Philosophy

What is the categorical imperative, as Kant describes it?

"I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law."

What is the slogan that Malcolm X says it is his purpose to explain?

"If we don't cast a ballot, it's going to end up in a situation where we're going to have to cast a bullet. "It's either a ballot or a bullet."

What is the first principle of existentialism, as Sartre explains it?

"Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself." Each person makes free choices about how to act, and in doing so is responsible for choosing to become the kind of person they become (someone who often chooses to act like that).

Vitrano concludes that part of the problem is the term "meaningful" that is being used here. What is the problem she raises with that the way term is used in the context of asking if a particularly of living one's life makes it meaningful?

"Meaningful" is far too ambiguous and enigmatic a term; better to ask if a life was happy, fulfilling, or successful in various respects.

Who are the parties to this Racial Contract?

"We the white people"; those in power who designate themselves as "white", who agree to categorize all remaining persons as "non-white"

CONTRACTARIAN explains that Thomas Hobbes imagines a time before societies were formed, in which everyone was free to do whatever they wished and thought would be best for themselves. What does Hobbes say this "state of Nature" would be like?

"a war, of every one against every one" in which life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."

What does West identify as the "Three Pillars of Democracy," or three traditions needed to revitalize and regenerate a democratic society like ours?

(1) The tradition of Socratic Questioning; free and fearless speech, asking questions. (2) The Jewish tradition of Prophetic Witness; care and compassion for those who are unjustly treated. (3) The African American tradition of a Blues Sensibility; persevering towards justice, even when success seems unlikely or distant.

How many of Descartes' six Meditations were you assigned to read?

2

A key moral value communicated by Matthew seems to regard the purity of your attitudes and intentions, with an eye towards others—though you might want this or that, these actions can harm others and so it is better to avoid even thinking on those desires. Which of the following is an example of that injunction?

5:44 "Love your enemies, and pray for those who persecute you" 5:28: "But I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart".

What is the Greek origin of the term "Philosophy"?

A combination of two words meaning "love" and "wisdom."

What does Sartre mean by anguish?

A feeling of deep and total responsibility for ourselves and for other people.

What, according to Kant, is good without qualification?

A good will

Malcolm X says "So, what I'm trying to impress upon you, in essence, is this: You and I in America are faced not with a segregationist conspiracy...." what does he argue we are faced with?

A government conspiracy.

effective nonviolent civil disobedience as a means of changing laws requires

A legal system in which public opposition to unjust laws can be translated into action to get the laws changed. A response to protest that provokes the public sympathy and helps the public recognize the injustice. The media who make the public aware of the injustice. A public prepared to sympathize with the unjustly treated.

How does COMMUNIST think one should judge the legitimacy and worth of a society? How does this contrast with how COMMUNIST believes a capitalist society operates?

A legitimate and worthy society arranges things for the benefit of the proletariate workers, in contrast with a capitalist society that benefits the rich and powerful by enabling them to unfairly exploit the proletariat workers.

One important disagreement between a socialist and a libertarian would be

A libertarian believes that peoples freedom should only be limited to ensure freedom for everyone. A socialist would argue that some freedoms should be limited further to ensure that all members are protected from situations that unfairly restrict their opportunities or that lack basic human dignity

According to Confucius, what leads to benevolence (ren)?

A person in a leadership role concentrating on the root of filial duties (a parents' love for their children), from which grow filial piety (children's love and obedience towards their parents), respect, and love of one's brother or neighbor. That is, leaders should care about the people they are responsible for, and about treating those people with respect.

According to Confucius, what reveals a person's character?

A person reveals their character in their errors . A good person is courageous enough to acknowledge and correct their mistakes.

What is the general point Nozick illustrates with the example of Wilt Chamberlin, and how does it undermine Rawls theory of justice?

A political system or principle that requires a particular pattern of distribution of wealth or goods in a society (e.g. minimizing wealth inequality) would require unjust interference in people's lives, by unjustly taking wealth or goods from people who are justly entitled to hold it.

what is the tragedy of the commons?

