are also response biases and social desirability tendencies. The comparability and representativeness of the samples also may not match up, since researchers would have to match the age, education, socioeconomic status, and there would be cohort effects.

Social cognitive and phenomenological levels: How do mental processes enable or undermine self-regulation?

Mental activities, such as cognition and attention, have the ability to persist and reach difficult but important long-term goals. In appetitive/approach dilemmas, effortful control is useful for the delay of gratification.

Define schemas. What are the effects of schemas?

Mental representations with which people interpret the objects and social situations in their world, including themselves and their own psychological states, as well as other people. They affect the emotional and behavioral reactions that unfold for people. They are the basic units for organizing information, as they guide what we notice and what we remember. Schemas are mental shortcuts in a way that we can see them as stereotypes.

How is automaticity relevant? How about willpower?

Most of our goal pursuits are automatic, as they occur in our daily lives and are adaptive to most life functions. However, temptations that run in the opposite direction of our goal pursuits hinder our goals and are stronger than motivation. Willpower is bypassing these impulsive behaviors and temptations, "pushing through" to achieve goals. This is successful self-regulation.

How does an individual use his/her narrative identity?

Narrative identity deals with the internal stories that evolve over time to make sense of the diverse, often conflicting aspects of oneself and one's behavior. In time, the narrative identity that develops may itself influence how the individual develops his or her self-concepts and regulates his or her behaviors to make them consistent with that emerging self.

What does constructive alternativism mean?

One concrete event may have many different, alternative constructs that lead to WHY the event happened. People may not always be able to change events, but they can always construe them differently. For example, if a student receives a bad grade on a prelim, one friend may say that it was because they didn't sleep enough the night before, another friend may say it was because they didn't study enough, and the student themself may say they're just not good at taking tests. But all of these speculative reasons doesn't change the fact that the student received a bad grade.

What are some methods of delaying gratification?

One could remove the rewards from one's immediate line of sight, with the idea of "out of sight, out of mind." Also, cognitive distractions, such as thinking of other things rather than the reward, delays reward. Even if the rewards were presented in front of someone, one could avert their gaze, shield their eyes. Other physical activities, such as singing songs, jumping around, playing games, and even falling asleep, are useful for delay. In addition, one could think of the "cold" attributes of the reward, that are abstract, such as imagining a marshmallow as a cloud, rather than the "hot" aspects, such as how delicious the marshmallow tastes.

What feelings do people feel when there is a discrepancy between the actual-self from one's own vantage point and the ought-self from one's own vantage point?

One feels guilt and self-contempt, ending up hating oneself, blaming oneself.

How is self-efficacy measured?

Participants are asked (presumably on a scale from 1-10 or the like) about how confident they are at performing a task. The tasks detailed in the questions are related to their central topic of interest. These measures are highly accurate in predicting relevant behaviors. Again, these measures are specific (vs. global).

Describe the Swann studies on self-verification, and its significance for the personality system.

Participants with positive self-concept preferred favorable evaluators to confirm their positivity, whereas participants with negative self-concept preferred unfavorable evaluators to confirm their negative self-concept. This indicates that it is hard to break links, as it is part of the personality, and is strongly intertwined, but also raises questions about the source of behavioral stability.

Why doesn't life circumstance have a bigger effect (on enhancing happiness)?

People can adapt to stable circumstances. For instance, lottery winners are no happier than matched controls, since winning the lottery is a more hedonic, ephemeral pleasure. In the long run, that money doesn't make a significant difference. Objective events must be interpreted and appraised. The effect of unemployment depends on unemployment rate. Subjective interpretations affect well-being.

According to Prof. Bem, how do people come to realize their own internal states?

People come to realize their own internal states through reduced overt behavior, metaphor, and the "original word game" of pointing and naming.

How do self-evaluative standards influence striving and emotional response?

People evaluate their own behavior and perceived progress, then reward or punish the progress accordingly. In this way, they are creating positive reinforcement or negative punishment, much like in operant conditioning. This is where concepts such as "treat yourself" come in. With these rewards and punishments, people can more easily detect patterns of what and what not to do to achieve their ultimate goal.

Define rejection sensitivity. What is the empirical evidence that preschool delay ability serves as a protective factor for a personal vulnerability such as rejection sensitivity? How can the protective factor of delay ability be explained within a CAPS framework?

People high on rejection sensitivity anxiously expect, readily perceive and overreact to social rejection. It is a component of the Neurotic personality. A study of four-year-olds found that those with high delay ability but also high rejection sensitivity still have self-esteem compared to low delay, high RS. High delay, high RS also had low aggression and low crack/cocaine use. Through the CAPS framework, high delay's "cool" processes diminishes the rejection sensitivity, lowering impulse.

How do you define personality dispositions or processing dynamics?

Personality dispositions in CAPS are the person's characteristic patterns of CAUs -- thoughts, feelings, and behavior tendencies -- that become activated in distinctive psychological situations.

Define personality and discuss its assumptions.

Personality involves psychological structures and processes of a person that account for unique, consistent, and stable patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving. It assumes that personality influences interactions with the social world, that there are multiple expressions of feeling, thought, and behavior, that it is stable over space and time, that it is an organized psycholoigical system, that personality is a psychological concept with a physical, biological basis.

What is pessimism? What are its components?

Pessimism is an explanatory style related to negativity. The components are that the person sees bad events as enduring, widespread, and due to the self.

How do social emotions enable self-regulation? What is the impact of evolution?

Positive emotions grant positive reinforcement, an important aspect of self-regulation, which encourages one to continue in the pursuit. Negative emotions deter the goal and redirect to the right direction. Guilt and shame deter instant gratification so that we can recognize long-term consequences of our actions. Evolutionarily, these emotions are universal, guiding us in the correct paths for goal pursuit.

What are common themes shared by the three perspectives? Describe each.

Positive functioning focuses on strengths and virtues and factors, such as meaning and identity that enable individuals and communities to thrive. It focuses on positive emotions, mindfulness and meditation, spirituality, self-actualization, well-being, and creativity. Experience deals with the conscious and the present, while the past and the future are secondary. The prerequisite of self-awareness and self-reflection is the ability to view the self as separate from the environment or other individuals. Self-reflection sees the possible selves and outcomes in the future and also looks into the past. This gives rise to existential concerns. Free will is possible because conscious thoughts and present motives govern behaviors, and we are self-aware. It views humans as active agents with self-determination. This is in opposition to the concept of psychopathology (psychodynamics). Therefore, we have responsibility which can come with inescapable costs. Personal meaning centers around existentialism (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sartre) and urges the reconnection with the experience of being alive and aware. The starting point is characterized by an "existential attitude," which is a sense of disorientation and confusion to an absurd world, opposite of a Just-World Belief, that the World does not have inherent meaning.

