Pharmacology - Prep U - Chapter 38

The client is scheduled to get a breakfast tray at 07:00. At what time should the client receive a prescribed dose of insulin lispro?

06:45 With short-acting insulins like lispro, aspart, or glulisine, it is important to inject the medication about 15 minutes before eating.

A nurse is caring for a patient who has developed a hypoglycemic reaction. Which intervention should the nurse perform if swallowing and gag reflexes are present in the patient?

Give oral fluids or candy. The nurse should administer oral fluids or candy to the hypoglycemic patient with swallowing and gag reflexes. If the patient is unconscious the nurse should administer glucose or glucagon parenterally. The nurse should administer insulin through an insulin pump to special categories of diabetic patients, such as pregnant women with diabetes and renal transplantation. Oral antidiabetic drugs are administered to patients with type 2 diabetes.

Which would a nurse identify as an example of a sulfonylurea?

Glyburide Glyburide is an example of a sulfonylurea. Metformin is classified as a biguanide. Acarbose and miglitol are alpha-glucosidase inhibitors.

When describing the effects of incretins on blood glucose control to a group of students, which would an instructor include?

Increases insulin release Incretins increase insulin release, decrease glucagon release, slow GI emptying, and stimulate the satiety center. Growth hormone increases protein building.

Which would be appropriate to include in teaching a client with type 2 diabetes?

It is possible with weight loss and exercise to discontinue the use of antidiabetic medication. Exercise is perhaps the best therapy for the prevention of both type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. Exercise is an extremely strong hypoglycemic agent.

What is the expected action of sitagliptin on type 2 diabetes?

It slows the rate of inactivation of the incretin hormones. Sitagliptin minimizes the rate of inactivation of the incretin hormones to increase hormone levels and prolong their activity. Sitagliptin does not block the S phase of the cell cycle. Sitagliptin is not a synthetically prepared monosodium salt nor does it inhibit hydrogen, potassium, and ATPase.

A patient with type 1 diabetes has come to the clinic for a routine follow-up appointment. While assessing the patient's skin, the nurse observes brown spots on his lower legs. What might these spots indicate?

Widespread changes in the blood vessels Diabetes can cause significant vascular problems. Brown spots on the lower legs of a diabetic patient are caused by small hemorrhages into the skin and may indicate widespread changes in the blood vessels.

A client diagnosed with diabetes is demonstrating slow, deep respirations and is difficult to arouse. Which nursing intervention is directed specifically at treating this serious complication of diabetes?

Maintaining adequate intravenous fluid delivery Hyperglycemia, or high blood sugar, results when there is an increase in glucose in the blood. Clinical signs include Kussmaul respirations, impaired orientation and alertness, and the presence of a fruit breath resulting for a build up ketones being excreted via the lungs. Fluid and electrolytes are lost through the kidneys causing dehydration that must be addressed through the introduction of adequate IV fluids. The remaining options are appropriate assessment activities but do not address the focus of the question; a specific intervention.

A client, who experienced hypoglycemia twice in the past week, eats one meal per day and snacks the rest of the day. What client education will the nurse provide for a client who reports regularly experiencing hypoglycemic symptoms?

Meals should be eaten at regular times. A regular dietary intake associated with the administration of insulin or oral hypoglycemic will prevent episodes of hypoglycemia. The client should limit alcohol consumption, but alcohol consumption does not contribute to hypoglycemia. The client should not increase caloric or protein intake. The client should coordinate exercise with her dietary intake, but dietary intake is not the cause of the hypoglycemia.

After teaching a class about the various drugs used to control blood glucose, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the class identifies what as a biguanide?

Metformin Metformin is classified as a biguanide. Miglitol is an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor. Tolbutamide is a first generation sulfonylurea. Glipizide is a second generation sulfonylurea.

The nurse is caring for an older adult client who has type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Which drugs will be used with great caution in this client? (Select all that apply.)