A problem caused by people in a collective having a temptation to pursue their self interest at the expense of the common good

In. the second paper, what does Foucault call the system that regulates what speech functions as true, the ways people distinguish true and false statements, the means by which statements are sanctioned as true or as false, and the methods by which truth is produced?

A regime of truth.

What is Hobbes' alternative to the State of Nature? How does it relate to the Tragedy of the Commons, and the SKEPTIC's main question at the beginning?

A situation in which people gain security and avoid destructive conflicts, by A social contract in which they agree to give up some freedoms to pursue their own self interest, and agree to recognize obligations to one another.

What is the "Tragedy of the Commons"? A story that illustrates the hazards of competition for shared resources amongst selfish individuals. The problem that people are not treated equally because of economic, social or political status. The tragedy of knowing I should read the assigned reading before class, but still not doing so.

A story that illustrates the hazards of competition for shared resources amongst selfish individuals

A sound deductive arguement is

A valid arguement with all true premises.

Which of the following are the principles of justice applying to the basic structure of society, that Rawls argues would be agreed on in the Original Position? A: Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. B; Each person is to be treated equally by all other people C: any social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are reasonably expected to be to everyone's advantage, D: any social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are attached to positions and offices that are open to all persons E: Nobody is permitted to use violence against another person, but if someone does try to use violence against another person, violence may be used to deter or punish the violence

A, C, D

According to Dewey, about what are individuals wiser than anyone else can be?

About the troubles they suffer from.

Kierkegaard uses a story from the Bible to illustrate the "religious stage". Which story does he use?

Abraham being willing to sacrifice his son Isaac to God.

What is the greatest happiness principle/the principle of utility?

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.

Does the character of "The Lord" or "El Shaddi" (speaking from the Whirlwind) initially agree or disagree with the position advocated by Al-Ashari (in the previous reading)?

Agree

When Malcolm X discusses the social philosophy of black nationalism, he makes a point (possibly related to Dr. King's approach) about appealing to the moral conscience of America. What is his point about that tactic?

America's conscience is bankrupt. She lost all conscience a long time ago. Uncle Sam has no conscience. It's impossible to change white people's minds. They don't try and eliminate an evil because it's evil, or because it's illegal, or because it's immoral; they eliminate it only when it threatens their existence. Instead we have to change black people's minds about themselves and each other; we should see each other as brothers and sisters, and promote the unity and harmony that is necessary to solve the problem ourselves.

What does Nozick mean by "Justice in Acquisition"?

An acquisition of property that follows a set of just rules about how unheld things may become held as property, which things can become held, which holdings result from particular creative processes and so on, then that property is justly owned

What is the "Voter's Paradox" and how does it relate to the Tragedy of the Commons?

An individual action seems unlikely to make a difference by itself, but it does make a difference because if everyone thought their action would not make a difference there would be important negative consequences.

McIntosh explains white privilege by describing it as

An invisible weightless knapsack of unearned assets

In the "Allegory of the Cave" Plato defends against the popular myth of the philosopher being misunderstood by ignorant people who mistakenly dismiss the philosopher as out of touch "elitist" who doesn't understand the everyday concerns of working people. Plato's defense is that philosophers, like the man released from the cave, have a special kind of understanding, that is an advantage to Rulers. What is this special knowledge that Rulers need to have, that makes philosophers especially suited for ruling well?

An understanding of the true "forms" or ideals of Goodness. Justice, Truth and Beauty ( and that understanding is needed to help a society be good and just and true and beautiful). In contrast, ordinary citizens only have beliefs about things that people call "good" or "just" or "beautiful" or "true".

What is an "unearned entitlement" and how might it function as an unearned advantage?

An unearned entitlement is a benefit you have just by being a member of society (like being presumed innocent until proven guilty in court). Every member of our society should have them. But if only some people have these benefits, they they function as unearned advantages for those people.

According to Mill, how can we determine whether one pleasure is more valuable than another?