What is the universality of positive implicit self-esteem?

Positive implicit self-esteem involves preference for the self. Cross-culturally, even though non-Western cultures don't express high explicit self-esteem, they express it implicitly, as there is a fundamental need for positive self-esteem.

What is positive psychology?

Positive psychology aims to understand human strengths through research and to build therapeutic and educational interventions to enhance them. The levels and foci of positive psychology are subjective experience, with a focus on well-being and satisfaction with the past, happiness in the present, and optimism for the future, the individual, with a focus on positive personal traits, and the group, with a focus on civic virtues like being a good upholding citizen. The concept arose from psychology being seen as a subject only aimed at unhealthy, troubled people. To balance the negativity, positive psychology helps build positivity.

What are George Kelly's personal constructs? What is the basic unit of personality?

Reality is constructed. Reality is subjective (vs. objective). Behavior is a function of perception of the situation. Behavior = f(Perception[Situation]) No two people encounter the exact situation. Personal constructs, the "cognitive" system, is the basic unit of personality.

How can the CAPS model be used to understand close relationships?

Regarding choosing dating partners, we are more likely to fall back into our previous behavioral patterns, going back to the sense of familiarity and the tight chains that we hold. Women who have been in abusive relationships in the past are more likely to choose partners who seem abusive. In a close relationship, one person's behavioral output becomes the other's situational input, providing a causal relationship. Once the relationship strengthens, a personality of its own emerges, and it's more than just an average of the two -- much like chemistry, where chemical reactions cannot go back to what they were before.

Name several influences on self-regulation ability.

Regarding reticent and shy children in preschool, their emotional regulation in later life depended on their mothers' responsiveness. Negative parenting, with aggressive behavior problems, can negatively impact a child's effortful control, which leads to difficulties in self-regulation. Attachment insecurity and difficult child temperament predicted lower levels of ego control and cognitive development. Poor, unresponsive adult caretaking affects child's temperamental negative affectivity, which increases cortisol levels, a physical marker of dysregulation.

What is rejection sensitivity (RS)? Give an example of trait and if-then components of RS. What is the relationship between RS and aggression? What is the relationship between RS and depression?

Rejection sensitivity is the tendency to expect and overreact anxiously to potential rejection cues. High RS individuals are more aggressive than low RS in situations where they perceive rejection, but when there's no perceived rejection, they react even with less hostility because they care more about preventing rejection by being overly accommodating. High RS leads to higher rates of depression when there's perceived rejection, but about the same depression when there's no rejection. Low RS stay the same whether there's rejection or not.

How do relational selves become activated and influence social cognition?

Relational selves are activated depending on the contexts that we are in so that we can predict behaviors that will occur.

What is rumination? What are the negative influences of rumination?

Rumination can be defined as thinking about negative aspects of the past and focusing inward, in other words, withholding sharing of this grief. Ruminations tends to enhance angry and depressed moods rather than to foster improvements. Those who ruminate are more likely to generate more negative memories, make more pessimistic predictions about the future, and interpret present situations more negatively than people who do not ruminate. Rumination may lead to depression and anxiety.

What are the proximal effects of schemas? List proximal effects.

Schemas aim to direct our attention, influence perceptions of ambiguous information, impact inferences, or, fill in the gaps, affect memory of events, and influence behavior.

What are schemas?

Schemas are cognitive structures of abstract knowledge. We categorize, or group things that are similar into a category. We use mental shortcuts, or a priori knowledge. We have schemas for groups, types of people, social roles, events, specific persons, and the self.

What are the benefits of schemas?

Schemas help simplify reality using information, organize knowledge, facilitate encoding, storage, and retrieval. Schemas give us a sense of prediction and control to novel situations by making inferences based on minimal or incomplete information and anticipate the nature of upcoming events, such as interactions with people.

What is the value of self-disclosure vs. rumination (e.g., Pennebaker & Graybeal, 2001)?

Self-disclosure can come in the form of writing down traumatic and stressful experiences or talking it out with people. Pennebacker found that those who self-disclose made fewer trips to the doctor, students made higher grades, and unemployed workers got new jobs faster. They also showed improved hormonal activities and immune function. However, Pennebacker doesn't believe that self-disclosure equates to catharsis but rather a restructuring of the narrative.

What are the origins of self-esteem?

Self-esteem is primarily affective and irrational, and stems from early life-experiences of attachment, the Rogerian view of unconditional positive regard, peer acceptance, and temperament.

What is self-esteem? What may be the costs of pursuing high self-esteem？

Self-esteem refers to the individual's personal judgment of his or her own worth. Self-esteem can also be used in conjunction to self-concept. In the pursuit of high self-esteem, it can lead people to focus too much on themselves while neglectful of the feelings and needs of others, which can encourage competitiveness rather than cooperation. Those who see having high self-esteem as having any sort of worth, any blow to their self-esteem may trigger anxiety followed by negative defensive reactions to reduce the discomfort.

How does the split-brain research provide support for the self-perception theory's concept of 2 persons in one?

Self-perception theory implies that we are two persons in one: one who behaves and one who observes and draws inferences about the behavior. Split-brain research shows that this is more than a metaphor.

What is self-realization?

Self-realization is the continuous quest to know oneself and to actualize one's potentialities for full awareness and growth as a human being. What keeps us in the way of self-realization are the expectations of society for us to conform, or generate ought-selves that do not align with our actual- or ideal-selves.

Define self-regulation.

Self-regulation refers to the self's capacity to alter its behaviors. These behaviors are changed in accordance to some standards, ideals, or goals either stemming from internal or societal expectations.

What are the two requirements of successful self-regulation?

Self-regulation requires both motivation and competence. If either is missing, then there is self-discrepancy and situational differences that fail to reconcile the person as a whole as one capable of successful self-regulation. There is a difference between "desiring and wanting" and "willing" as the latter is successful self-regulation.

What is a self-schema? What is the self-concept?

Self-schemas are beliefs (views, thoughts) about the self that are important and are held with great certainty, such as social identities (student, son, friend, boyfriend, athlete), defining traits (talkabtive, independent, studious), physical characteristics (tall), interests (piano). Self-concepts are formed from all of our self-schemas.

What are self-schemas?

