Philosophy Final
Paternalism
Behavior of an individual or authority figure who acts in a controlling or overprotective manner toward others, often limiting their autonomy or freedom of choice, supposedly for their own good or benefit.
How does the contractarian define the scope of the moral community and why might that pose some problems for the theory?
Contractarians define the scope of the moral community by those who would agree to certain rules or principles under fair conditions. However, determining who should be included or excluded from this moral community poses challenges. For instance, contractarians might exclude certain marginalized or vulnerable groups, such as individuals with severe cognitive disabilities, raising ethical concerns about their exclusion from moral consideration based on their inability to participate in hypothetical agreements.
Who is widely regarded as the first great hedonist in Western philosophy?
Epicurus, he advocated for a type of hedonism called "Epicureanism," which emphasized attaining a state of tranquility. Pursuit of modest pleasures and the avoidance of pain.
What three types of theory exhaust all the possible views of the status of ethics
1-Moral Realism/Objectivism: Posits the existence of objective moral facts or values that are independent of individual beliefs or cultural practices. 2-Ethical Relativism: Asserts that moral truths vary based on cultural norms, societal practices, or individual beliefs. 3-Moral Nihilism: Denies the existence of any inherent or objective moral truths, claiming that moral statements lack truth value.
What is a categorical reason
A categorical reason refers to a moral or ethical reason that is unconditional and applies universally, irrespective of an individual's desires, preferences, or subjective inclinations. It is a reason that commands action or imposes moral obligations without being contingent on any external factors
What is a decision procedure in ethics
A decision procedure in ethics refers to a method or set of principles used to determine the moral rightness or wrongness of actions.
What does it mean to say that an ethical rule is fundamental?
A fundamental ethical rule is one that is considered central or foundational within a moral framework. It serves as a core principle guiding moral decision-making but may allow for some exceptions or limitations based on other considerations.
Define a maxim
A maxim, according to Kant, is a subjective principle of action that an individual uses to guide their conduct.
What is a metaphysical theory?
A metaphysical theory deals with the nature of reality, existence, and the fundamental structure of the world. It aims to understand the fundamental nature of things, including the existence of entities, properties, and relationships beyond the physical world.
What is a moral exemplar
A moral exemplar is an individual who embodies or exemplifies virtuous qualities and serves as a model or example of moral excellence. Moral exemplars are individuals whose actions and character demonstrate the virtues valued by a particular ethical theory, inspiring others to emulate their virtues.
What is a moral exemplar?
A moral exemplar is an individual who embodies or exemplifies virtuous qualities and serves as a model or example of moral excellence. Moral exemplars are individuals whose actions and character demonstrate the virtues valued by a particular ethical theory, inspiring others to emulate their virtues.
Define the notion of a prima facie duty, and explain how a moral theory based on prima facie duties differs from monistic and absolutist moral theories.
A moral theory based on prima facie duties differs from monistic (single principle) and absolutist (unconditional rule) theories by acknowledging the existence of multiple prima facie duties that can come into conflict, allowing for moral flexibility and the possibility of exceptions based on context.
What view do absolutists commonly hold about the moral significance of the distinction between doing and allowing?
Absolutists commonly hold that there is a moral distinction between doing and allowing harm. They often prioritize the distinction that doing harm (directly causing harm through action) is morally worse than allowing harm (not intervening to prevent harm even if one could), regardless of the consequences.
When is an action morally right, according to contractarianism?
According to contractarianism, an action is morally right if it adheres to the rules or principles that rational individuals would agree upon under fair and impartial conditions. Morality is derived from the agreement or hypothetical consent of individuals to abide by these rules for mutual benefit and social cooperation.
Act Utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action based on the principle of producing the greatest overall happiness or well-being. It focuses on maximizing utility on a case-by-case basis, determining the rightness or wrongness of actions by directly considering their immediate consequences
Compare and contrast act utilitarianism with rule consequentialism
Act utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of individual actions, while rule consequentialism emphasizes the consequences of adhering to certain rules or principles.
What gives actions moral worth, according to Kant
Actions have moral worth when they are motivated by a sense of duty or adherence to moral principles, rather than being driven by desires, inclinations, or expected outcomes. Actions gain moral worth when they are performed out of a sense of obligation to follow moral laws or duties.
Agnostic
Agnostics are individuals who hold the view that the existence of a deity or deities is unknown, inherently unknowable, or that there is insufficient evidence to affirm or deny their existence. They often refrain from making assertions about the existence or non-existence of a higher power.
Define ambiguity and explain how it can undermine moral arguments.
Ambiguity refers to the presence of multiple interpretations or unclear meanings within an argument or statement. In moral arguments, ambiguity can undermine the strength or clarity of the argument because unclear language or ambiguous premises can lead to multiple interpretations, making it difficult to establish a sound and coherent ethical reasoning.
What does it mean to say that an ethical rule is absolute?
An absolute ethical rule is one that admits no exceptions or circumstances where the rule may be overridden. It holds that the rule must always be followed, regardless of the consequences or the situation.
What does it mean to say that an ethical rule is absolute?
An absolute ethical rule is one that admits no exceptions or circumstances where the rule may be overridden. It holds that the rule must always be followed, regardless of the consequences or the situation. Absolute rules are considered unconditionally binding, applying universally without exceptions.
Argument in Philosophy
An argument in philosophy is a set of statements where one or more of those statements are put forward as reasons to accept another statement. Arguments aim to provide support or evidence for a claim, using logical reasoning to persuade others of the validity or truth of the conclusion based on the premises.