Ask those who are competently acquainted with both pleasures which they prefer.

Why, according to Blatchford, should we not blame someone for his or her conduct?

Assigning blame seemingly presupposes that someone could have done other than what they did, but Blatchford claims to have shown that this is impossible.

What does Plato give as the reason for a State coming into being?

Because everyone has many different needs, and nobody can do everything for themselves, so we team up and are all to call on one another for help.

West argues that the examined life that Socrates recommends is painful, and involves "wrestling with forms of death". He argues that getting an education involves "learning how to die". What does he mean by this?

Becoming a better person means letting your current self "die;" letting go of values and practices that might be "core" to your identity, but which do not seem defensible after critical examination.

What, according to William Lycan, is "intelligence"?

Being flexible and able to deal with unforeseen problems and situations that could not have been anticipated and whose solutions could not be pre-programmed.

Susan Wolf disagrees with Taylor about what makes a life meaningful. She gives a two part criterion for a meaningful life: "Active engagement in projects of worth." What does she mean by "active engagement"?

Being passionate, excited or interested in doing it. Finding it subjectively satisfying.

Kierkegaard defines the religious stage by a "teleological suspension of the ethical". what does he mean by this?

Being so committed to a cause or goal, that one is willing to do something others would call "unethical" to further that cause, because the cause is more important than doing what others think is right.

According to Cornel West, the fundamental crisis in black America is due to:

Black poverty.

The brain is like a computer. Its structure is the hardware and socialization is the software. Sensations are the input that it processes. Thus, just as the output of a computer is predictable once we know the software, hardware, and input, so the actions of the human being are predictable. This argument is:

Both an analogy and inductive.

The Buddha teaches that the cessation of suffering is possible (Third Noble Truth). How, according to the Buddha, is it possible for a person to cease all suffering?

By ceasing all craving, and being content with how things are, and detached from all desires for things to be different from how they are, accepting that many things change in ways that are beyond your control.

How does one acquire the two kinds of virtue?

By teaching and developing habits.

Plato suggests a change (not one that is easy or small) that would correct a defect in many societies that prevents them from being organized justly. What change does he suggest?

Changing the way we appoint leaders, so that leaders are trained in philosophy, or philosophers are chosen to lead.

How, according to James, does Clifford's attitude differ from James's with respect to "our first and great commandments as would-be knowers"?

Clifford's attitude is "believe truth"and "a rule that prevented me from knowing the truth would be an irrational rule" while James's is "we must believe, even when the available evidence suggests differently"

Chanelle believes that Sabrina, like Bach, can be creative, original, self motivated, and free, and that this is:

Completely compatible with determinism.

And unjust system according to Rawls would

Contain inequalities that are not in everyone's interest

CONTRACTARIAN argues that the Prisoners' Dilemma suggests a strategy that can help avoid the tragedy in the "Tragedy of the Commons" scenario. What is the strategy?

Cooperate and follow the restrictions that preserve the commons for everyone.

What is the main objective action that Ryle's main "Philosophical Behaviorist" makes against Descartes' Dualism?

Descartes' Dualism assumes that the mind, or a mental state like a belief, is a thing that one has

A constructivist about rationality believes that

Different cultures might have different ideas, each based on shared agreement, about which procedures and principles count as rational.

Shu has been called the principle of reciprocity. What is that principle?

Do not impose onto others what you do not imposed onto you.

What is the central question Socrates asks Shaddai, about His feelings or judgments regarding the Moral Law?

Do you love the Moral Law because it is the Moral Law, or is it the Moral Law because you love it?

LIBERTARIAN raises as an argument that some countries go too far in some laws that restrict freedoms. What is the difference between drunk driving laws and seat belt laws, that LIBERTARIAN gives an example of this?

Drunk drivers can harm other people, and laws restricting driving while intoxicated make the roads safer for everyone, are reasonable because they enable everyone to choose to drive trusting the roads would be (more) free of intoxicated drivers that might harm them. Seat belt laws prevent people from making a choice to do (or not do) something that will only harm themselves, which is going too far.