Self-schemas are schemas that exist within an individual, which consists of interconnected knowledge structures of many different sorts based on a wide range of experiences in the course of development. Self-schemas include generalizations about the self.

How does existentialism relate to a Just-World Belief?

Since the Just-World Belief is that good things happen to good people and vice versa, existentialism is the opposite of that. It says that good things can happen to bad people and bad things can happen to good people, since the world does not have inherent meaning

From a terror management theory perspective, describe death-related anxiety and how individuals handle thoughts of their mortality. How is symbolic transcendence related to terror management theory?

Since thinking about death leads to anxiety, if individuals were to think about how their legacy will be immortalized, that decreases the anxiety, knowing that even after they die, they will be remembered by those who are still alive. Symbolic transcendence entails two non-mutually exclusive views: cultural world view (CWV) and self-esteem. Symbolic transcendence decreases the anxiety of death-related thoughts. CWV has religious beliefs and traditions that the people of the culture follow for a more easeful transition to death. Self-esteem is the sense of personal worth that depends on living up to the standards and values prescribed by the CWV

Describe three characteristics of social cognitive personality assessment. What kinds of measures are typically employed?

Social cognitive personality assessments tend to be specific, focused on specific cognitions, feelings, and behavior in relation to particular types of situations, rather than on descriptions with situation-free, broad trait terms. Also, they aim to change and improve expectancies through treatment. Lastly, the assessors find patterns of behaviors of the individual and place them in specific terms. Researchers ask participants to give samples of their daily logs for naturalistic observation.

How does social comparison affect happiness? How are happy vs. unhappy people similar vs. different in terms of strategies used?

Social comparisons are the strongest predictors of happiness in many domains. Happy people are less sensitive to social comparisons. Happy people selectively use social comparison to protect well-being whereas for unhappy people, it's chronic.

What is Ryans and Deci's theory of self-determination?

Some actions are controlled by external pressures (e.g., from parents to do well, to satisfy conditions of worth) or to gain external rewards (e.g., payment for work one does not enjoy doing). However, self-determined actions have intrinsic value for the individual. Self-determination enhances feelings of satisfactions as well as continued motivation

What are the objectives of social cognitive approaches to therapeutic behavior change?

Some aspects of therapy stay the same, such as the psychotherapy aspect of a client sitting in a room with a therapist, talking out issues. Currently, some goals are different. Now there are health-related programs relating to reduction of alcohol- and drug-use, dieting, and reduction of high-risk sexual activity. In the therapist room, the therapist helps the client identify aspects where the client could improve, whether that be a maladaptive behavior or disadvantageous thought process. They come up with solutions for alternative, adaptive ways of thinking and reacting. That way, it retains the freedom in the client's actions. Because of the widespread use of cognition for these therapies, cognitive behavior therapy has been coined.

What are the effects of spending money on ourselves vs. others? Provide empirical evidence.

Spending money on others increases happiness in ourselves because it is a prosocial behavior. In a study conducted by Dunn et al., employees who devoted greater % bonus to prosocial spending experienced greater happiness. Not only that, but prosocial behaviors (giving, charity, volunteering) leads to enhanced happiness and better health

How does a strategy analysis differ from a trait analysis?

Strategy significance is based on the functional significance of the behaviors a strategy comprises, not necessarily on the similarity of various acts. In other words, trait analysis is identifying the trait whereas strategy analysis is idiographic and different for each person in approaching the same life task. While one person might need to sleep more to become more healthy, another might need to eat less red meat.

Why is it so difficult to change behavior?

Strong manipulations often do not lead to change, but subtle manipulations sometimes lead to large effects, like self-affirmation exercises which strengthen self-esteem, self-efficacy, and reduces stress. Cohen et al. reduced achievement gap between black and white students by 40%, and promoted weight loss. Change is possible if we are aware of the problem, our behavior, and the triggers, which we then modify the objective situations and subjective ones, the construals. Then, small factors such as meditation and self-affirmation, reduce stress. This targets multiple elements in the system through cognitive behavioral therapy.

Why is less more when is comes to interventions?

Subtle manipulations target one aspect of ourselves that is a fundamental trait, leading to large-scale change. This can be our self-esteem, self-efficacy, which in turn reduces stress. For instance, changing people's mindsets, from fixed to malleable, from fixed to growth, from entity theory to incremental theory, can have a big impact on their achievement -- and that's just a small change.

How are goals organized hierarchically?

Superordinate goals are more important than subordinate goals. Each specific goal is placed on a hierarchy, in the order of importance. This is similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, where some needs are more important than others. When one goal is blocked, then people may continue to strive toward a higher-level goal toward which the blocked, lower-level goal was directed toward.

How is the CAPS related to if-then personality signatures?

The "if"s in CAPS are the different CAUs that get activated, which lead to different behavioral signatures.

Describe how CAPS explains both individual differences in trait-level behaviors as well as intraindividual dynamics that give rise to a person's behavioral signature.

The CAPS network mediates stimuli and behavior. Differences in network accounts for differences in trait-level behaviors, which differ in availability, accessibility, and associations. If-then signatures determine which pathway the CAPS network goes down. This provides a social cognitive framework for accounting for both the stable, trait-like differences and the varying, within-person aspects of personality and behavior.

Describe Cultural World View (CWV) defense and its implications.

The CWV defense entails the bolstering of the in-group and the denigration of the out-group. The in-group includes anyone who shared opinions of social issues, national identification, political affiliation, or sports teams. Bolster includes giving larger rewards to people who uphold the cultural standard, and showing more respect for cultural icons, such as a flag. The denigration of the out-group has people respond more negatively to people who criticize their culture, more aggressive behaviors towards those with opposing political views, more stereotypical thinking about minority group members, and harsher punishments to moral transgressors. Specifically to morality salience manipulations, punishments include physical pain, social rejection, uncertainty, and persona failure.

Is the IAT valid? To what degree does the IAT predict behavior, judgment, and physiology? What about the predictive ability of explicit self-reports? When might self-reports be less predictive?

The IAT has the predictive ability of coefficient r = .27. Explicit self-reports have predictive ability of r = .36 but are more variable. Self-reports are less predictive outside of the scope of socially sensitive topics, as the race-IAT predicted interracial behavior better than self-reports

What is the Q-sort technique？

The Q-sort technique arose out of the idea that we can use a variety of different words to convey the same thing, so word use will vary from person to person. Q-sort is useful to "sort" these into traits at that trait-dispositional level. Unlike other measures, which measure between-person differences, the Q-sort's goal is to capture the unique pattern of characteristics within-person.