What does it mean to say that an ethical standard is objective?
An ethical standard is considered objective when it exists independently of individual beliefs, opinions, or cultural practices. Objective ethical standards are seen as universal, applying universally to all individuals, cultures, and circumstances, regardless of subjective perspectives.
What is a moral agent
An individual who is capable of making moral judgments and is responsible for their actions in a moral sense. It implies that the individual has the capacity for moral reasoning and bears moral responsibility for their decisions and behaviors
What is an objective theory of human welfare, and how does such a theory differ from the desire
An objective theory of human welfare, in contrast to the desire satisfaction theory, proposes that there are certain objective, intrinsic goods that contribute to human welfare irrespective of an individual's desires. These goods might include things like health, knowledge, virtue, or certain states of being that are deemed inherently valuable for human well-being.
What does it mean to say a policy is optimific
An optimific policy is one that maximizes overall well-being or happiness, bringing about the best consequences for the greatest number of people.
How did Aristotle think that virtue could be acquired?
Aristotle believed that virtue could be acquired through habituation and practice. By repeatedly performing virtuous actions and exercising virtuous behaviors, individuals could develop and cultivate virtuous character traits.
Autonomy
Autonomy refers to the capacity for self-governance and the ability to make independent, self-directed choices without external coercion or undue influence. It involves having the freedom to make decisions based on one's values, desires, and rationality, free from external pressures or constraints.
What is autonomy?
Autonomy refers to the capacity of individuals to govern themselves, make independent decisions, and act in accordance with their own rational will, free from external coercion or undue influence.
Why does Ross reject consequentialism?
Because he believed that consequentialist theories overly focus on the outcomes or consequences of actions, potentially neglecting important moral considerations. He argued that consequences do not always determine the rightness or wrongness of an action and that moral obligations go beyond mere consideration of outcomes.
Compare and contrast the ethics of care with other ethical theories
Care Ethics vs. Deontological Ethics: While deontological ethics (e.g., Kantian ethics) emphasizes duty and universal rules, care ethics focuses on relationships, empathy, and contextual moral considerations. Care Ethics vs. Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism focuses on maximizing overall happiness, whereas care ethics prioritizes relationships, care, and the alleviation of suffering in immediate situations without solely focusing on aggregate outcomes.
Which claim did Carol Gilligan argue for in In a Different Voice
Carol Gilligan argued in "In a Different Voice" that women tend to approach moral dilemmas differently than men. She contended that women often emphasize care, empathy, and relationship-building in their moral reasoning, contrasting with the more abstract and rule-based approach commonly associated with male moral reasoning.
What aspects of morality do virtue ethicists accuse other ethical theories of ignoring
Character Development: Virtue ethicists criticize other theories for not adequately emphasizing the development of moral character and virtues in individuals. Contextual Considerations: They argue that other theories might overlook the importance of considering the context and specifics of moral situations while focusing more on abstract principles or rules.
What aspects of morality do virtue ethicists accuse other ethical theories of ignoring?
Character Development: Virtue ethicists criticize other theories for not adequately emphasizing the development of moral character and virtues in individuals. Contextual Considerations: They argue that other theories might overlook the importance of considering the context and specifics of moral situations while focusing more on abstract principles or rules.
What are conceptual truths and empirical truths
Conceptual Truths: These truths are a priori and based on the meanings of concepts or terms. They are true by definition and can be known independently of experience. For instance, "All bachelors are unmarried" is a conceptual truth because it is true by definition of the term "bachelor." Empirical Truths: These truths are a posteriori and based on empirical evidence or experience. They are contingent upon observation or empirical verification. For example, "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level" is an empirical truth based on observation and experimentation.
Normative Ethics
Concerned with determining what is morally right and wrong, good and bad. Provides frameworks or theories that offer principles or guidelines to evaluate actions to evaluate actions and behaviors in terms of their moral permissibility or obligation
Four problems for the Principle of Humanity
Conflict of Duties: There can be situations where fulfilling duties toward one person might conflict with duties toward another. Respecting one person's autonomy might clash with another person's well-being, posing challenges in determining the right course of action. Determining Moral Status: Determining who or what counts as a rational being worthy of moral consideration can be challenging. For instance, the moral status of non-human animals, infants, or individuals with severe cognitive impairments may raise questions about their inclusion in the principle. Subjectivity in Assessing Intentions: Assessing the intentions behind actions to determine whether someone is treated merely as a means or as an end can be subjective and open to interpretation, leading to difficulties in applying the principle consistently. Complexity in Real-life Situations: Real-life situations often involve complex relationships and circumstances, making it challenging to apply the Principle of Humanity straightforwardly in every moral decision. Factors like conflicting duties, uncertainty about consequences, or multiple stakeholders complicate moral deliberations.
What are the three problems for Ethical Egoism?
Conflict with Moral Intuitions: Ethical egoism often contradicts deeply held moral intuitions and common moral principles. For instance, it might justify actions that most people consider morally wrong, such as harming others for personal gain. Problem of Consistency: Ethical egoism faces challenges in consistently applying the principle of self-interest. It doesn't provide a clear guideline for resolving conflicts between different individuals' self-interests or how to prioritize conflicting interests. Limitation in Promoting Overall Well-being: Critics argue that if everyone exclusively pursued their self-interest without regard for others, it might result in an overall decrease in well-being. Ethical egoism fails to account for the positive outcomes that can arise from cooperation, altruism, and concern for others in society.
How does consequentialism differ from rival approaches to ethics?