What does Kant mean when he says, "Duty is the necessity to act out of reverence for the law"?

Duty means to act out of a rational intention to do what you understand to be required by the Moral Law, rather than a desire for the effects of the action.

How does Plato argue the many tasks that need to be done in a society should be divided among the people of the society?

Each person specializing in the task they are best suited to performing.

According to Pharr, which of the following is one of the principal factors that sustains both sexism and racism?

Economics.

Imagine that you want to use the disjunctive syllogism form of argument to construct an argument to show that "Mencius believes that Human nature is good" is true. Which of the following would be the premises in a valid disjunctive syllogism with this as the conclusion?.

Either Mencius believes human nature is good or he believes it is evil. It is not true that Mencius believes human nature is evil.

What does the German philosopher Hands-Georg Gadamer say about the understanding that occurs when there is a "fusion of horizons?"

Every person's understanding is a horizon resulting from perspective or bias that we have acquired through our experiences. Engaging in genuine dialogue with someone of a different perspective, we learn to recognize the limitations of our previous perspective and other possible perspectives.

What is the interesting addition that the BIOLOGIST brings to the question of the "State of Nature" and the origins of our following a social contract?

Evolution often produces cooperative, generous, altruistic behavior, and not only self-interested behavior. Many animals do things that benefit other members of their group, and this might have produced a motivation to cooperation in at least some people.

According to Noddings, what is the source of the obligation to accept the initial "I must" that brings about ethical caring; giving care even when we do not want to do so?

Experience of having cared for others and having been cared for by others. Remembering such experiences pushes an agent to feel compelled to embrace the care they have for others, and to give care even when it is difficult or inconvenient.

Plato argues that the best rulers are to be found in those who are not seeking to rule. Why is this supposed to be an advantage?

Fair minded people will view holding power as an obligation rather than a right, so that they will return to their other way of life if they believe that someone else could take over and do as good a job, or better, at fulfilling those obligations People who seek power seek it for what it will do for them, and so they cannot be trusted to do what is in the overall interest of the society when it might conflict with their own happiness or interests. People who seek to rule seek power because of the happiness they believe it will bring them, they fight for power, and this brings internal conflicts in the government of a state which is ruinous for the state and its people. People who are happy doing other things (like philosophy), will only lead when they believe that their skills and understanding are needed,. They are motivated by doing what is best for society, rather than doing what is best for themselves. They would keep doing the other things that made them happy if they were not persuaded that they are needed as rulers. AKA all of the above.

A contract that distributes rights and benefits to citizens of a society is a just contract according to Rawls "a theory of justice" if it's

Fair to everyone

According to Dewey what is the foundation of democracy?

Faith in the power of pooled human intelligence and cooperative experience in generating the knowledge and wisdom ned to guide collective action.

According to Confucius, on what two principles should people focus?

Faithfulness and honesty.

"Both versions portray Jesus as concerned principally with how we should respect God and worship him, for this is how we merit His forgiveness and rewards"

False

To Kant, the consequences or results of an action are what make it a good action.

False

is the following statement true or false: Martin Luther king Junior argues in his letter from Birmingham jail that if we just wait long enough our society will eventually become more just.

False

Confucius lists the five virtues as honesty, fairness, temperance, diligence, and optimism.

False, they are courtesy, generosity, good faith, diligence, and kindness.

According to Noddings, what two sentiments or feelings move us from natural toward ethical caring?

Feeling natural care for another individual, and then a sentiment that considers one's best self that motivates a commitment to maintaining that care.

What is Descartes goal in these Meditations?

Find a stable, lasting, and certain foundation for knowledge

Jean Paul Sartre, in "existentialism" says that "existence precedes essence". By this he means that:

First humans exist, then they define themselves by the free choices they make.

According to both Matthew and Luke, what condition must be met for God/the Father to forgive your sins?

Forgiving those who have sinned against you.