How is happiness assessed?

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is a self-report measure using Likert-scale questions about one's subjective happiness. It is a cognitive reflection/thoughts of life as a whole rather than current feelings. There is also an affective component, asking individuals how they feel right at the moment of taking the self-report. Those who are happier will experience more happy states throughout the day.

What is delay of gratification?

The ability to voluntarily delay immediate gratification, to tolerate self-imposed delays of reward, which are also synonymous to willpower, ego strength, and ego resilience.

How do actual versus symbolic representations of rewards affect delay of gratification? Provide an explanation for the empirical evidence through a hot/cool theoretical framework.

The actual representation of the reward relates to the "hot" representation, increasing temptation, making the smaller reward more accessible. It's the present, concrete, decreases the person's motivation to delay, and hurts the delay. The symbolic representation is related to the "cool" representation, the abstract, and increases accessibility of larger reward, increasing motivation to delay, which helps delay. In a study, children were assigned to think of marshmallows about marshmallow in the "hot" or "cool" representations. In the "hot," they think about the taste, smell of the marshmallow while in the "cool," they think of marshmallows like clouds. The results found that the delay time was significantly longer for the "cool" condition.

What brain mechanisms are implicated in goal pursuit?

The anterior attentional system that regulates the pathways involved in executive function throughout the cortex is required for adaptive, goal-directed behaviors. It is especially required for the inhibition of automatic or established thoughts and processes. They allow people to regulate their attention.

How do individual differences in preschool delay of gratification relate to later life outcomes?

The delayers scored higher on SAT later in life. Their social competencies, self-assured, self-worth in high school as rated by parents and teachers are way higher than terminators. They cope with stress more easily and are more likely to plan ahead and use reason. They exhibit less conduct disorders, impulsivity, aggressiveness, and hyperactivity, and are less likely to have drug problems or addictive behaviors, be overweight, or divorce later in life.

Which three main factors tend to emerge from results from the semantic differential?

The evaluative (good-bad) factor shows that people tend to characterize themselves as good or bad along with their experiences and other people. Potency are items such as soft-hard, strong-weak, masc-fem. Activity are items such as active-passive, excitable-calm, hot-cold.

How does self-perception explain the foot-in-the-door effect?

The foot in the door effect is when someone aims to ask another person of a large request by asking for a small favor first. In that way, they can calibrate, or prepare, the person with the large request incrementally, thus changing their perception of the situation. For example, one may first ask another to open a jar for them as the small favor, then complimenting on their physical strength, which leads to the larger favor of using this strength to help them move into their new house.

What is the "good life"? How is it related to happiness?

The good life is the pursuit of happiness as the basis of individual motivation. It is inherently tied with pleasure. The good life pursues happiness for its own sake, as the core desire. The good life is not just a goal on the individual level, but also on the societal level for a good society, as it is the goal for society, culture, and government.

How do Markus and Kitayama define the independent view of the self?

The independent view of the self has all of the circles not interlocking, meaning they depend less on each other.

What does reciprocal interactionism mean?

The interaction between the person and the situation where both variables influence one another reciprocally.

What is the automatic activation of attitudes?

The link between a concept and evaluation, an attitude object activates the concept in memory and associated evaluation. It is automatic, effortless, unintentional, and nonconscious. These are implicit attitudes. For example, when we see a puppy, we automatically activate our attitude of good and inhibit the bad.

What is the Cognitive Affective Processing System (CAPS)? Describe key aspects of CAPS (e.g. unique information processing system or network and how it mediates the effect of situations and behavior).

The mind is a network of interconnected cognitions, and it mediates the effect of situation and behavior.

What is the "mind as a computer" metaphor?

The mind is an information processing system, a computer. Mental processes are computational processes. The mind translates the physical world (inputs), then further processes them to create mental or physical states (outputs). The mind creates a representation of the world.

What is the process of "spreading Activation"?

The more frequently two concepts are activated together, the stronger the excitatory link between them. Once one activates one thought, the other associated thoughts also become automatically activated. (sounds like classical conditioning) On the other hand, the less frequently two concepts are activated together, once one thought is activated, other associated thoughts are not activated and activation may even be inhibited. (getting rid of appetitive response)

What is trait self-esteem? What is the most common conceptualization of self-esteem?

The most conceptualization of self-esteem is chronic individual difference, between-person trait, stable across situations. It is a predictor of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, and it's explicit. Trait self-esteem also involve global self-esteem (GSE), self-evaluations

Describe the network information-processing model. What are nodes, excitatory and inhibitory links?

The network information-processing model emphasizes the way the person's internal mental representations or schemas are related to each other and interconnected to form a system that functions as an organized network structure. The nodes in the network are constructs. The more often concepts are activated in our minds, the stronger the excitatory link. The less frequently two concepts are activated together, the stronger the inhibitory or deactivating links.

What is a personal meaning system? How are cultural and personal meaning systems related?

The personal meaning system incorporates some components from the shared cultural meaning system while other components reflect unique life experiences, and is different for each person as they navigate life through cultures and personal experiences.

How does perception of choice affect perceptions of freedom? Can too much freedom (too many choices) be bad?

The presence of external incentives to action undermines perceptions of choice and intrinsic motivation. Experiencing actions as freely willed (vs. externally controlled) increases fulfilling relationships and greater well-being. Threats to freedom create an aversive psychological reactance state that motivates people to reassert their freedom. Having too much freedom, an unrestrained amount, may promote a sense of groundlessness. There is more satisfaction with choices if they have smaller (vs. larger) number to choose from.

What is the principle of knowledge activation? Describe them: Availability, Accessibility (the two types), and Applicability

The principle of knowledge activation tells us which schema will be activated and applied in a given situation. The three principles of knowledge activation are availability, accessibility, and applicability. Availability refers to whether knowledge is actually stored in memory, and if the concept is available in a person's mind. Accessibility has two types: temporary and chronic. Accessibility asks how easily the concept comes to mind, and is the activation potential of the available knowledge. Temporary accessibility is the temporary increase in the activation level of a concept, made more accessible by a situational cue such as an event, object, or idea. Chronic accessibility are constructs or schemas that are frequently used to tend to become stronger overtime, and have higher stable activations or "resting state." They come to mind with no or little external cue, as they are readily and frequently used. Some normative or common examples are significant others, the self, and trustworthiness. Chronic accessibility is also idiographic, or unique, as they are trait-relevant and pertains to our hobbies and interests. Applicability is the "fit" between features of stored knowledge and the attended features of the external stimulus. The greater the overlap, the greater the applicability of stored (latent) knowledge to the external stimulus, the greater the likelihood that the knowledge structure will be activated.

