PHIL 355: Quiz 2 Review

instrumental value

an entity valued for its usefulness in helping us get something else ex. social status

climaterianism

climaterianism is the movement of people changing their diets to mitigate climate change. climaterianism instructs individuals to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet on environmental grounds Noam Mohr: Focusing on CO2 emissions has distracted us. As a result, we are neglecting what might be the most effective strategy for reducing global warming in our lifetimes: advocating a vegetarian diet. With methane emissions causing nearly half of the planet's human-induced warming from animal agriculture, methane reduction must be a priority and can be by cutting animal by-products out of our diets.

genetically engineered organisms

genetically engineered (GE) organisms refer to foods for which DNA has been altered by human manipulation, often by inserting genes from unrelated species, to introduce new, desirable traits to that organism. Canadian GE Innovations: Article apple, AquAdvantage Salmon, etc.

genetically modified organisms

genetically modified organisms (GMOs) refer to foods, plants or animals, for which DNA has been altered to create desirable traits such as a resistance to herbicides. The genetic modification may be either through human manipulation or as a result of traditional plant breeding methods like selective breeding or crossbreeding between plants within the same species. Essentially, a GM food is one derived from an organism that has had some of its heritable traits changed. This can involve: - Traditional techniques of crossbreeding. - Using chemicals or radiation to alter the genetic make-up. - Applying recombinant DNA or genetic engineering techniques

moral considerability

moral considerability is a kind of status a being has - one that commands moral respect. it is non-comparative as the being is either considered or is not considered. moral considerability is the view that although non-human animals do not have rights, that does not mean they should not be provided moral consideration in treatment.

indirect duties

moral duties and responsibilities we may extend to a non-human. Kant does not believe that animates are persons... but he does accept that we have certain duties to animals, in particular a duty not to harm/maltreat them.

direct duties

moral duties and responsibilities we owe directly to persons simply because they are persons. Human persons have no moral duties to non-human organisms. But, other direct duties to humans give rise to indirect duties. One should abstain from treating non-humans in ways that would violate direct duties, thought Kant.

land ethic principle

Aldo Leopold argues for fundamental change in the way humans relate to nature as a resource to be exploited and see nature as a biotic and abiotic community worthy of respect and recognition. The individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts. The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land. A land ethic does not prevent the all uses of natural 'resources,' but it recognizes that nature has a right to a continued existence. In short, a land ethic changes the role of humans from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. Conceptualization of "the land" implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such.

anthropogenic extinction

Human caused extinction = anthropogenic extinction Rolston cares about animals who are extinct especially from non-natural causes. Nature ends lineages all the time, and he believes that's not necessarily problematic. Rolston believes that human centred reasons to preserve species are insufficient and do not capture the deeper obligations to species that possess intrinsic value. Rolston believes that human-caused (anthropogenic) extinction is wrong because... a. It shuts down the generative processes b. Stopping the historical flow of life: unnatural endings to a species story preventing decedents c. Extinction is a kind of "superkilling": kills forms beyond individuals, kills essences beyond existences d. One form of life never endangered so many others; i. Human life should not murder - super-killing other forms of life.

the "desperation" argument

Humanity faces an ethical emergency → in a climate catastrophe or desperate situation, geoengineering is the lesser of the two evils. The desperateness of the situation morally justifies intervention on a global scale as an act of self-defence with the governments consent. GARDINER desperation argument misses much of what is at stake, ethically speaking, in geoengineering policy. As far as justification is concerned, neither the consent nor the self- defense interpretations clearly license geoengineering, and they may even work to delegitimize the desperation argument. Some examples of Gardiner's worries: [ consent: is their such thing as true consent if you are agreeing to something out of desperation you are not thinking rationally.... you are vulnerable. Self Defense: if every country is acting out of self-defence = uncoordinated efforts = self-defeating results: we need to be talking to other people not going it alone.]

the "Ark" concept (or "Ark Paradigm)

