Philosophy Final Exam
How did Hohfeld define a right?
Rights are entitlements (not) to perform certain actions, or (not) to be in certain states; or entitlements that others (not) perform certain actions or (not) be in certain states. (analytical system of rights -4types)
What is Aristotle's definition of a friendship?
There are three kids of friendship -utility, pleasure, and, goodness
What does hedonism have to do with utilitarianism?
They can both view pleasure or happiness as simple and immediate, or complex and matured. Where they differ is the scope of evaluation which justifies the behaviour as moral. Hedonism tends to be individualistic while utilitarianism tends to be social.
What is a negative right?
a right that implies some duty of refraining from some act with respect to the right holder( like the right to life implies a duty that one refrain from killing the right-holder)associated with perfect duties
What is a positive right?
a right that implies that another has a duty to perform some positive act towards the right-holder (the positive right to housing implies a duty that others provide one with housing)associated with imperfect duties
What is goodness friendship?
both people admire the other's goodness and help one another strive for goodness.
What is pleasure friendship?
both people are drawn to the other's wit, good looks, or other pleasant qualities.
What is utility friendship
both people derive some benefit from each other.
What is the burglar analogy?
burglar gets into your house through a window even with a screen and shows that even if one is partially responsible for x coming to exist with in some thing this doesn't give x the right to use it
What are imperatives
commands expressed by the word "ought", command a will which is not by necessity determined by reason to conform to its command
Why is the state of nature a state of war?
everyone is fighting to survive
What is an argument?
group of statements that lead up to a conclusion (one statement must have evidence and a claim that the evidence supports something)
how is a virtue related to eudaimonia?
need to develop our virtues because they contribute to our eudaimonia (flourishing/happy human life). Want to be a good person because of eudaimonia
What are the key questions of ethics to a virtue ethicist?
not what are the consequences of this action, not whether it is good, is this action right in terms of virtue of character (did this act make me a better person)
What does Thomson overall conclude about abortion
substantial burden /Thomson tries to say that carrying a fetus to term is like charity, would be great to do it but we are NOT forced/obligated to
What were Kaczor's criticisms of Thomson's violinist analogy?
unplugging faila to resemble any method of abortion which violates the bodily integrity of the child, death is directly caused not a side effect similar to the kidney problem problem internal to a violinist
Name and explain one of Aristotle's intellectual virtues.
wisdom is a combination of scientific knowledge and intuition, which helps us arrive at the highest truths of all. Wisdom is the highest of all intellectual virtues, because it involves a profound understanding of the eternal truths of the universe. Such understanding is brought about by philosophy.
If there was a Holocaust denier that came to our school, would it be okay?
yes because right to free speech and beliefs, Mills ideas of not causing harm and how challenging your own beliefs is good
What does Aristotle mean by "the mean"? Can you explain this using a virtue?
"Golden Mean" refers to the "Doctrine of the Mean": state of emotion of a sliding scale between 2 extremes (one should feel not too much fear and not too little when seeing a spider for example)
What counts as a moral harm to Harris?
"I shall argue, however, that in some cases it would be morally impermissible for a woman to have an abortion because it would be a wrongful harm to the father and a violation of his autonomy"
How did Socrates show that the formal charges are inconsistent? (Think of his daemon)
(daemon= child or child of god)Socrates showed that the formal charges are inconsistent because he said that anyone who believes in daemonic doings must believe in daemons. THEREFORE, anyone who believes in children of God must believe in Gods(people said he taught kids there is no god)
What were the formal charges brought against Socrates?
1. Socrates corrupts the young 2. Socrates does not believe in the gods which the city believes in
What were the "informal charges" Socrates thought influenced the jury?
1. Socrates investigates natural phenomena 2. Socrates makes the "weaker argument the stronger" 3. Socrates teaches others how to make the weaker argument the stronger
What are the two intuitive principles he thinks shows we are morally obligated to forego a trip to Disneyland or put off buying nice clothes and give to famine relief?
1. suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care is bad 2. It's in our power to prevent something bad from happening with out thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance we ought morally to do it
Why does he use the image of a lifeboat in his article?
50 people are stranded at sea in a lifeboat. They see 100 people drowning but only have the capacity to save 10 people. How do they pick who to save and how do they save them without hurting the people in the life boat. This is Hardin's argument against Singer, "If we try to save everyone we will all drown"
What aspect of classical utilitarianism can the experience machine show is false?