Metformin (Glucophage) Acarbose (Precose) Miglitol (Glyset) Alpha (α)-Glucosidase Inhibitors (AGI) and metformin are contraindicated (or used with great caution) in clients with renal disease. Regular insulin and chlorpropamide, which is a sulfonylurea, can be used in clients with renal disease.

A client prescribed metformin is scheduled to undergo diagnostic testing with the administration of parenteral radiographic contrast media containing iodine. What fact should direct the nurse's plan of care for this client?

Metformin should be discontinued at least 48 hours before and after diagnostic tests that use contrast medias. Metformin should be discontinued at least 48 hours before diagnostic tests are performed with these materials and should not be resumed for at least 48 hours after the tests are done and tests indicate renal function is normal. By altering the metformin therapy, none of the other options are required.

A nurse is caring for a patient with diabetes mellitus who is receiving an oral antidiabetic drug. Which of following ongoing assessments should the nurse perform when caring for this patient?

Observe the patient for hypoglycemic episodes. As the ongoing assessment activity, the nurse should observe the patient for hypoglycemic episodes. Documenting family medical history and assessing the patient's skin for ulcers, cuts, and sores on the body is a pre-administration assessment activity performed by the nurse. Lipodystrophy occurs if the sites of insulin injection are not rotated.

The nurse monitoring a client receiving insulin glulisine (Apidra) notices the client has become confused, diaphoretic, and nauseated. The nurse checks the client's blood glucose and it is 60 mg/dL (3.33 mmol/L). Which can a nurse give to treat a client with a hypoglycemic episode? (Select all that apply.)

Orange or other fruit juice Glucose tablets Hard candy Methods of terminating a hypoglycemic reaction include the administration of one or more of the following: orange or other fruit juice, hard candy or honey, glucose tablets, glucagon, or glucose 10 percent or 50 percent IV.

What should be the nurse's initial response when a client diagnosed with type 1 diabetes suddenly reports feeling weak, shaky, and dizzy?

Perform a blood sugar analysis. As long as the client is awake and verbally responsive, check the blood glucose level first. Hypoglycemia can make a client feel weak, confused, irritable, hungry, or tired, but assessment must precede interventions; this makes the other options inappropriate.

A nurse is providing client education to a 13-year-old girl who was just diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Which statement by the client will alert the nurse that special instructions regarding insulin are necessary?

"I am on the middle school track team." Because the client is on the track team, she will have increased exercise at various times that will require increased insulin and special instructions related to hypoglycemia that may come hours after she has ceased exercising. Walking two blocks every day and walking up stairs would not be considered increased physical exercise and would not be a factor. Wanting to have her mother administer the insulin is not uncommon for this age client, and the nurse would normally instruct both the mother and the daughter in the administration of the drug.

The nurse assesses a client's blood glucose level after administering insulin. Which result would the nurse interpret as indicative of severe hypoglycemia?

34 mg/dL Blood glucose levels below 40 mg/dL are indicative of severe hypoglycemia.

Which strategy will NOT increase the therapeutic effect of insulin?

All insulin should be stored in a refrigerator but never frozen. Store opened vials of regular insulin at room temperature. Extra supplies are stored in the refrigerator, not the freezer. Extreme temperatures (<2°C or >30°C) should be avoided to prevent the loss of maximum function. Administer regular insulin with an insulin syringe into an appropriate subcutaneous site. Regular insulin is administered about 30 to 60 minutes before eating. To promote regular absorption, one anatomic area should be selected for regular insulin injections (e.g., the abdomen). Frequent monitoring of blood glucose by fingersticks and periodic determinations of hemoglobin A1C levels help determine the therapeutic effect of insulin and overall consistency of diabetic control.

The nurse is preparing to administer a mixture of 12 units regular insulin and 45 units NPH insulin to a client with a blood sugar of 378 mg/dL. After the nurse draws the medication into the syringe, what is the nurse's next action?