Consequentialism differs from other ethical theories, such as deontology or virtue ethics, primarily in how it determines the morality of actions.
Define contractarianism, and explain how contractarians seek to justify moral rules
Contractarianism is a moral and political theory that seeks to justify moral rules or principles based on a hypothetical social contract. It proposes that individuals agree to abide by certain moral rules or principles in a hypothetical initial position or original state to ensure mutual benefit and social order.
What is the ultimate point of morality, according to contractarians?
Contractarians argue that the ultimate point of morality is to establish and uphold mutually beneficial rules or principles that rational individuals would agree upon in a hypothetical social contract.
Explain how a contractarian defends the objectivity of ethics
Contractarians defend the objectivity of ethics by basing moral principles on rational agreements made under hypothetical fair conditions. They argue that moral rules derive their legitimacy from rational consensus and the mutual benefit they provide, rather than being based on subjective preferences or arbitrary standards. This gives contractarian ethics an objective grounding in rational agreement rather than individual preferences or subjective judgments.
How does the contractarian define the scope of the moral community and why might that pose some problems for the theory?
Contractarians define the scope of the moral community by those who would agree to certain rules or principles under fair conditions. However, determining who should be included or excluded from this moral community poses challenges. For instance, contractarians might exclude certain marginalized or vulnerable groups, such as individuals with severe cognitive disabilities, raising ethical concerns about their exclusion from moral consideration based on their inability to participate in hypothetical agreements. This limitation poses challenges for the theory's applicability and inclusivity.
Explain the theories of cultural relativism and individual subjectivism
Cultural Relativism: This theory contends that moral standards and ethical truths are culturally determined. What is considered morally right or wrong is relative to specific cultural norms and practices. There is no universal moral standard that applies across cultures. Individual Subjectivism: Individual subjectivism asserts that moral standards are relative to individual beliefs and opinions. Morality is seen as subjective, varying from person to person based on individual perspectives.
Define the notion of a prima facie duty, and explain how a moral theory based on prima facie duties differs from monistic and absolutist moral theories.
Definition: A prima facie duty refers to a moral obligation that holds presumptive importance and ought to be fulfilled unless it conflicts with a stronger duty in a particular situation. Difference from Monistic and Absolutist Theories: A moral theory based on prima facie duties differs from monistic (single principle) and absolutist (unconditional rule) theories by acknowledging the existence of multiple prima facie duties that can come into conflict, allowing for moral flexibility and the possibility of exceptions based on context.
Deists
Deists believe in the existence of a supreme being or creator who initiated the universe but generally do not believe in the divine intervention or direct interaction of this deity in human affairs. They often view the universe as governed by natural laws.
What are three popular assumptions about the relationship between morality and religion?
Dependency Assumption: This assumption suggests that morality depends on religion, meaning that moral principles or guidelines are derived from religious teachings or divine commands. Consistency Assumption: It assumes that religious beliefs are inherently consistent with moral principles, implying that what is morally right or wrong aligns perfectly with religious doctrines. Superiority Assumption: This assumption proposes that morality derived from religion is superior to secular or non-religious moral systems, implying that religiously grounded ethics are the most valid or authoritative.
Psychological Egoism
Describes human behavior, suggesting that all actions are motivated by self-interest, even if they appear altruistic. It's a descriptive theory about human nature.
What is the difference between the Efficiency Model and the Fitness Model of natural purposes?
Efficiency Model: This model of natural purposes emphasizes the functional efficiency of an organism or system. It focuses on how well an entity fulfills its designed or intended functions. Fitness Model: In contrast, the fitness model considers natural purposes in terms of an organism's adaptive fitness within its environment. It emphasizes the adaptation and survival aspects of an organism's traits or behaviors.
What are the two main types of moral nihilism
Error Theory: Argues that moral judgments are systematically mistaken or erroneous due to the absence of moral properties in the world. Expressivism: Suggests that moral statements are not propositions that can be true or false but rather expressions of emotions, attitudes, or personal preferences.
What assumption do error theorists claim is at the heart of morality
Error theorists claim that the assumption at the heart of morality is the belief in objective moral facts or properties. They argue that this assumption is mistaken and that moral language refers to non-existent properties, leading to the error in our moral discourse.
What is ethical egoism?
Ethical egoism is a normative theory that prescribes individuals ought to act in their self-interest exclusively. It asserts that individuals should always act in a way that maximizes their own well-being, happiness, or self-interest, regardless of the impact on others.
What is ethical egoism?
Ethical egoism is a normative theory that prescribes individuals ought to act in their self-interest exclusively. It asserts that individuals should always act in a way that maximizes their own well-being, happiness, or self-interest, regardless of the impact on others. In ethical egoism, the moral rightness of an action is determined by its ability to promote the self-interest of the individual performing the action.
Does ethical objectivism license intolerance or dogmatism? Explain why many have thought that it does, and explain how an objectivist might reply to this accusation.
Ethical objectivism, which asserts the existence of objective moral truths or principles, does not necessarily license intolerance or dogmatism. However, some have argued that the belief in objective moral truths might lead to intolerance or dogmatism by asserting that one's moral perspective is the only correct or valid view. Many critics believe that ethical objectivism leads to intolerance or dogmatism because it implies a fixed set of moral standards that are universally applicable. They argue that objectivists might be less open to considering alternative viewpoints or accommodating diversity in moral perspectives.