What are the five limitations of the studies described by the authors in Tsai et al.?

The researchers only focused on exposure to storybooks as a pathway to socialization, while there are many other ways in which children may learn to value specific affective states. Further studies should examine the other socialization pathways that promote ideal affect (e.g., parent-children interaction, peer interaction, religion). In addition, the Asian-American group differs from TC and EA in that the cultural messages they receive from socialization pathways diverge at home and at school. In the final study, children were exposed to stories for a relatively short period of time. In the future, it would be important to assess the effects of chronic exposure to these studies. Also, within-culture variability is greater than between-culture variability, and at that young age, some children have not been fully accultured, so further studies could examine immigrant experiences to ideal affect. The studies did not examine the functional significance of differences in ideal affect in preschool children, such as emotional development and regulation.

What is the semantic differential and what does it measure?

The semantic differential studies what different stimuli, events, or other experiences mean to the individual, their personal significance. This is measured by taking a word and being asked to place the word on a bipolar scale. The measure is both objective and flexible. It investigates how people describe themselves and others, as well as how special experiences affect them.

How does Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test, or "Rep" Test work to measure an individual's personal constructs?

The subject lists many people or things that are important to them. After they are listed, group the items into threes, then in each, indicate how two items are similar and different from the third. This will provide insights into how one perceives similarity and "unlock" their repertoire of constructs. It also has good test-retest validity, indicating that constructs remain the same and are built upon.

How does the system view of culture explain cultural differences in behavior? According to Kitayama, what are cultural affordances?

The system view of view culture avoids treating cultures as causal entities that "account" for group differences. It recognizes that cultural values and belief systems shape the institutions and everyday practices of a cultural group, which then themselves lead to particular cultural affordances, which are opportunities for the practice, expression, and reinforcement of these cultural values

What are the three components of happiness?

The three components of happiness are pleasure, engagment in life, and meaning.

What are the three types of concepts about the self? What are the emotional consequences of self-discrepancies?

The three concepts of the self are the actual-self, ideal-self, and the ought-self. Discrepancies between the own actual-self and the own ideal-self lead to dejection-related emotions such as disappointment. Discrepancies between the own actual-self and others' ought-self leads to fear and worry. Discrepancies between own actual-self and own ought-self leads to guilt and self-contempt. Own actual-self and others' ideal self leads to shame and embarrassment.

Describe the six levels of analysis in personality and their key contributions.

The trait-dispositional level contributed broad traits and behavior tendencies, if-then signatures. Biological level contributed the role of brain processes and genetics in personality, temperament, and the role of evolution; neural network models of brain organization. The psychodynamic-motivational level contributed unconscious processing and defensive processing. Behavioral-conditioning level contributed the behaviors connected to situations, emotional conditioning, and response consequences. The phenomenological-humanistic level contributed subjective perception, cognitive appraisal, self-actualization, and self-construction. The social cognitive level contributed social learning, social cognitive person variables.

How is self-regulation assessed at each level of analysis?

The trait-dispositional level emphasizes individual differences and how each person may behave differently to situations with individual if/then signatures and therefore would have varying levels of self-regulation and goal-pursuits. From the psychodynamic-motivational level, Freud explains that the problems in self-regulation that manifest in physical and mental agony could be unconscious conflicts with the id and the superego or the base-level needs of eros and thanatos. The biological level looks at these self-regulatory mechanisms from the brain, finding the "hot" systems in the brain under the prefrontal cortex that may provide fight or flight responses. The behavioral-conditioning level posits that people can control their self-regulations through classical or operant conditioning to control and shape behavior, often with little awareness from the individual. From the phenomenological-humanistic level, the individual is given full range, agency, in self-regulation. In addition, construals of situations greatly influences one's approach, affecting behavioral tendencies and self-determination. The social cognitive level connected agency with goal-oriented behavior, building on phenomenology, emphasizing effortful control, self-efficacy, delay of gratification.

What is the contribution of each level of analysis to the understanding of self-regulation?

The trait-dispositional level found and measured broad individual differences in conscientiousness and self-regulation, as well as distinctive if/then behavioral signatures in self-regulation. It also examined constructs and dimensions of ego control and ego resilience and identified problems of undercontrol and overcontrol and their implications for personality development over the life course. The biological level identifies brain centers, pathways, interacting with "hot" and "cool" systems in effortful control and delay of gratification. It clarifies the role of attention deployment in effective self-regulation and focused problem solving. It also found links to trait and temperament measures. The psychodynamic-motivational level contributed that self-regulation problems reflect internal conflicts between basic biological impulses, the id, versus inhibiting features, the ego and the superego, often outside awareness. It also recognized the importance of the ability to delay gratification and analyzed some of its mechanisms and examined insight and rational ego/cognitive control to overcome defensive, irrational, self-defeating automatic processing. The behavioral-conditioning level showed importance and power of situations and stimulus control. It found processes and determinants of behavior outside of awareness, that these behaviors are automatic rather than consciously controlled. It also analyzed how emotional conditioning and response consequences shape behavior, including irrational behavior, and make self-control and self-regulation difficult. The phenomenological-humanistic level posits that perception is subjective, that a person's cognitive appraisals and contrual of situations influence their impact on behavior, and showed possibilities for self-determination. Higher-order processes of self-actualization and self-construction provide routes to enhance self-direction and overcome stimulus control. Constructive alternative ways of construing and thinking can help people from becoming victims of their social and biological history. The social cognitive level helped bridge the gap between construal and action and showed how the construal of the situation interacts with other mental representations, like expectancies, beliefs, and goals, to influence goal-directed effortful behavior. It also analyzed the mental mechanisms and strategies that enable delay of gratification and goal-directed self-control, and demonstrated the consequences of this ability, visible in early life, for major long-term life outcomes. It found evidence that much self-regulation operates automatically outside awareness.

What is the goal of therapy from the CAPS framework?

Therapy aims at helping clients recognize internal or external stimuli that trigger distressing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. To resolve these issues, they find alternative paths of encoding these situations to systematically change their meanings.

How can the CAPS be activated? What does reciprocal interactionism mean concerning the CAPS?

There are two sources of activation of CAPS: external activation that comes from the situations encountered at a given moment in time, and internal activation, one's own thoughts and feelings and plans over rumination, which is indicated by the curved arrow over personality system. Reciprocal interactionism is the reason for the two-way arrow between situations and personality system, that each influence each other.