Check the dosage with another nurse. After preparing the syringe with insulin, the nurse should then have the medication and dosage checked by a second nurse to make sure that it is correct. It is not necessary to recheck the client's blood sugar again. It is important to know when the client will be eating again; make sure that it is within the next 30 minutes. However, this is not the nurse's next step. Then the nurse will administer the insulin to the client.

A man is brought to the emergency department. He is nonresponsive, and his blood glucose level is 32 mg/dL. Which would the nurse expect to be ordered?

Glucagon The client is significantly hypoglycemic and needs emergency treatment. Glucagon would be the agent of choice to raise the client's glucose level because it can be given intravenously and has an onset of approximately 1 minute. Diazoxide can be used to elevate blood glucose levels, but it must be given orally. Lispro and regular insulin would be used to treat hyperglycemia.

During ongoing assessment of clients receiving insulin detemir (Levemir), the nurse assesses the client for symptoms of hypoglycemia that include which symptoms? (Select all that apply.)

Headache Confusion Diaphoresis The symptoms of hypoglycemia include fatigue, weakness, nervousness, agitation, confusion, headache, diplopia, convulsion, dizziness, unconsciousness, hunger, nausea, diaphoresis, and numbness or tingling of the lips or tongue.

When administering insulin, what would be most appropriate?

Insert the needle at a 45-degree angle for injection. The vial should be gently rotated and vigorous shaking is to be avoided to ensure uniform suspension of the insulin. Typically the area is pinched to allow access to the loose connective tissue layer. The needle is inserted at a 45-degree angle for subcutaneous administration. Gentle pressure should be applied at the injection site.

A client newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes asks the nurse why the client cannot just take a pill. The nurse would incorporate what knowledge when responding to this client?

Insulin is needed because the beta cells of the pancreas are no longer functioning. Insulin is needed in type 1 diabetes because the beta cells of the pancreas are no longer functioning. With type 2 diabetes, insulin is produced, but perhaps not enough to maintain glucose control or the insulin receptors are not sensitive enough to insulin.

The nurse who has admited a client with diabetic ketoacidosis should look for what assessment findings that are consistent with this diagnosis? (Select all that apply.)

Ketones in the urine Flushed, dry skin Signs/symptoms of DKA include: elevated blood glucose levels (greater than 200 mg/dL); headache; increased thirst; epigastric pain; nausea and vomiting; hot, dry, flushed skin; restlessness; and diaphoresis. The client would not experience somnolence or rectal pressure.

A client has refused a scheduled dose of metformin, stating that he/she is worried about inducing hypoglycemia because his/her blood glucose level is currently 66 mg/dL (3.66 mmol/L). The nurse should convey what teaching points to the client?

Metformin does not cause hypoglycemia. Experts prefer to call metformin an antihyperglycemic rather than a hypoglycemic because it does not cause hypoglycemia, even in large doses, when used alone. This fact about metformin makes the other statements inaccurate.

A nurse is caring for a patient diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. What should the nurse inform the patient are risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes?

Obesity The nurse informs the patient that obesity is a risk factor associated with type 2 diabetes. Young age and regular exercise are not risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Polyuria is a symptom of diabetes and not a risk factor leading to type 2 diabetes.

A client is prescribed sitagliptin. The nurse would expect to administer this drug by which route?

Oral Sitagliptin is administered orally.

A patient at a health care facility has been prescribed diazoxide for hypoglycemia due to hyperinsulinism. What adverse reactions to the drug should the nurse monitor for in the patient?

Tachycardia The nurse should monitor for tachycardia, congestive heart failure, sodium and fluid retention, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria as the adverse reactions in the patient receiving diazoxide drug therapy. Myalgia, fatigue, and headache are the adverse reactions observed in patients undergoing pioglitazone HCl drug therapy. Flatulence is one of the adverse reactions found in patients receiving metformin drug therapy. Epigastric discomfort is one of the adverse reactions observed in patients receiving acetohexamide drugs.