Define ethical particularism
Ethical particularism is an approach in ethics that emphasizes the importance of considering the specific details and context of each moral situation without relying on fixed principles or rules. It contends that moral judgments should be made case by case, emphasizing the uniqueness of each moral scenario and rejecting the application of universal principles in every circumstance.
Why is moral progress impossible if ethical relativism is true
Ethical relativism poses a challenge to moral progress because it denies the existence of objective moral truths or universal standards against which progress can be measured. If moral standards are relative to cultures or individuals, there is no objective basis to evaluate whether one moral standpoint is superior to another or if progress has occurred.
In what ways do ethical relativists deny the objectivity of ethics?
Ethical relativists deny the objectivity of ethics by asserting that ethical standards are not universal but are instead contingent upon cultural norms, societal practices, or individual beliefs. They argue that moral truths vary based on cultural context or personal viewpoints, rejecting the existence of objective moral standards applicable to all.
According to Aristotle, the ultimate good is
Eudaimonia or flourishing
Define Consequentialism
Evaluates the moral rightness or wrongness of actions based on their consequences. It asserts that the morality of an action is determined by its outcomes or results.
In what ways have Western philosophers traditionally marginalized and shown disrespect for Women?
Exclusion from Philosophical Discourse: Women were often excluded from philosophical discussions, and their perspectives and experiences were not adequately considered in ethical theories and philosophical writings. Gender Bias in Moral Theories: Traditional ethical theories, often developed by male philosophers, tended to prioritize masculine values and perspectives, neglecting the ethical significance of relationships, emotions, and care—qualities often associated with femininity.
What is the relationship between expressivism and moral nihilism
Expressivism shares similarities with moral nihilism in that it denies the existence of objective moral truths. Expressivists argue that moral statements merely express emotions, attitudes, or preferences rather than describing objective moral facts or properties
What is the point of Philippa Foot's example about the lobotomized patients?
Foot's example involves lobotomized patients to illustrate a moral distinction between actions and their consequences. She argues that the actions of a person might be morally wrong even if they bring about positive consequences.
John Stuart Mill thought that the only intrinsically valuable thing is...
Happiness or Pleasure
How does harm sometimes reveal that something more than just happiness is lost?
Harm can reveal that something more than just happiness is lost when the pursuit of pleasure or certain actions results in negative consequences beyond merely the absence of happiness. For instance, actions that bring immediate pleasure might cause harm to oneself or others in the long run, leading to damage in relationships, mental health issues, loss of trust, or diminished personal integrity. These consequences can signify that values like trust, well-being, integrity, or ethical principles were compromised or lost in the pursuit of pleasure, highlighting that more than happiness is at stake in certain situations.
Hedonism
Hedonism is a philosophical theory that posits pleasure as the ultimate or highest good. Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain lead to a good life.
Hedonists distinguish between two types of pleasure
Hedonists often differentiate between physical and intellectual pleasures. -Physical pleasures are those derived from sensory experiences, such as eating delicious food or enjoying physical sensations. -Intellectual pleasures, on the other hand, are derived from higher-order experiences like intellectual pursuits, art, philosophy, or the satisfaction from solving complex problems.
What did Hobbes think is the only way to escape from the condition in which there is no government to maintain order?
Hobbes argued that the only way to escape the state of nature, where there is no government to maintain order, is through a social contract—a mutual agreement among individuals to establish a sovereign authority capable of maintaining peace and order, enforcing laws, and ensuring social stability.
What did Hobbes mean by the state of nature
Hobbes's "state of nature" refers to a hypothetical condition where individuals exist without a government or central authority, characterized by a lack of organized society and governance. "war of all against all."
What is Hume's Argument
Hume's argument, often referred to as "Hume's fork," is a philosophical distinction between two types of knowledge: relations of ideas (analytic, conceptual truths) and matters of fact (synthetic, empirical truths). He argued that all meaningful propositions can be categorized into these two types: Relations of Ideas (Analytic) and Matters of Fact (Synthetic)
Explain the distinction between hypothetical and categorical imperatives
Hypothetical Imperatives: These are conditional commands that apply only if one desires a particular outcome. They are contingent on achieving a desired goal or end. For example, "If you want to pass the exam, then you should study." Categorical Imperatives: In contrast, categorical imperatives are unconditional and apply universally, commanding actions that are inherently moral, regardless of personal desires or goals. They are absolute moral commands that apply to all rational beings, irrespective of their desires or circumstances.
How do feminist ethics seek to address this problem?
Inclusivity: Highlighting the importance of including diverse perspectives, particularly those of women, in ethical discourse. Critiquing Gender Bias: Critiquing and challenging gender bias in ethical theories and advocating for a more inclusive approach that values relational aspects, emotions, and care.
How do feminist ethics seek to address this problem?
Inclusivity: Highlighting the importance of including diverse perspectives, particularly those of women, in ethical discourse. Critiquing Gender Bias: Critiquing and challenging gender bias in ethical theories and advocating for a more inclusive approach that values relational aspects, emotions, and care.
What is the problem of false happiness
Individuals pursue activities or goals that they believe will bring them happiness but ultimately lead to disappointment or a lack of fulfillment. This problem challenges the idea that pursuing pleasure automatically leads to genuine happiness. False Happiness occurs when people mistake fleeting pleasures or external markers of success for true, enduring happiness, only to realize later that these pursuits do not bring the fulfillment they had anticipated.
Why is it important to distinguish between intention and foresight?
Intention: Refers to the purpose or aim behind an action, indicating the specific goal or desired outcome that an individual intends to achieve. Foresight: Involves anticipating or foreseeing the potential consequences or outcomes of an action without necessarily intending those outcomes. It refers to an awareness or expectation of the likely results of an action.