A classic utilitarian would assume that whatever brings about the maximum benefit for the most people would be the best option, but they don't acknowledge the importance of real life situations and/or relationships. In which despite being fulfilled by pleasures, people wouldn't chose to live their life this way without having real life experiences and relationships.
What do you think about fetal homicide laws? Are they inconsistent with abortion legislation? Why or why not?
An aborted fetus is recognized as a homicide by 38 states. Considering the fetus as an "unborn child"
Why does Aristotle think that virtue is not what happiness is?
Aristotle believes that you need knowledge to be virtuous. Yet, it is possible to possess virtue while asleep/ inactive. It is also possible for one to have virtue yet experience misfortune. Aristotle says "The Good" is Happiness (Eudaimonia)
What would Aristotle think of a politician who donates money to charity
Aristotle, in defining what it is to act virtuously, puts considerable emphasis on the idea that a person must do the virtuous act for its own sake.
Why does Socrates believe that he must stay in Athens to philosophize? How does his philosophy help other people?
Because he was told he was the wisest of the Greeks, "he knows what he doesn't know". He thinks his mission is to go around Athens and philosophize. Oracle of Delphi told him this.
Why does Harris talk about autonomy?
Because in some cases a fathers moral autonomy is violated through abortion
Why would engaging with someone who advocates a false view be beneficial to you? Say something about the traditional understanding of knowledge in your answer.
Because it could strengthen my knowledge. Engaging with someone can make me find the 'connection.' You realize why you believe what you believe and if you have a good argument for your beliefs
Name two of the popular conceptions of justice Socrates and company discuss in books I & II of the Republic
Cephalus= paying debts, not lying (but this is false because giving someone their gun back would be bad if their crazy seeming so it's not paying your debt)Polemarchus= to harm your enemies and help your friends(wrong because friends are not always good people and enemies not always bad)
Why does Socrates say that his defense at his trial is not for himself, but for the jury?
Claims that his defense is not for himself, but for the jury themselves in order to prevent them from condemning an innocent.(It is cuz he is a big help to society with his teachings. He is trying to get out of it not for himself but for the Jury's sake because killing him would be a huge disservice to society. In defending himself, Soc. is defending, or helping, the jury and all the People in the city)
In the cross-examination of Meletus, Socrates uses a reductio ad absurdum to refute him. What is this type of argument?
Contradiction within a moral theory that is so absurd that it can't really be possible. You are reducing their position to an absurdity, shows that the position is false.
Why do directed obligations matter to a deontologist? Why do they carry less weight for an utilitarian?
Deontology is agent relative, which means individuals have reasons to act in ways that do not aim to achieve common aims -Relationships trump other reasons to override some social aim, we have obligations to others Utilitarians aim for the maximum good they can bring for everyone, regardless of their relationships or obligations to people.
What is the difference between something having direct and indirect moral standing?
Direct Moral Standing: something possesses features because of which it deserves to be given moral consideration by agents who are capable of making moral choice Indirect Moral Standing: something that deserves moral consideration only because it is related to something with direct moral standing
Aristotle believes that the decent person does not simply follow rules of justice. Why does he think this?
Divorce example. Might know yes law tells me i get half of someone's property. But if i know one of those articles would extremely damaging for that person to lose. If you were going to be just you would take what you shouldn't, if you were a decent person you would say although i have a legal right to this it is too far. One must find and access a situation and act accordingly.
What's the main thrust of his criticisms of Thomson?
False Analogies -Thomson assumes there is no special responsibility of parents to child -Kaezor says this is false If mothers do not have special relations to their child, then fathers do not as well, but we clearly have established responsibility for fathers in our legal system --- "child support" --- therefore Thompson's analogies are weak.
Socrates says that a definition must give an account of the "form" (ιδεα). What does he mean by this?
Form that makes all these acts pious. Looking for the form that can be used in multiple circumstances for the same result. (form is like a blue print of set of instructions on how to do something)
Why does Goldman think Nozick's theory is fundamentally flawed?
Goldman believes people are not entitled to socially contingent advantages. -Undeserved Advantages: Differences in earnings are not always a function of his worked or effort expended. Also, one's wealth is often an indirect result of undeserved advantages.