The nurse is providing care for several clients who have diabetes. Which client should the nurse monitor most closely for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia?

a client who received 12 units of Humulin R 45 minutes ago Administration of regular insulin will create a greater risk for hypoglycemia than metformin, which is used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. A blood glucose level of 150 mg/dL is nominally elevated, and creates no particular risk for "rebound" hypoglycemia. Clients whose diabetes has been recently diagnosed must be monitored closely, but this does not mean that the client faces a particular risk for hypoglycemia.

A nurse educator, explaining the pathophysiology of diabetes to a newly diagnosed client, should provide what explanation for the client's "constant, insatiable thirst"?

"Excess glucose pulled more water through your kidneys and the increased urination caused thirst." When large amounts of glucose are present, water is pulled into the renal tubule. This results in a greatly increased urine output (polyuria). The excessive loss of fluid in urine leads to increased thirst (polydipsia). Glucose does not directly affect the thirst center.

A client receives a dose of insulin lispro at 8 AM. The nurse would be alert for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia at which time?

Between 8:30 AM and 9:30 AM With insulin lispro, peak effects would occur in 30 to 90 minutes or between 8:30 AM and 9:30 AM. Regular insulin peaks in 2 to 4 hours, so the nurse would be alert for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia at this time, which would be between 10 AM and 12 noon. With insulin detemir, peak effects would occur in 6 to 8 hours, or between 2 PM and 4 PM. With NPH insulin, peak effects would occur in 4 to 12 hours, or between 12 noon and 8 PM.

After teaching a group of students about the various insulin preparations, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the students identify that which type of insulin cannot be mixed with other types?

Detemir Insulin detemir cannot be mixed in solution with any other drug, including other insulins. Regular, lente, and lispro can be mixed.

The nurse is educating a client who will be adding an injection of pramlintide to his insulin regimen. What information is most important for the nurse to share with this client to ensure safe medication administration?

Do not give pramlintide in the same site where insulin is administered. Clients who take pramlintide should not be injected into the same site where insulin is administered.

The older diabetic client often experiences several different chronic organ related conditions. Which assessment should the nurse focus upon when attempting to manage this complex situation?

Drug interactions The older patient is more likely to experience end organ damage related to the diabetes—loss of vision, kidney problems, coronary artery disease, and infections—and the drug regimen of these patients can become quite complex. Careful screening for drug interactions is an important aspect of the assessment of these patients.

Insulin binds with and activates receptors on cell membranes. Once insulin-receptor binding occurs, the membranes become highly permeable to glucose. Which action does this enable?

Entry of glucose into the cells After insulin-receptor binding occurs, cell membranes become highly permeable to glucose and allow rapid entry of glucose into the cells.

The nurse is administering an antidiabetic agent by subcutaneous injection within 60 minutes of the client's breakfast. Which agent would the nurse most likely be administering?

Exenatide Exenatide is administered by subcutaneous injection within 60 minutes before morning and evening meals. Rosiglitazone would be administered as a single oral dose. Repaglinide is used orally before meals. Miglitol is given orally with the first bite of each meal.

The nurse is interviewing a client who was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes four months ago. The client does not records glucometer readings but reports no concerns. What laboratory test does the nurse anticipate the health care provider will order for this client?

HbA1c The nurse anticipates that the glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) will be ordered for this client because it provides an average of the client's blood glucose level for the last three- to four-month period. It will also tell how well controlled the client's blood glucose is. A stat urine for glucose and an FBG in the AM will only indicate the client's current blood glucose level, not how well it is being controlled. An insulin level will not give the information needed to understand the client's control of blood glucose.

A nurse is preparing an in-service presentation for a group of staff members on diabetes. Which would the nurse include as the primary delivery system for insulin?

Subcutaneous injection Although other delivery systems are available for insulin administration such as the jet injector, insulin pen, and external pump, subcutaneous injection remains the primary delivery system.