Explain the difference between intrinsic value and instrumental value
Intrinsic value refers to the inherent worth of something, independent of its usefulness or consequences. It exists within the thing itself. In contrast, instrumental value refers to the value something has as a means to an end, valued for its ability to bring about something else of value.
Metaethics
Investigates the nature of ethics itself, explores questions about the meaning of moral language, the existence of moral facts, the nature of moral truth and the foundation of moral principles.
What did Kant think is the relationship between morality and rationality?
Kant believed that morality and rationality are closely linked. He argued that rational beings possess the ability to recognize and follow moral principles because of their rational capacities. Morality, for Kant, is not based on subjective desires or inclinations but on the rational recognition of universal moral laws that apply to all rational beings
What does Kant claim is the supreme principle of morality
Kant claims that the supreme principle of morality is the "Categorical Imperative." The Categorical Imperative, according to Kant, is a fundamental principle of morality that serves as a universal and unconditional moral law. It is a principle that applies to all rational beings, commanding certain actions simply because they are morally right, without any conditions or qualifications.
Explain Kant's principle of humanity
Kant's Principle of Humanity is an aspect of his Categorical Imperative and is encapsulated in the formulation that emphasizes treating humanity, whether in oneself or others, always as an end and never merely as a means to an end. It emphasizes the inherent dignity and worth of rational beings, advocating that individuals should respect and value others as rational agents and not manipulate or exploit them for personal gain.
Define metaethics
Metaethics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature, language, and metaphysical foundations of ethics. It delves into questions about the meaning of ethical terms, the nature of moral facts or values, and the truth conditions of ethical statements
Explain the difference between monistic and pluralistic approaches to ethics.
Monistic Approach: This approach asserts that there is a single foundational principle or moral rule that serves as the basis for determining the morality of actions. It advocates for a unified theory or principle that governs ethical decision-making, focusing on one fundamental criterion for evaluating moral actions.
monistic approache to ethics
Monistic Approach: This approach asserts that there is a single foundational principle or moral rule that serves as the basis for determining the morality of actions. It advocates for a unified theory or principle that governs ethical decision-making, focusing on one fundamental criterion for evaluating moral actions.
Explain the difference between monistic and pluralistic approaches to ethics.
Monistic Approach: This approach asserts that there is a single foundational principle or moral rule that serves as the basis for determining the morality of actions. It advocates for a unified theory or principle that governs ethical decision-making, focusing on one fundamental criterion for evaluating moral actions. Pluralistic Approach: In contrast, the pluralistic approach holds that multiple principles, values, or rules contribute to moral decision-making. It recognizes the existence of various and potentially conflicting moral principles or considerations, allowing for the complexity and diversity of ethical issues without reducing morality to a single criterion.
Moral nihilism
Moral nihilism is the philosophical position that denies the existence of any inherent or objective moral truths, values, or principles. It contends that moral statements lack truth value, meaning that there are no moral facts or objective basis for ethical judgments.
What is moral progress
Moral progress refers to the advancement or improvement in ethical standards and practices over time. It involves the development of moral principles, ethical awareness, and societal values that lead to positive changes in how individuals and societies treat one another.
What is moral skepticism
Moral skepticism is a philosophical position that questions or denies the possibility of knowledge or certainty regarding moral truths or principles. It challenges the existence of objective moral facts or the capacity to obtain knowledge about them.
Explain the concept of Natural Purpose.
Natural purpose refers to the inherent functions or goals that are built into the nature of entities, such as organisms or objects. According to natural law theory, identifying and fulfilling these inherent purposes contributes to the goodness or rightness of actions.
Explain Occam's razor.
Occam's razor is a principle in philosophy and science suggesting that among competing hypotheses or explanations, the simpler or more straightforward explanation should be preferred unless there is sufficient evidence to justify the more complex one. It advocates for parsimony in choosing the most economical and least complicated explanation
Paternalism
Paternalism is when someone in a position of authority or power limits or overrides an individual's autonomy for their perceived benefit or well-being. It involves making decisions or imposing actions on behalf of another person, believing it to be in their best interest, even if the individual affected may not agree with or desire those actions.
Pluralistic approach to ethics
Pluralistic Approach: In contrast, the pluralistic approach holds that multiple principles, values, or rules contribute to moral decision-making. It recognizes the existence of various and potentially conflicting moral principles or considerations, allowing for the complexity and diversity of ethical issues without reducing morality to a single criterion.
What are the two reasons the author of our text gives for why we do not need to make use of religious claims in our study of ethics?
Plurality of Beliefs: Ethics involves a wide range of beliefs and perspectives, and relying solely on religious claims might exclude or overshadow other valuable ethical frameworks. Secular Alternatives: Ethics can be studied and understood without exclusive reliance on religious claims. There are secular ethical theories, philosophical reasoning, and humanistic approaches that provide robust frameworks for ethical analysis and guidance.
What does it mean to say a premise begs the question?
Premise assumes the truth of the conclusion it's trying to support. In essence, the argument becomes circular, using its own conclusion as a premise, and thus doesn't offer independent support or evidence for the conclusion. This undermines the validity and strength of the argument because it fails to provide reasons or evidence to convince someone who doesn't already accept the conclusion.
Ethical Egoism
Prescribes how individuals should act, asserting that they ought to prioritize their self-interest. It's a normative theory about what actions are morally right.