What is the moral value that Goldman thinks should guide our understanding of just holdings of property?
Goldman says that when entering a community, or social contract, there are rules that people have to follow, and one of those rules take into account the rights of the needy.
What moral principle does Hardin think should guide immigration policy?
Hardin believes that the rich should not be destroying their land to make room for the poor. He believes that when the colonists first immigrated to america that they earned this land and do not owe anything to people who just ask for it.
What does Singer argue about the behavior of affluent countries toward poor countries?
He argues that their priorities lie in the wrong place. They invest millions into things they don't really need when they could be investing to help poorer countries.
What sort of position do I think Euthyphro holds about divine command theory?
He does give a lot of weight to the gods. So he agrees with divine command theory in some sense. The loving of the gods that make it pious(religous) (euthyphro) this is what euthyphro says to prove he believes in the divine command theory.
What are the three arguments Nickel gives for human rights?
He gives the argument for human rights on the prudential grounds, Utilitarian ground, and Plausible moral norms and values.
What does Socrates say is the only thing he knows? Why is this knowledge beneficial?
He says that he knows nothing, this benefits him because he is on a quest for higher knowledge "The unexamined life is a life not worth living"
Kant says that charity is an imperfect duty. What does he mean by this?
He says that it's commendable that a person donate to charity, but it isn't required. Because if we were to donate to every charity to asked, we would have no money.
What's the difference between a hypothetical and a categorical imperative?
Hypothetical imperative describes that one ought to do x because one has an inclination or want for Y, and this hold for an individual in any situation. The categorical imperative is one in which an agent out to do x because it is objectively necessary, and this holds for every rational being regardless of situation.
Which starting point for human rights do you think is the best one? What are some the problems with the other two?
I think the plausible moral norms and values is the best one because it appeals reasonable claims (secure claim over life, secure claim to lead one's life, secure claim against severely cruel or degrading treatment, and secure claim over severely unfair treatment). Prudential grounds are too selfish and the utilitarian grounds have to potential to violate someone's rights.
What is Locke's defense of property?
If you mix your labor with something, it now becomes yours. Mixing your labor makes something your property.
Why does Thomson discuss the people seeds thought experiment?
If you take every precaution and it still happens you have no obligation
What is it about the cases Harris considers that makes abortion a moral harm to fathers?
In those cases, the father's autonomy is violated because he has genuine interest in procreation, but he was functioning under false pretense. The cases that Harris considers a harm to the father are the cases in which the women didn't vocalize their intentions, misleading the father.
Why does Nozick think the word "distribution" in "redistributive taxation" is value-laden (viz., fail to be neutral)?
It assumes that the government has total control over money, and that i can distribute as it seems fit. Money is decentralized and it's a free-flowing market. To redistribute is to take away from someone and give to someone else
What would Mill think about the category of hate speech?
It would be bad since it can cause violence
Suppose that a politician gives $500,000 to a charity so that his poll numbers will go up. What would Kant say about this action? (use Kant's distinction between acts according to and from duty). What would a utilitarian say?
Kant would say that this act was done according to duty because it doesn't derive from a pure moral principle. A utilitarian would say that this is good regardless of intentions because he is ultimately doing something good.
Asks about what Kant would think of the politician who donated money to charity.
Kant would say that was the right action to do, but wrong because it was for political gain, and that it is not a truly moral actions. A truly moral action would be if there is no incentive.
Who is the lawgiver in the state of nature? Why does this matter?
Natural Law: People are obligated to live by reason in order to find peace and preservation
What is the rational part of the soul?
Lower part of rational soul: connected with irrational desires of irrational soul High part of rational soul: engages in contemplation of things whose first principles do not change.
What is Mill's harm principle and what is its relation to questions of liberty?
Mills says that mere offense to something isn't enough harm to stop speech. He says that as long as speech doesn't incite violence it is okay. (we need liberty in order to exercise our autonomy)
What is the difference between natural (phusis) and conventional (nomos) justice?
Natural law is universal and applies to the entire human race, and is the same for all, and it is unwritten (though it can be written down). Conventional justice is a law made by agreement, that may be local, regional, national, or even international. None-the-less, conventional law and justice are similar to a treaty and agreed upon by the majority.
Should students shut down speech that they consider to be threatening to minorities?
No because mere offense isn't enough to shut down speech.
Does Aristotle think the soul has three parts like Socrates argues in the Republic?