After teaching a group of students about the various methods for the delivery of insulin, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the students identify which method as most commonly used for administration?

Subcutaneous injection Subcutaneous injection currently is the most common method for administering insulin.

Which factor would prohibit the administration of glipizide?

allergy to sulfonamides Sulfonylureas are contraindicated in clients with hypersensitivity to them, with severe renal or hepatic impairment, and who are pregnant. A diagnosis of hypertension does not cause contraindication of sulfonylureas. The client should consume carbohydrates in association with the oral hypoglycemic agent. An increase in alkaline phosphatase does not result in the contraindication of glipizide.

The nurse is caring for a client who is taking glyburide as treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus. The health care provider has added a corticosteroid to this client's medication regimen for treatment of a severe allergic reaction. The nurse knows that this drug combination may cause what adverse effect on this client?

hyperglycemia Corticosteroids increase insulin needs, so the client may develop hyperglycemia.

After reviewing information about different insulin preparations, a nursing student demonstrates understanding of the information when the student identifies which medication as an example of a long-acting insulin?

insulin glargine Insulin glargine is an example of a long-acting insulin. Insulin lispro and insulin aspart are rapid-acting insulin. Isophane insulin suspension is an intermediate-acting insulin.

After teaching a group of nursing students about insulin, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the students identify that insulin is produced by which organ in the human body?

pancreas Insulin is produced by the pancreas. The spleen filters the blood and has a role in immunity. When insulin levels are high, glucose is available in the blood, and the liver produces little or no glucose from stored glycogen. When insulin levels are low, there is little circulating glucose, so the liver produces more glucose. Glucose is reabsorbed in the kidney by the sodium-glucose transporter-2 (SGLT-2). This process is decreased by the class of inhibiting drugs, SGLT-2 inhibitors.

When considering the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), what type of insulin can be administered intravenously?

regular Regular insulin (insulin injection) has a rapid onset of action and can be given intravenously. Therefore, it is the insulin of choice during acute situations, such as DKA, severe infection or other illness, and surgical procedures. All the other options are administered subcutaneously.

What type of insulin will most likely be administered intravenously to a client with a blood glucose level over 600 mg/dL (33.33 mmol/L)?

regular insulin Regular insulin has rapid onset of action and can be given via IV. It is the drug of choice for acute situations, such as diabetic ketoacidosis. Isophane insulin (NPH) is used for long-term insulin therapy. Lente insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin. Ultralente insulin is a long-acting insulin.

A client, who is 42 years old and newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, has attended educational sessions to provide insight into the diagnosis. Which of the client's statements should prompt the nurse to provide further teaching?

"I'm disappointed, but I take some solace in the fact that I won't ever have to have insulin injections." Among people with type 2 diabetes, 20% to 30% require exogenous insulin at some point in their lives. Obesity is a major cause, and vigilant treatment can prevent future sequelae. The essence of type 2 diabetes is the pancreas' inability to meet insulin needs.

A client who began treatment for type 2 diabetes 8 months ago is now meeting with a diabetic nurse for a scheduled follow-up. How can the nurse best assess the client's glycemic control since beginning treatment?

Assess the most recent hemoglobin A1C levels. Health care providers also look at the glycosylated hemoglobin (hemoglobin A1C) levels to assess the effectiveness of treatment. Because glucose stays attached to hemoglobin for the life of the red blood cell, which is about 120 days, the hemoglobin A1C level reflects the average blood glucose level over the past 3 months. Reviewing blood glucose readings, measuring the client's random blood glucose, and dialoguing with the client are all therapeutic strategies, but hemoglobin A1C is most accurate.

A nurse is assigned to administer glargine to a patient at a health care facility. What precaution should the nurse take when administering glargine?