According to utilitarian Jeremy Bentham, what is the relevant question for determining membership in the moral community?
Proposed that the relevant question for determining membership in the moral community is: "Can they suffer?" Bentham argued that the capacity to experience pleasure or pain, to suffer or enjoy happiness, is what matters in determining moral consideration. Those who have the capacity to suffer are included in the moral community and should be considered in ethical deliberations.
Explain the relationship between psychological egoism and ethical egoism.
Psychological Egoism: Describes human behavior, suggesting that all actions are motivated by self-interest, even if they appear altruistic. It's a descriptive theory about human nature. Ethical Egoism: Prescribes how individuals should act, asserting that they ought to prioritize their self-interest. It's a normative theory about what actions are morally right. The relationship between the two lies in ethical egoism being based on a similar premise to psychological egoism—that self-interest is the ultimate motivator. However, while psychological egoism describes human behavior as driven by self-interest, ethical egoism prescribes that individuals ought to act based on self-interest.
Describe the theory of psychological egoism, and explain why it is not considered a theory about ethics.
Psychological egoism is a descriptive theory that proposes all human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest. It suggests that every action, even seemingly selfless or altruistic ones, is fundamentally driven by a person's desire to maximize their own pleasure, happiness, or well-being. It describes human behavior from a psychological perspective, focusing on the motivations behind actions. It doesn't prescribe how individuals ought to behave morally; instead, it observes and interprets human behavior based on the assumption that self-interest is the ultimate motivator.
What does psychological egoism say about acts of altruism?
Psychological egoism suggests that acts of altruism, where individuals seemingly act for the benefit of others without personal gain, are ultimately driven by self-interest. It argues that even when people appear to act selflessly, they are unconsciously pursuing their own self-interest, such as gaining personal satisfaction, avoiding guilt, or maintaining a positive self-image.
What is the purpose of Rawls's "veil of ignorance"?
Rawls's "veil of ignorance" is a thought experiment used to determine fair and just principles for society. It involves imagining individuals making social and political decisions without knowing their own position, status, or characteristics in society. This hypothetical scenario encourages individuals to create fair principles that would benefit everyone, as they would not know their own circumstances behind the "veil."
What role does regret play in Ross's approach?
Regret plays a role in Ross's approach by acknowledging that individuals may experience regret or dissatisfaction when faced with conflicting moral obligations or when they fail to fulfill a prima facie duty. Regret can serve as an indicator that a duty was not properly fulfilled or that there was a conflict between duties.
Which qualities are emphasized in an ethic of care
Relationships: An ethic of care emphasizes the importance of relationships, interdependence, and interconnectedness among individuals. Empathy and Compassion: It values empathy, emotional sensitivity, and concern for others' well-being. Contextual Ethics: Care ethics considers the specific context and particulars of a situation, rather than applying universal rules or principles. Responsibility and Nurturing: It values the responsibilities of caregivers and emphasizes the nurturing role in fostering moral development and well-being in relationships.
Define the notion of an ideal observer, and explain the role that ideal observers could play in a modified version of subjectivism.
Relativism and subjectivism may generate contradictions because they reject the existence of objective moral truths while attempting to establish relativistic or subjective claims as universal truths. By asserting that all moral claims are relative or subjective, relativism and subjectivism inherently propose a universal claim about the nature of ethics, creating an apparent contradiction
Do relativism and subjectivism generate contradictions
Relativism and subjectivism may generate contradictions because they reject the existence of objective moral truths while attempting to establish relativistic or subjective claims as universal truths. By asserting that all moral claims are relative or subjective, relativism and subjectivism inherently propose a universal claim about the nature of ethics, creating an apparent contradiction.
According to Ross, how can we come to know what the right thing to do is?
Ross argued that individuals can determine the right course of action by carefully considering and weighing various prima facie duties that apply to a specific situation. By analyzing the specific moral principles involved and recognizing conflicting duties, individuals can assess which duty holds greater moral weight in a particular context.
Describe the central features of Ross's ethic of prima facie duties.
Ross proposed an ethical theory based on the concept of prima facie duties, which are fundamental moral obligations that guide ethical decision-making. His theory recognizes various moral principles that generate prima facie duties, allowing for flexibility in moral reasoning while acknowledging the importance of multiple moral considerations.
Why does Ross reject consequentialism?
Ross rejected consequentialism, particularly utilitarianism, because he believed that consequentialist theories overly focus on the outcomes or consequences of actions, potentially neglecting important moral considerations.
Rule Consequentialism
Rule consequentialism, on the other hand, evaluates actions based on adherence to rules or principles that, when universally followed, would produce the greatest overall happiness. It emphasizes the importance of following rules that, when consistently applied, tend to maximize utility, rather than evaluating each action individually.
What are Self-regarding desires?
Self-regarding desires refer to desires that concern oneself, one's own well-being, or personal interests. These desires are about things that affect the individual directly, such as wanting to be healthy, successful, or happy.
Altruism
Selfless concern for the well-being of others, where individuals act in ways that benefit others without expecting anything in return. It involves actions motivated by genuine care, compassion, or concern for others' welfare.
Why is disappointment a problem for desire satisfaction theory?
Showcases instances where desires are satisfied but fail to contribute positively to an individual's well-being. When desires are fulfilled but don't bring the expected satisfaction or happiness, it challenges the idea that desire satisfaction is the sole determinant of welfare.
State Socrates's question for Euthyphro and explain how it applies to contemporary debates about the Divine Command Theory.