No. There is a rational part of the soul and an irrational part of the soul.
Does Hobbes think that there is such a thing as justice or property in the state of nature? Why does he think this?
No. We are not politically correct in state of nature. We are animals in state of nature driven by fear.
Meno points out that true belief can be as good a guide as knowledge. He then asks Socrates what the value of knowledge is. Why does Socrates think that knowledge is better than true belief?
Not all true belief is knowledge. How can one be sure they will have true belief in the future if you do not have knowledge. True beliefs supported by reason (true belief comes from god)
What is the Wilt Chamberlain analogy? What is this supposed to show about inequality that meets Nozick's three conditions of justice?
People pay .25 cents to see Wilt Chamberlain on top of 3 for the game, Wilt ends up with more $ than the other players -No injustice has occurred. All parties had agreed to distribute their money to Wilt Chamberlain: no one has violated the principle associated with the Entitlement Theory.
Marquis argues that abortion is prima facie seriously immoral. Why? What does he mean by prima facie seriously immoral?
Prima Facie definition: Based on first impression. Correct unless proven otherwise. Says abortion is immoral because it deprives a fetus of a future the greatest loss a human can suffer
What is Nozick's Entitlement Theory of Justice? Why does he use the term "entitlement"?
Serious Injustice to those who have justifiably acquired things, redistribution taxation is wrong -Justice in Acquisition (legitimately earned) -Justice in Transfer (legitimately acquired through transfer/gift) -Justice in Rectification (as long as you have acquired you stuff justice, corrective justice, reestablishing justice) (Inequality does not equal injustice)
Why does she think she can justify abortion regardless of the assumption?
She provides three analogies -violinist, burglar, people seed
Why is knowing that you do not know a good condition to be in? Explain why with reference to the dramatic context of the Euthyphro dialogue.
Socrates is investigating what piety is. Real objective is to show Euthyphro what he doesn't know, but he doesn't know what he doesn't know. If you think you know but you don't know. Things blow up on you.
What does Mill think someone who shuts down speech (that does not directly harm others) assumes about him or herself?
That they don't want to be challenged either because their position is weak, they want to remain dominant, they act according to a belief they know is true, or because they like the justification for their position. `
What is the experience machine analogy
The experience machine is an analogy that shows that despite people given the ability to be attached to a machine and only experience pleasure, they chose not to in the absence of real human experiences(goes against hedonism)
Socrates says that no bad man can harm a good man. Why does he believe this?
The harm principle. Due to the fact that he was innocent and could have benefitted the men of Athens, they were not hurting Socrates, but rather hurting themselves through the actions of sentencing an innocent man to death and buy missing out on his teachings through their own ignorance.
Why does Aristotle think that utility and pleasure friendships are so fickle? Of these two types of friendship, which does he say is better? Why?
The incompleteness of use friendship: -love is coincidental: friend does not love the other for the person he or she is -unstable: friendship dissolves as soon as the expected is no longer available -in short: each does not have the good will towards the other person. Aristotle says that both utility and pleasure friendships are incomplete and the only form of true friendship is virtue friendship (pleasure friendship is most like complete friendship)
why is utilitarianism described as an agent-neutral moral theory?
Utilitarianism is described as an agent-neutral theory because it aims to bring about the greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people, does not focus on individuals.
Why is virtue friendship beneficial?
Virtue friendship is beneficial because it is the friendship in which two people are most similar to each other, they find someone who enjoys them for who they are. Each is loved for the sake of him or herself. Not coincidental, it is a stable friendship. Spend quality time together and improve in virtue, experience, pleasure, and always work to benefit the other
Can you describe at least one of the American citizen's rights against Congress using Hohfeldian terminology?
We have divine (natural rights) and legal rights against congress, immunity against police asking me to testify against myself, immunity against congress making a law banning guns
Kant says that committing suicide is immoral. What duty does he think is being violated in the act of suicide?
We have perfect duties that we owe to ourselves and other. You don't kill yourself because it is a perfect duty to not murder. Don't treat anyone as a means, including yourself.
What is the maximization principle according to a utilitarian?
What brings about the greatest amount of happiness to the largest amount of people, regardless if it is right or wrong. (Good prior to Right)(have to ignore personal relationship ties)
Does Locke think that there are rights in the state of nature?