What are "implicit partner evaluations"? What factors might influence implicit partner evaluations? What do implicit partner evaluations predict?

These evaluations come to mind automatically, unintentionally when thinking of a partner. Relationship satisfaction, emotional commitment, adult attachment security, with lower avoidance might influence implicit partner evaluations. These implicit partner evaluations predict relationship outcomes such as break-ups and martial dissolution, expectations, and subjective experience.

Describe the focus of humanistic, phenomenological, and existential perspectives, and how they relate to contemporary areas of study. What is the three-headed perspective?

These perspectives focus on the experience rather than the behavior, stating that behavior is a by-product of these experiences. The three-headed perspective entails phenomenology, existentialism, and the humanistic approaches. Phenomenology is concerned with the way lives are shaped by perception, or the "subjective experiences of the individual" (George Kelly), and bleeds into the social cognitive approaches. Existentialism is the experience of one's existence. It concerns the ways we deal with existential issues such as birth, death, uncertainty, limitations, and guilt. Originally founded by a group of philosophers including Kierkegaard, the psychology offshoot is Experimental Existential Psychology (XXP). The humanistic perspective is the idea that the aware mind is a uniquely human possession. There are characteristics that are inherently human, such as self-actualization and resilience, and deals with positive psychology.

What does Dweck mean by small interventions having a large impact with the research she describes? What could researchers have manipulated in their interventions?

These small interventions speak to the effectiveness of targeting beliefs that lie at the heart of important motivational, self-regulatory, and interpersonal patterns. The interventions change what's thought to be relatively stable, such as openness to experience, conscientiousness, sociability, and negative affectivity.

Why can describing cultures in broad trait terms like individualist and collectivist be problematic?

These terms only capture the average tendency in the culture, but is not an accurate representation of everyone in the culture. Rough estimates suggest that only 60% of the people in the culture are accurately represented.

According to existentialists, how do people respond to realizations that the world does not have inherent meaning?

They can retreat into nothingness, despair, or they can create their own meanings by actions and choices, acting authentically. Carpe diem: seize the day

What are outcome-based strategists?

They perform post-hoc once receiving a negative outcome and seek reassurance from others, often people who aren't outcome-based.

What is learned optimism?

This pattern of experience and thinking is the opposite of learned helplessness. To develop this style the person is helped to encode the daily hassles and setbacks in life by deliberately using self-enhancing explanations.

What is client-centered therapy? How does this fit with Rogers' theory?

This type of therapy seeks to bring about the harmonious interaction of the self and the organism. This fits in line with Rogers' self-theory in that since each person has unique subjective experience, there is no one-size-fits-all model for therapy. Rather, the counselor supports the client through active listening and open-endedness to hopefully reconcile the client's self-structure.

What are some long-term implications of delay and gratification abilities?

Those who are more adept in delay of gratification abilities in early life had more positive outcomes later in life. They became more socially and cognitively competent teenagers, were perceived as more able to manage stress and exert effective self-control in diverse frustrating situations in adolescence. Concretely, they had higher SAT scores. Regarding protective effects, those with high delay ability, even if they had high rejection sensitivity, were less prone to the negative consequences of high RS, as they are better able to cope with stress and had greater ego resiliency.

What are fixed (entity) vs. malleable (incremental) theories according to Dweck?

Those with fixed or entity theories believe that their qualities, such as their intelligence, are simply fixed traits. The malleable or incremental theory believes that their most basic qualities can be developed through their efforts and education. They are more open to learning, willing to confront challenges, able to stick to difficult tasks, and capable of bouncing back from failures.

Describe the results of the study by Leary et al. (1995) about self-esteem and social inclusion.

Those with high self-esteem had an equal level of self-appraisal by themselves and with how the group evaluated them. On the other hand, those with low self-esteem appraised themselves more lowly while others appraised them the same, or slightly higher, than HSE individuals.

How does the CAPS model integrate the six levels of analysis?

Through the biological lens, the model incorporates temperament and prewiring. Through the psychodynamic-motivational level, the model takes in unconscious biases as the model fires at a rapid rate. Trait-dispositional level has two types of behavioral consistencies in the expressions of personality. The social-cognitive level is the whole basis of the model, that the mind is an information-processing system that takes an input and output, and this system mediates stimuli and behavior, which extends beyond the behavior-conditioning level in that they take the self into account, as there is agency in people's actions, as posited by the phenomenological-humanistic level.

According to Maslow, what does it mean to self-actualize? (also see In Focus box 12.2)

To self-actualize is to desire to be the most that one can be. Maslow's hierarchy of needs emphasizes growth motivation, with self-actualization as the ultimate goal at the very top of the hierarchy, the peak experience. To realize, or actualize, one must "look fate in the face."

What is the empirical research on meaning-making following trauma for challenges to world views?

Traumatic experiences threaten people's sense of life meaning. Given that, survivors of trauma who see meaning in life experience growth and appreciation of life. When they recall a trauma, having their world view changed, leads to compensatory increase in reports of meaningful life.

Why might subtle interventions enable change?

Using self-affirmation exercises, which strengthen self-esteem, self-efficacy, and reduces stress, people can better approach situations.

Why do researchers study individual differences in happiness? E.g., what we might be able to do with that information. What are the limitations and strengths of each research design used to study happiness?

Using the research on individual differences in happiness, we can create a salient dimension of the human experience, and answer questions such as: why are some people happier than others? can we predict who will be happy? can there be interventions to help people become happier? With the correlational research design used to study happiness, it is useful for measuring chronic, longitudinal happiness. Ethically, it is difficult to demand someone be happy or unhappy for the sake of a study, so correlational is the way to go. Experimental designs looks at how slight changes in what people do in their behavior, what they think, can create momentary increases in happiness. There is also work on interventions that lead to more enduring change in happiness

How does the CAPS model account for individual differences in behavior?

We all have different levels of chronic accessibility for our traits, as we experience situations that contain different psychological features, so CAUs change from one situation to another.

How do individual differences in self-schemas manifest?

We all have self-schemas, which is normative. But the CONTENT of the schemas give rise to individual differences. We identify which characteristics are relevant for a given person.

Explain the schema-congruent effects on information processing.

We are faster at classifying schema-consistent information as "me" vs. "not me." For example, social, talktative, strong, feminine, masculine, artsy, independent. We are morely likely to remember schema-consistent information.

What is self-enhancing bias?

We are more likely to see ourselves as causally responsible for our actions when they have positive rather than negative outcomes. Successes are due to internal causes while failures are due to external causes.