Socrates asked Euthyphro in Plato's dialogue about whether something is right because the gods command it, or do the gods command it because it is right. Applied to contemporary debates, this question questions the nature of morality: Is something moral because a divine entity commands it, or does the divine entity command it because it is already inherently moral?
What problem does Socrates's question in the Euthyphro raise for the Divine Command Theory?
Socrates's question challenges the Divine Command Theory by questioning whether something is considered moral because a deity commands it (which implies morality is arbitrary and could change based on divine whims) or whether the deity commands it because it is already inherently moral (which suggests morality exists independently of divine commands).
Explain the natural law argument
Suggests there are objective moral principles inherent in nature. It asserts that there are fundamental moral truths accessible through human reason, and these truths are based on the natural order of things. Natural law theorists argue that certain actions are inherently right or wrong by virtue of conforming or violating the natural order.
What is supererogation
Supererogation refers to actions that go beyond what is morally required or expected. These are acts that are commendable, praiseworthy, or morally good but are not obligatory. Individuals who perform supererogatory acts exceed the call of duty or moral obligation, acting in ways that are beyond what is required by moral norms or rules.
What are the different definitions of human nature that various natural law theorists use?
Teleological View: Some natural law theorists define human nature based on teleology, emphasizing that human beings have inherent purposes or ends towards which they naturally tend. This view often includes the idea that fulfilling these inherent purposes leads to moral goodness. Rationality and Morality: Other theorists focus on human rationality as the defining characteristic of human nature. They argue that moral principles are discernible through rational reflection on human nature and our place in the world.
What's wrong with the best argument for ethical egoism?
The "best argument" for ethical egoism often revolves around the idea that individuals are best suited to pursue their own interests because they have better access to their own needs, desires, and capabilities. However, critics argue that this argument assumes a false dichotomy between self-interest and the interests of others. It overlooks the possibility and benefits of cooperation, mutual benefit, and societal well-being that can arise from considering others' interests alongside one's own.
Explain the "life's trajectory" objection to hedonism.
The "life's trajectory" objection to hedonism points out that a hedonistic lifestyle might not lead to a fulfilling or worthwhile life when viewed over the long term. Critics argue that merely maximizing pleasure in the moment might not align with the trajectory that leads to a life that is considered valuable or meaningful in its entirety. Choices and experiences that bring pleasure in the short term might not contribute positively to one's life when seen as part of a larger narrative or life story.
What is the Divine Command Theory?
The Divine Command Theory is a metaethical theory that asserts that actions are morally right or wrong because they are commanded or forbidden by God or gods. It links morality directly to the divine will, making what is morally good or bad dependent upon divine commands.
Explain the argument for self-interest.
The argument for self-interest often stems from various perspectives, including psychological egoism and rational self-interest. Psychological egoism asserts that individuals are naturally and inherently motivated by self-interest, suggesting that all actions are ultimately driven by the pursuit of one's own well-being or happiness, even seemingly altruistic actions. Rational self-interest argues that it is rational for individuals to prioritize their own well-being because doing so maximizes their overall happiness and fulfillment.
Describe the argument from disaster prevention, and explain why it is an objection to ethical absolutism
The argument from disaster prevention challenges the idea of ethical absolutism by presenting scenarios where following an absolute rule might lead to disastrous consequences.
What is the argument from injustice?
The argument from injustice is a moral argument that highlights the inherent flaws or inconsistencies in a particular ethical theory or system. It challenges the validity of an ethical theory by pointing out situations where the theory leads to morally unacceptable or unjust conclusions.
satisfaction theory?
The desire satisfaction theorist explains the connection between reason and self-interest by suggesting that reason serves as a tool to identify and pursue one's self-interest through the fulfillment of desires.
Explain the desire satisfaction theory of human welfare.
The desire satisfaction theory of human welfare posits that an individual's well-being or welfare is determined by the fulfillment or satisfaction of their desires. According to this theory, a person's welfare increases when their desires are satisfied and decreases when their desires go unfulfilled. It considers desires as the fundamental element in determining what is good for an individual.
According to the text, what does the evidence suggest about psychological egoism?
The evidence for psychological egoism is mixed and inconclusive. While some instances of apparent altruism might be explained by self-interested motives, there are also numerous instances where individuals genuinely act for the welfare of others without any direct benefit to themselves.
What is the free-rider problem?
The free-rider problem refers to a situation where individuals benefit from a collective good or resource without contributing their fair share to acquire or maintain that good. In a scenario where a public good is available to all, individuals may be incentivized to not contribute or share the costs of maintaining that good, hoping to benefit from others' contributions while avoiding their own obligations.
What is the fundamental "error" that the error theory seeks to debunk
The fundamental "error" that the error theory seeks to debunk is the belief that moral judgments refer to objective moral properties or facts. Error theorists argue that these presumed moral properties do not exist in reality, rendering moral discourse fundamentally flawed or mistaken.
Describe the paradox of hedonism, and explain why it is often taken to be a problem for the theory.
The paradox of hedonism revolves around the idea that pursuing happiness or pleasure directly might not necessarily lead to achieving it. It suggests that the more one focuses solely on the pursuit of pleasure, the less likely they are to attain genuine happiness
What is the paradox of self-harm and self-sacrifice?
The paradox of self-harm and self-sacrifice revolves around situations where individuals either harm themselves or willingly sacrifice their well-being or desires for a perceived higher cause or greater good. The paradox lies in the conflict between the satisfaction of desires for self-preservation and the willingness to sacrifice or harm oneself for the sake of others or a larger purpose. This paradox challenges the desire satisfaction theory by highlighting situations where fulfilling desires directly related to one's well-being might conflict with other values or ethical considerations.