Yes, we have natural rights regardless of government (have natural rights
Suppose that one of the clubs at our university decides to invite a speaker to campus that denies the Holocaust. Would Mill think that such speakers could promote truth? Why or why not?
Yes. He believes that the collision of ideas generate truths because ideas are challenged and could be reinforced.(anything is fine to say as long as no physical harm happens from it)
What is the difference between agent-relative (deontology/Kant) and patient relative (deontology/rights-theorist)
agent-relative= (having a specific reason to yourself like you have a duty to keep your own promises) An agent relative reason is an objective reason, just as are agent neutral reasons.Example would be parents obligation to their own child, obligations not shared by anyone else to their child) patient-relative= These theories are rights based rather than duty based. Characterized as theories premised on people's rights. Not using people as a means to another's end.
What is a virtue?
an excellent trait of character
Which sort of life does Aristotle endorse, the practical or contemplative life?
contemplative
Can someone be a cultural relativist and human rights theorist? Why or why not?
could say yes because you can respect other cultures and customs, but care if someone in their own culture or society does not wish to be forced to follow those customs, could also say no since you may believe one cultures customs are morally wrong
What are the two types of arguments?
deductive- said to be sound when the premises of the argument are true and the argument is valid inductive- the premises are viewed as supplying strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion.
What is the irrational part of the soul?
is what we share in common with animals and plants. The lowest part of the soul (largest part) is the vegetative state (handles things like digestion), then there is the part of the irrational soul that deals with desire, emotion, mood
What is Meno's Paradox and why does Socrates think that his theory of recollection solves the problem?
it is If you know what you're looking for, inquiry is unnecessary. If you don't know what you're looking for, inquiry is impossible. Therefore, inquiry is either unnecessary or impossible. The soul knows all things of this world and the next. Learning is recollection of what we already know. It is possible to find knowledge of virtue if they find away to extract it from their soul. This idea inspires them to seek for the truth. Learning is recollection. If you ask someone a question in the right way he will be able to answer it eventually in the right way. Where else does knowledge come from besides knowing that it is already inside you.
What does Socrates think personal justice is?
justice is both an intrinsic and instrumental good.
Can you define two of the psychological virtues Socrates defends in the Republic?
justice= each part doing its own work, wisdom= reason is perfected by knowledge
What were Kaczor's criticisms of Thomson's burglar analogy?
leaving the window open does not cause the burglar to be in the house-only removes an obstacle and burglar enters the house by his own power, he does something unjust or wrong & thus, gives up some of their rights voluntarily
What are Hohfeld's incident of rights?
liberty, claim, power, and immunity
what is the people seed example?
people seeds going around and attach to your house even with trying to protect it? shows becoming pregnant due to defective contraception wouldn't give a fetus the right to use the mother's body or special obligation to the fetus
What exactly did Kant think was practical anthropology? How is this different from his own metaphysics of morals?
practical anthropology is the study is based on experience and observation of mankind. It studies the faculties of the human mind in general: cognition, pleasure, and desire. It also studies the characters of sub-sections of humanity. (Provide humans with practical or a worldly wisdom; in other words, it gives us a way in we can become happy in the world as it is. It gives us practical rules for action)problem is being moral often does not bring with it happiness. Often, being moral makes us very unhappy or (in many cases) dead Kant believes that ethics is a rational or 'pure' science (metaphysics-the moral principles that are grounded on pure concepts rather than experience. The moral principles are both universal and necessary for all rational beings )
What was the form of discussion Socrates uses in the Euthyphro and Meno? Can you give an example from the Euthyphro to show how it worked?
question and answer. asks questions to draw out contradiction in peoples believes. Example is socrates asks Euthyphro what is holy and he says that holiness is approved by all the gods, but this is wrong because what is holy gets approved by the gods because it is holy and what is approved by the gods in turn determines what is approved by the gods
what is divine command theory?
that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God.
What is the main assumption that Thomson grants to the pro-life position?
that fetuses are persons
What is a natural right?
the non-relative right one has prior to and after the existence of a political community
What is cultural relativism?
the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his or her own social context. "Right" or "Wrong" is culture-specific. What is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society's customs
what is the violinist analogy?
you get hooked up to a violinist against your will and have to stay attached for months in order for him to survive, shows it would be morally permissible to let x die if one was involuntarily to support x's life