What is self-discrepancy theory?

We are motivated to maintain a sense of consistency among our various beliefs, perceptions, and behaviors about ourselves. Discrepancy, no matter temporary or chronic, leads to negative affect. A pattern of discrepancy among the self views leads to predictable emotional responses. Between the actual-self and the ideal-self, discrepancy between the two leads to feelings of disappointment and dejection. Between the actual-self and the ought-self, discrepancy leads to feelings of guilt and self-contempt.

What is Kelly's "person as a scientist" metaphor?

We are scientists is that we actively, and dispassionately, develop theories and hypotheses about the world (constructs) in order to predict future events. We perform "experiments" by collecting data, evaluating, and revising. We are intrinsically motivated to "learn," predict, figure it out. Success in predicting, even unpleasant events, is validating. If constructs don't allow us to predict, then we feel uncertain and anxious. Investigation with studies lead to personal constructs that guide interaction with the world.

How do we change?

We change through the use of the effortful control strategies, but like many habituations, it takes time for these strategies to positively significantly impact us in the long term.

What are "person-situation" linkages? Describe the tight coupling (e.g., "chains" between the CAPS network and ecology).

We have a strong preference for our familiar ecology based on our preference. Familiarity breeds liking, and predictability decreases uncertainty. Preference even leads to negative outcomes.

Describe the view that the self consists of "multiple selves" versus being a unitary construct.

We have multiple facets. Each aspect is a possible self, a specific schema of the self. This posits that the self is not static, but dynamic. There are schemas about different social roles, but also the self in different relationships.

What are three ways that individuals shape the situations that they encounter?

We shape situations by selection, attraction, and evocation. (SAE)

How does anxiety affect goal-striving?

When anxiety kicks in, these anxious thoughts are often unrelated to the task at hand, especially if the task is difficult. Instead of thinking "I can do this; I just have to take it step by step," one is thinking "I can't do this; I haven't been able to do this in the past, so what's going to change?" Anxiety causes us to imagine all of the terrible things that could go wrong.

What is the role of perceived control and predictability in the experience of aversive events?

When an event is predictable, one can more readily tolerate it because they believe they can control it. In aversive events, the more perceived control and predictability, the more ease.

What is learned helplessness? How does it develop?

When people believe that there is nothing they can do to control negative or painful outcomes, they may come to expect that they are helpless and encode themselves in helpless terms. They expect that the aversive outcomes are uncontrollable, that there is nothing they can do. In this state, they also may become apathetic and despondent an that state may generalize and persist. Learned helplessness develops when people believe they cannot control events and outcomes, so they gradually develop a sense of helplessness and even severe depression.

How does the presence of immediate reward, delayed reward, both, or no rewards influence the ability to delay gratification?

When there's an immediate reward, the delay time is relatively short, as the subject knows that the reward is there. When there's a delayed reward, the subject waits slightly longer, knowing that it's delayed. When both rewards are present, the delay time is significantly shorter than both above. But when there are no rewards, the subject waits significantly longer than all above because they have no baseline time for waiting.

How does within-culture variability compare to between-culture variability?

Within-culture variability is greater than between-culture variability. "no individual is a mirror-image of the modal or average culture pattern. We are molded by real culture and not by the anthropologist's distilled image of it. To apply this image directly to people is to falsify the diversity of personality found within any single culture"

Which is greater, variability within a culture or variability between cultures? Explain the significance of this.

Within-culture variability is greater than between-culture variability. Despite group-level differences, there is much similarity (overlap) between the two groups in terms of the scores of individual members. Therefore, stereotypes are often times not accurate to a certain group.

In the 'Body image' study, how do men and women differ in their self-discrepancies?

Women and men were shown a chart of body types ranging from the most lean to the most rounded, and asked to point to their current body shape, ideal body shape, and body shape that the opposite-sex would find attractive. Lastly, they're asked the body shape that they find the most attractive in the opposite sex. For women, each body type warranted a different answer, with their ideal and what others find attractive being leaner than their current types. On the other hand, men pointed to the same body types for each question, and it was only the women who pointed to a leaner body type of men of whom they found attractive.

What is existential experimental psychology?

XXP uses experimental techniques to explore processes by which humans confront existential issues and how they affect diverse human behavior.

Quiz 6 #5: President Abraham Lincoln was first called "Honest Abe" when he was working as a young store clerk in New Salem. According to one story, whenever he realized he had shortchanged a customer by a few pennies, he would close the shop and deliver the correct change, regardless of how far he had to walk. Based on the principles of social cognition, you might expect President Lincoln, if he were alive today, to。。。 a. Be faster at identifying any information that is relevant to the trait honesty as being descriptive of himself b. Be more likely to be perceived as honest c. Want to be with people who view him as honest d. Not be bothered by people who think he's dishonest.

a. Be faster at identifying any information that is relevant to the trait honesty as being descriptive of himself

Quiz 6 #8: Which of the following statements accurately reflects what you learned about independent and interdependent self-construal? a. Your self-construal can be more independent or more interdependent in different situations. b. Between-culture variability is greater than within-culture variability. c. Individualistic cultures value the ability to adjust to fit in with different social contexts. d. Interdependent cultures tend to value explicit social support.

a. Your self-construal can be more independent or more interdependent in different situations.

Quiz 6 #4: The downside of having high self-esteem is: a. Lack of empathy for others b. Overconfidence c. Increased risk for narcissistic personality disorder d. There are really no downsides to having high self-esteem

b. Overconfidence

Quiz 6 #10: The CAPS approach assumes that: a. People's information processing system (cognitions and affects and connections between them) changes from situation to situation. b. The thoughts and affects activated at a given time change from situation to situation. c. The strength of association among cognitions and affects can account for within-person differences between people, but not trait-like differences. d. People's behaviors are primarily driven by automatic perceptions and reactions rather than more deliberative strategies.

b. The thoughts and affects activated at a given time change from situation to situation.

Quiz 6 #7: When asked to respond to the statement "I am...," which of the following statements would a South Korean person be more likely to say than a French person? a. I am artistic b. I am a hard worker c. I am a sister d. I am a soccer player

c. I am a sister

Quiz 6 #6: Which of the following statements is correct regarding big-5 personality across cultures? a. The five basic dimensions of personality found in Western cultures are slightly different in East-Asian cultures. b. In Western cultures, agreeableness is initially low and increases with age. In East-Asian cultures, agreeableness is high and stable across age. c. In Western and East-Asian cultures, women report higher levels of neuroticism and agreeableness, compared to men. d. The members of any given culture will show less variability in big-5 traits compared to the variability observed between cultures.

c. In Western and East-Asian cultures, women report higher levels of neuroticism and agreeablenes, compared to men.