Jozef Keulartz investigates if zoos as a means for conservation can be ethically acceptable. modern zoos must commit to the conservation of species and wildlife. Caring for our planet's biological systems is one of the greatest challenges to humankind. Consequently, conservation is being seen as the central theme of zoos. In this scheme of things the zoo is envisaged as a kind of Noah's Ark which owes its reason of being primarily to its contribution to the conservation. Zoos used to only exist for entertainment and now their has been a shift to taking on breeding programs. Thus, zoos are increasingly seen as as a Noah's Ark to save species for the future.

moral significance

Moral significant is comparative as significance is established through comparing capacity, events, or things in the moral dimension. Moral significance is the moral property given to completing cases of moral consideration. Some animals may have more moral significance than others because they have the capacity to suffer, unlike another animal is comparison.

ecocentrism

The moral view that places the whole ecosystem (a habitat, where biotic and abiotic components interact, making life possible) is a system of inherent value. 1. Holistic Ecocentrism If life is morally considerable, then all species should have value and That which creates life is also value: - Ecosystem create, shape and sustain life - Ecosystem processes are operate on species as wholes (not individual organisms) So ecosystems and species are morally considerable themselves. 2. Eco-communitarian Ecocentrism We have duties of gratitude and loyalty to the human social communities which have helped make us the person we are. Then, one should agree that we have duties of gratitude and loyalty to ecological system which have helped make us the person we are.

precautionary principle

The precautionary principle states that serious environmental threats and health hazards should be anticipated and precautionary measures should be taken to prevent or forestall damage even if scientific understanding of the risks is inadequate (cause and effect relationship between the activity and raised threats of harm is not fully scientifically proven). In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.*****

techno-fix

technological shortcut or solutionism refers to the attempt of using engineering or technology to solve a problem (often created by earlier technological interventions) Techno-fix is the idea that all problems can find solutions in better and new technologies. Result of reframing a problem fundamentally social in nature as a technological problem. For example, Geo-engineering is an artificial modification of Earth's climate systems through measures such as Solar Radiation Management (SRM). This tackles the problem of climate change through technology instead of changing the social behaviour to emit less greenhouse gas. RONALD SANDLER Philosophical criticisms: uncritical faith in Western technological culture, overconfidence in scientific and technological progress. --> Sandler thinks that we should pause to think about these things... not never use them again but to pause and reflect on if tech is solving underlying social problems (you're preserving unjust social structures - not reforming anything) or creating new problems.

geoengineering (2 types)

the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth's climatic system with the aim of affecting adverse global warming. Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types: 1)carbon dioxide removal and 2) solar radiation management. 1) Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere. 2) Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation. DALE JAMIESON propose a set of conditions that must be satisfied for an ICC project to be morally permissible and conclude that these conditions are not now satisfied. However, research on ICC should go forward so long as certain other conditions are met... Jamieson's conditions for deployment of geoengineering projects = The project is technically feasible The consequence can be reliably predicted The consequences are socio-economically preferable to alternatives Project implementation would not seriously and systematically violate important ethical principles

contractarianism

the idea of a social contract, or agreement, among individuals for mutual advantage. Contractarianism assumes fundamental disagreement about our most basic reason for action. What is universal is just the practical necessity of cooperation so that we may realize our goals. Cooperation is achieved through agreement to abide by common rules that limit destructive competition. Thus, people do and should enter into social contracts because it is in our best interests. Hobbes - Getting out of the state of nature/war To exit the state of nature and enter civil (civilized) we must agree to: A "common rule" (reciprocal agreements to prevent destructive competition) A mechanism for enforcement (to prevent backsliding) Limit liberty by following rules is in everyone's best interest. Rawls- To avoid self-defeating terms of our moral contract, we should use this test before agreeing: parties negotiating behind a "veil of ignorance" causing them to forget who they represent in the negotiations. This will produce the most equitable contract.

Intrinsic value

valued or desired for its own sale, not simply for its usefulness ex. pleasure or beauty