Explain the priority problem for virtue ethics.
The priority problem in virtue ethics revolves around the question of whether virtues or the good life take precedence. It asks whether virtues are valuable in themselves, irrespective of their contribution to the good life, or if virtues are only valuable because they lead to a good life.
Explain the relationship between psychological egoism and ethical egoism
The relationship between the two lies in ethical egoism being based on a similar premise to psychological egoism—that self-interest is the ultimate motivator. However, while psychological egoism describes human behavior as driven by self-interest, ethical egoism prescribes that individuals ought to act based on self-interest.
How does the role of consent pose a problem for contractarians?
The role of consent in contractarianism poses challenges in determining the extent to which individuals genuinely consent to the social contract or moral rules. Critics argue that consent in hypothetical scenarios does not necessarily reflect genuine consent in real-life situations, raising questions about the legitimacy of the moral principles derived from these hypothetical agreements.
Why are the central claims of desire satisfaction theory both problematic?
The theory assumes that the fulfillment of desires contributes to well-being. However, desires can be based on false beliefs or misconceptions. For instance, someone might desire a certain medicine thinking it will cure their illness, but if that belief is mistaken and the medicine doesn't actually work, the desire, when satisfied, doesn't lead to the expected positive outcome.
Why is this problem for the desire satisfaction theory?
The theory encounters issues when desires are fulfilled but lead to disappointment or dissatisfaction. This happens when the actual fulfillment of a desire doesn't meet the individual's expectations or when the desire was not a reliable indicator of what would truly make them happy or satisfied.
Why is a literal reading of religious texts problematic?
These texts often contain complex narratives, allegories, metaphors, and cultural contexts that might not directly translate to straightforward moral principles. Literal interpretations might oversimplify or misinterpret the nuanced ethical teachings present in these texts.
What is the example of giving vaccines to small children supposed to show?
This example is meant to illustrate a scenario where individuals might have desires that conflict with their best interests. Parents might have a desire to protect their children from perceived vaccine-related risks due to misinformation, but fulfilling this desire (by not vaccinating) could harm the child's health in the long run, conflicting with their actual well-being
What is required if we are to be justified in relying on religion for moral guidance?
To rely on religion for moral guidance, one needs a well-justified belief that the religious teachings or scriptures provide a reliable and accurate source of moral principles. This justification might come from faith, reasoning, historical reliability, or personal conviction.
What is the distinction of treating someone as an end versus as a means?
Treating Someone as an End: This means acknowledging and respecting the intrinsic value and dignity of individuals. It involves recognizing their rational agency and not using them merely as instruments for one's own purposes. Respecting someone as an end means considering and valuing their autonomy, wishes, and moral worth. Treating Someone as a Means: This refers to using individuals merely as tools or instruments to achieve one's own ends or goals without regard for their intrinsic worth or dignity. It involves manipulating or exploiting others solely for personal benefit, disregarding their autonomy or inherent value as rational beings.
Explain how Kant thought we could apply it to determine the morality of actions.
Universal Law Formulation: This formulation suggests that one should act only according to principles that could be willed as universal laws without leading to contradictions. It asks individuals to consider whether the maxim (personal principle) behind their action could be consistently applied as a universal law without logical contradictions. Humanity as an End Formulation: This formulation emphasizes treating humanity, whether in oneself or in others, always as an end and never merely as a means to an end. It encourages respecting the inherent dignity and rational nature of individuals, avoiding their manipulation or exploitation for personal gain.
Define Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a specific type of consequentialist theory that suggests the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of individuals.
Value Theory
Value theory concerns itself with understanding what things are valuable and why. Delves into the nature of goodness, beauty and other values. -Explores questions such as if values are objective or subjective and how we prioritize different values.-
What notions should be at the heart of ethical theory, according to virtue ethics?
Virtue ethicists argue that ethical theories should focus on the notions of virtues, character development, moral excellence, and the cultivation of virtuous traits rather than solely on rules or consequences.
What is the relationship between virtue and the good life, according to virtue ethics
Virtue ethics emphasizes that living a good life involves cultivating virtues and possessing a virtuous character. Virtues are integral to living a good life as they lead to eudaimonia or human flourishing, contributing to overall well-being and a fulfilling existence.
What is the relationship between virtue and the good life, according to virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics emphasizes that living a good life involves cultivating virtues and possessing a virtuous character. Virtues are integral to living a good life as they lead to eudaimonia or human flourishing, contributing to overall well-being and a fulfilling existence.
What is attractive about the Utilitarian approach?
What's attractive about Utilitarianism is its emphasis on promoting the greatest overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It provides a straightforward and measurable criterion for evaluating the moral worth of actions based on their consequences. This approach aims to maximize collective welfare and minimize suffering, which many find appealing due to its focus on promoting the greatest good for the greatest number.
According to Aristotle, the ultimate good is
eudaimonia or flourishing
Proceduralist approach to ethics
focuses on the process or procedure used to determine ethical principles or rules rather than solely emphasizing the content of those principles. It suggests that the legitimacy or moral authority of ethical norms derives from fair and impartial procedures that individuals agree upon or would agree upon under certain conditions
Describe the central features of Ross's ethic of prima facie duties.
fundamental moral obligations that guide ethical decision-making. His theory recognizes various moral principles that generate prima facie duties, allowing for flexibility in moral reasoning while acknowledging the importance of multiple moral considerations.