Avoid mixing glargine with other insulin. When administering glargine to the patient, the nurse should avoid mixing it with other insulin or solutions. It will precipitate in the syringe when mixed. If glargine is mixed with another solution, it will lose glucose control, resulting in decreased effectiveness of the insulin. Glargine is administered via SC once daily at bedtime. The nurse should not shake the vial vigorously before withdrawing insulin. The vial should be gently rotated between the palms of the hands and tilted gently end-to-end immediately before withdrawing the insulin. The nurse administers insulin from vials at room temperature. Vials are stored in the refrigerator if it is to be stored for about three months for later use.

The nurse is aware that premixed insulins (those that contain both regular and NPH insulin) are least effective in what type of client?

Client who has difficulty controlling his diabetes Premixed insulins are least effective for clients who have difficulty controlling their diabetes, because it is difficult to individualize the dosages of each type of insulin. It is helpful to clients to use premixed insulin if they have difficulty drawing up their insulin, or seeing the markings on the syringe. The strict monitoring of the diet assists in keeping diabetes in good control.

A nurse is working with a newly diagnosed diabetic client on understanding hypoglycemia and insulin reactions. Which action would be most important for the client to understand when planning the response to an insulin reaction?

Take an oral dose of some form of glucose as soon as possible. The initial action of the client should be to take some form of oral glucose. It would also be appropriate to call the provider, but this will delay self-treatment and should be done after the administration of the glucose. Injecting insulin would cause further harm to the client and is not an option. It is good to stay calm, but the reaction will not subside without intervention.

A nurse is preparing to administer a rapid-acting insulin. Which medication would the nurse most likely administer?

insulin lispro Insulin lispro is an example of a rapid-acting insulin. Insulin glargine and insulin detemir are long-acting insulin. Isophane insulin suspension is an intermediate-acting insulin.

Rosiglitazone is being considered for the treatment of diabetes in an adult male client. Before the initiation of rosiglitazone therapy, the nurse should review what laboratory work recently drawn?

liver enzymes Rosiglitazone has been associated with hepatotoxicity and requires monitoring of liver enzymes. Liver function tests (e.g., serum aminotransferase enzymes) should be checked before starting therapy and every 2 months for 1 year, then periodically. Platelets, D-dimer, and tests of renal function are less significant to the safety and efficacy of treatment.

A client with diabetes is undergoing testing for glycosylated hemoglobin. The nurse instructs the client that this test measures average blood glucose over what time period?

the past 3 or 4 months Glycosylated hemoglobin measures glucose control over the past 3 to 4 months. When blood glucose levels are high, glucose molecules attach to hemoglobin in the red blood cell. The longer the hyperglycemia lasts, the more glucose binds to the red blood cell and the higher the glycosylated hemoglobin. This binding lasts for the life of the red blood cell (about 4 months) so the other time frames would not be accurate.

The nurse is caring for a client taking insulin. The nurse realizes the client is experiencing symptoms of hypoglycemia when the client displays:

weakness, sweating, and decreased mentation. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include shakiness, dizziness, or light-headedness, sweating, nervousness or irritability, sudden changes in behavior or mood, weakness, pale skin, and hunger.

A client's current condition requires rapid reduction of blood sugar levels. Which type of insulin will have the most rapid onset of action?

insulin lispro Insulin lispro has a 15-minute onset of action. NPH, 70/30, and regular insulin have longer onsets of action, a later peak, and a longer duration of action.

What statement would be appropriately included in the teaching concerning type 2 diabetes?

"Regular exercise makes your body better able to use the insulin it produces." People who need less than 0.5 units/kg/d may produce some endogenous insulin, or their tissues may be more responsive to insulin because of exercise and good physical conditioning. Exercise is an extremely strong hypoglycemic agent. Diabetics need to check their blood sugar level regardless of whether they are or are not prescribed insulin. The need for insulin injections is determined by the function of the pancreas and its ability to produce sufficient quantities of insulin. It is not correct to assume diet is the only factor in this process. Alcohol should be avoided, and the dosage of oral antidiabetic medication should not be altered without guidance from a health care provider.