Quiz 6 #1: Michael and his two friends are having a great time hanging out and talking about their love life. Michael expresses for the first time that he's bisexual. The conversation quickly dies down and both friends say they have to leave to get some work done. Michael feels a drop in his self-esteem. According to sociometer theory, why did Michael experience a drop in self-esteem? a. Michael felt unsure about why his friends left. b. Michael felt like other people didn't affirm his values. c. Michael felt that he wasn't valued by his friends. d. Michael felt disappointed because he was having a good time.

c. Michael felt that he wasn't valued by his friends.

Quiz 6 #2: Angela grew up with parents who were sometimes very caring, attentive and supportive. But other times, they were so busy with work that they could not provide her with the same quality of care, attention, and support. If we were to assess Angela's attachment style in her most important relationships, we would find that: a. The majority of her relationships would be characterized as anxious. b. The majority of her relationships would be characterized as avoidant. c. The majority of her relationships would be characterized as secure. d. We would need to know Angela's attachment style with her parents.

c. The majority of her relationships would be characterized as secure.

Quiz 6 #3: According to research by Baldwin looking at people's mental models of different relationships, a person's whose primary attachment style is anxious ambivalent is likely to be: a. anxiously attached in almost all of their other close relationships. b. anxiously attached in the majority, but not all, of her relationships. c. securely attached in the majority of her relationships. d. anxiously attached in half of her relationships, and securely attached in the rest.

c. securely attached in the majority of her relationships.

Quiz 6 #9: Fangming, a Chinese student, is upset about something that happened in her relationship. Given what you learned about cultural differences in social support, which strategy is Fangming most likely to use to cope with her troubles? a. Fangming stays at home until she feels better. b. Fangming asks her best friend for relationship advice. c. Fangming invites several of her friends out for drinks and says her relationship has been challenging, but doesn't get into the details. d. Fangming asks her sister if she would like to get ice cream and hang out.

d. Fangming asks her sister if she would like to get ice cream and hang out.

Social cognitive approaches to personality are similar to phenomenological approaches in that both: - conceive of the person as a product of her environment - emphasize what people do more than what people think - focus on the concepts and constructs of the person - emphasize the importance of the unconscious

focus on the concepts and constructs of the person (ch 14, pp 349-350)

What individual differences predict effective attention deployment?

level of self-continuity (low to high): how closely you can bring to mind your future self. Those with high continuity showed better delay, as there is less temporal discounting and greater assets. Activation of future goals may mediate the link, as high continuity predicted valuation of future rewards. level of self-efficacy (low to high): belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations. Those with high self-efficacy have higher motivation and see new and difficult tasks as challenges, whereas low self-efficacy people have low motivation and no initiative and see new and difficult tasks as threats. Therefore, high self-efficacy are better at delay. reliability of environment/agent: reliable environment/higher SES means better delay because of more comfortable lives. Those with unreliable environment may not have the luxury for delay, so they take what they can

Identify intentional activities/practices that contribute to happiness.

making love, exercising, talking/conversation, playing, listening to music, walking/taking a walk, eating, praying/worshipping, meditating, preparing food, shopping/errands, taking care of children, relaxing, reading, and watching television

Seeing another person be rewarded for behavior makes us __ likely to engage in that behavior ourselves. Seeing another person be punished for a behavior makes us __ likely to engage in that behavior ourselves. - more, less, or equally likely for both

more likely; less likely (ch 14, pp 352-5)

Gretchen regularly expresses to her friends that she doesn't think her romantic relationship is going anywhere and that she might be better off single. Whenever her partner does something positive she reacts enthusiastically and truly enjoys it, and is quick to overlook her partner's mistakes. Gretchen likely has __ explicit attitudes about her partner and __ implicit attitudes about her partner. - positive or negative for both

negative explicit and positive implicit (Lecture 21, social cognition, slides 18-55)

How did Bandura explain the fact that children's behavior can be influenced through observational learning? - children experience "vicarious" conditioning - observational learning alters children's self-guides - children's behavior is very malleable, whereas adults' behavior is less so - observing the consequences of others' actions can change children's behavior-outcome expectancies

observing the consequences of others' actions can change children's behavior-outcome expectancies (ch 14, pp 352-5)

Kelly's parents really want her to perform well in school. According to the Self-Discrepancy Theory, if Kelly fails an exam, there could be a discrepancy between her actual self and her: - ideal self - ought self - best self - either a or b

ought self (Lecture 20: the pursuit of happiness, slides 34-39, ch 13 pp 324-327)

Which of the following statements about mind wandering is NOT true? - people are less happy when their mind wanders - people are happier when they mind-wander about something positive than when they aren't mind-wandering at all - whether someone is mind-wandering or not is a better predictor of their happiness than the activity they are currently engaged in - people spend about half of their time mind-wandering

people are happier when they mind-wander about something positive than when they aren't mind-wandering at all (Lecture 20, the pursuit of happiness, slides 25-26)

The phenomenological, existential, and humanistic perspectives share five themes. Which arises from the ability to reconcile oneself as separate from the environment and other people? - positive functioning - experience - self-awareness and self-reflection - personal meaning

self-awareness and self-reflection (Lecture 19: a meaningful life, slides 6-12)

Ida had a bad, near-death car accident. Although Ida fully recovered, given what you know about the Terror Management Theory's mortality salience, she likely showed all of the following EXCEPT for: - she became even more committed to her academics - she lost interest in hosting a foreign visitor for a weekend - she donated money to her sorority - she thought about the importance of having a legacy after she dies

she thought about the importance of having a legacy after she dies (Lecture 19: a meaningful life, slides 20-29)

According to the Cognitive-Affective Processing System (CAPS), what are two main influences on personality?

situational features and impulsive behavior

Which of the following best summarizes a social-cognitive approach to studying personality? - situations directly influence behavior - personality is influenced by both individual differences and situational factors - reality is constructed - the cognitive system mediates the relationship between the situation and behavior

the cognitive system mediates the relationship between the situation and behavior (Lecture 21, social cognition, ch 14)

The goal of Q-sort assessment is: - to create a comprehensive taxonomy of human attributes - to bring out an individual's repressed thoughts and feelings - to compare individuals with each other along a given dimension - to examine the unique pattern of various characteristics for each person

to examine the unique pattern of various characteristics for each person (ch 13, pp 329-330)