A 42-year-old male client is prescribed glargine insulin for management of his type 2 diabetes mellitus. The nurse caring for the client develops a teaching plan regarding glargine insulin therapy. Which statement made by the client indicates that the client needs additional teaching?

"The medication will peak in 3 hours." Insulin glargine (rDNA) is characterized by a chemical structure that regulates its release from the SC tissue into the circulation, providing a relatively constant glucose-lowering effect with no pronounced peak of action over a 24-hour period. Glargine, unlike NPH, is a clear insulin, similar to regular insulin in its appearance. Extreme caution must be used not to confuse glargine with regular insulin because serious adverse effects, including hypoglycemia, can occur. Glargine must not be diluted or mixed with any other insulin or solution because its onset of action may be delayed, and the solution will become cloudy. Insulin glargine is administered subcutaneously once daily at bedtime.

After teaching a group of students about sulfonylureas, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the students identify which agent as a second-generation sulfonylurea? (Select all that apply.)

Glimepiride Glyburide Glimepiride is a second generation sulfonylurea. Glyburide is a second generation sulfonylurea. Tolazamide is a first generation sulfonylurea. Pramlintide is a human amylin agent. Repaglinide is a meglitinide agent.

A female client visits the health care provider's office after routine labs are drawn. The nurse notes that her A1C is 9. How does the nurse interpret this finding?

Client's average blood glucose is above normal. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) suggests a target A1C of less than 7%. A1C should be measured every 3 to 6 months. An A1C of 9 indicates that the client's average blood glucose is consistently above normal.

A female client is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. She suddenly reports feeling weak, shaky, and dizzy. What should the nurse's first response be?

Perform a blood sugar analysis. As long as the client is awake and verbally responsive, check the blood glucose level first. Hypoglycemia can make the client feel weak, confused, irritable, hungry, or tired. Clients may also report sweating or headaches. If the client has any of these symptoms, check the blood glucose. If the level is 70 mg/dL or below, have the client consume 3 or 4 glucose tablets; 1 serving of glucose gel; 1/2 cup of any fruit juice; 1 cup of milk; 1/2 cup of a regular soft drink; several pieces of hard candy; or 1 tablespoon of sugar or honey.

The nurse is caring for a client who is taking a thiazide diuretic, a corticosteroid, and estrogens. The nurse understands that this client is at risk for what condition?

Hyperglycemia Renal insufficiency may increase risks of adverse effects with antidiabetic drugs, and treatment with thiazide diuretics, corticosteroids, estrogens, and other drugs may cause hyperglycemia, thereby increasing dosage requirements for antidiabetic drugs.

The health care provider has ordered a change of prescription from rapid-acting insulin to an intermediate-acting type. Which adverse effect must the nurse closely monitor for in the client?

Hypoglycemia Changing the type of insulin requires caution, and the client should be carefully monitored for hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia, either of which may occur as the body adjusts to the different pharmacokinetics of the preparation. However, hypoglycemia may cause an increased sympathetic activity and manifest as tachycardia. Lipodystrophy is caused by the breakdown of subcutaneous fat because of repeated insulin injections at the same site. A change of insulin prescription is not known to cause hypotension.

A nurse at a health care facility is assigned to administer insulin to the patient. Which intervention should the nurse perform before administering each insulin dose?

Inspect the previous injection site for inflammation. The nurse should check the previous injection site before administering each insulin dose. The injection sites should be rotated to prevent lipodystrophy. Prefilled syringes should not be kept horizontally; they should be kept in a vertical or oblique position to avoid plugging the needle. The nurse checks for symptoms of myalgia or malaise when administration of metformin leads to lactic acidosis. Insulin should be kept at room temperature for administration. Insulin is refrigerated if it needs to be stored for up to three months for later use.

The two major classifications of diabetes are type 1 and type 2. What is a distinguishing characteristic of type 1 diabetes?

Lifelong exogenous insulin is required. Type 1 diabetes results from an autoimmune disorder that destroys pancreatic beta cells. Insulin is the only effective treatment for type 1 diabetes, because pancreatic beta cells are unable to secrete endogenous insulin and metabolism is severely impaired. Insulin cannot be given orally, because it is destroyed by proteolytic enzymes in the GI tract. Although the onset of type 1 diabetes frequently occurs in childhood, it can also occur in adulthood.

The nurse walks into the room of a client with type 1 diabetes and finds the client pale and diaphoretic. The client reports a headache and being hungry. Immediately, the client is unable to talk. What is the nurse's immediate intervention for this client?

Place glucose gel between the gums and cheek. The client is experiencing hypoglycemia, which presents very suddenly and has symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, nervousness, agitation, confusion, and headache. It may lead to convulsions and unconsciousness. The client's skin is pale, moist, cool, and diaphoretic and the client may report hunger or nausea. The treatment is to give the client something with sugar. The glucose gel would absorb through the client's mucous membranes and would be the optimal way to provide the client with sugar, since the client is no longer able to talk. Eight ounces of orange juice is too much. The client does not need the insulin, which is used for hyperglycemia. Symptoms of this are gradual and include drowsiness, dim vision, thirst, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, rapid and weak pulse, acetone breath, and skin that is dry, flushed, and warm. Raising the head of the bed is not indicated because there is no evidence of difficulty breathing.

A client is admitted to the intensive care unit with diabetic ketoacidosis. The nurse knows that the client will be placed on an intravenous insulin drip. The only type of insulin that can be administered intravenously is:

Regular. In general, regular insulin, a short-acting insulin, is used with major surgery or surgery requiring general anesthesia. IV administration of insulin is preferred because it provides more predictable absorption than subcutaneous injections. Only regular insulin is administered IV.

Which condition must be met in order for glyburide treatment to be effective?

The client must have functioning pancreatic beta cells. Because glyburide stimulates pancreatic beta cells to produce more insulin, it is effective only when functioning pancreatic beta cells are present. The presence of normal blood glucose levels would render the medication unnecessary. Self-administration is common but not absolutely necessary.

Which medication would a nurse identify as a noninsulin injectable antidiabetic drug?

exenatide Exenatide and pramlintide are noninsulin injectable antidiabetic drugs. Sitagliptin, glipizide, and pioglitazone are oral agents.

A client, being evaluated for diabetes, asks how a blood glucose test is used to diagnosis this disease. What is the nurse's best response?

"A fasting blood sugar result of 126 mg/dL (6.99 mmol/L) or more on two separate occasions is diagnostic of diabetes." A major clinical manifestation of hyperglycemia is fasting blood glucose levels exceeding 126 mg/dL (6.99 mmol/L). A person with a fasting blood glucose level between 100 and 125 mg/dL (5.55 to 6.94 mmol/L) is said to have impaired fasting glucose or prediabetes. The normal hemoglobin A1C level is under 7.

The nurse has just completed discharge instructions to a client who will be using a pen device to deliver his insulin dose. What statement by the client indicates a need for further instruction?

"If I forget to take my insulin pen, I will be able to use the one that my wife uses." Insulin pens are client-specific because the needle may be used multiple times and may be contaminated with blood. Also, the pen is prefilled with a specific type of insulin. The client selects the desired units by turning a dial and listening for a locking ring. The insulin dose is determined by the number of clicks heard. It is a useful method for clients who have poor eyesight.

What distinguishing characteristic is associated with type 1 diabetes?

Exogenous insulin is required for life. Type 1 diabetes will result in eventual destruction of beta cells, and no insulin is produced. The blood glucose level can only be controlled by diet in type 2 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes, oral agents can be administered. Type 1 diabetes is diagnosed in ages 4 through 20 years, not only in childhood.

Heavy intake of which herb should be avoided by a client who is prescribed an antidiabetic medication?

garlic Garlic has been known to cause hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetic medications. Anise, basil, and oregano are not noted to carry this risk.