Dr. King describes laws requiring or supporting segregation as an "unjust" law. He argues that there are differences between just laws and unjust laws. Which of the following is NOT one of the differences he lists?

From St. Augustine: "An unjust law is no law at all" A just law is a human-made code that is in harmony with the moral law (God's law). an unjust law is out of harmony with the moral law From Thomas Aquinas: A unjust law is a human made law that is not in harmony with eternal and natural law A just law uplifts human personality; an unjust law degrades it. An unjust law is one the majority inflicts on the minority without their consent while claiming that it is not binding for the majority. These are all differences that Dr. King describes

What are the principal attitudes and goals of someone in the Aesthetic stage of life?

Fun, enjoyment, pleasure.

What is the underlying premise that al-Ashari uses to support his arguement?

God is all powerful and God creates everything including morality.

A main premise in Descartes' argument that his sensations are most likely to be caused by an external world of objects is:

God is not a deciever.

How does God's answer to Socrates' question relate to Job's case?

God's answer shows that the Moral Law must exist independently of God, and thus that God can act unjustly sometimes, as he did in causing bad things to happen to a good and righteous person like Job. His actions are not automatically good and Just, simply because they are God's actions.

What, according to the character Yu, is the most valuable thing that can be brought about by everyone following the rites (rules of proper behavior, traditions, customs, rules of etiquette, and propriety)?

Harmony

Lycan raises an important objection to his argument, that machines cannot have free will. What is his response to that objection?

Harry would be unpredictable, creative and make choices that are not externally compelled, but which follow from his beliefs and desires, just like free humans can do.

What does forlornness mean?

Having to face all the consequences of the fact that God does not exist, including that no action is inherently good, so feeling "alone, with no excuses."

How does Socrates defend himself against the charge of Atheism?

He argues that the charge is contradictory. Meletus admits Socrates believes in divine activities, but charges him with atheism (believing in no divine activities at all).

What is the main point Socrates made by telling the story of the Oracle of Delphi?

He explains that his activities were in response to a report that the Oracle declared that he, Socrates, was the wisest man in Athens and, in an attempt to refute that claim, he made many enemies who now bring false charges against him.

Descartes notices that his minds passive faculty for receiving sensory impressions, must mean there is something with an active faculty for producing these sensations. What are the three possible causes of his sensations that he discusses?

Himself, God, and a physical world of objects.

Descartes initially presents two arguments that information gathered from the world around him should not be trusted. One is based on the unreliability of ______________ and the other is based on the possibility that he ________.

His sensations, he might be dreaming.

What is the first principal of existentialism?

Humans are nothing other than what they make themselves to be.

Descartes argues that "my mind is a distinct thing from my body". Which of the following are ways Descartes believes that his mind or soul ("that which is essential to me") is a separate and distinct thing from his body. (Select all that apply).

I am a thinking thing, but my body does not think my body is extended (has size and shape and mass) by my mind is not extended in space I have the ability to understand, yet my body does not my body is divisible but my mind is not I know my mind exists, but I cannot be certain that my body exists

What does Nozick mean by "Justice in transfer"?

If a transfer of property that is justly held by one person, is in accordance with rules about voluntary exchange (gift, sale, bequeathment, etc.) as well as restrictions in theft, fraud, etc, then the person it is transferred to owns the property.

What is the "Veil of Ignorance" to Rawls, and how does it help create a just social contract?

If the framers of the social contract are ignorant of their own position and characteristics, then their self-interest cannot bias their negotiations, and they would create a social contract that would be beneficial to them, no matter who they turn out to be in the world governed by that contract

Under what conditions is it permissible, according to King, to break the law?

If the law is unjust, and you break it openly, lovingly (nonviolently), and with a willingness to accept the penalty. hoping to arouse the conscience of the community over the law's injustice.

What is the objection that COMMUNIST raises about allowing too much freedom in capitalist countries that is COMMUNIST's reason for restricting freedoms?

If you give people the freedom to do what they please, politically and economically, this allows accumulation of wealth, and so the accumulation of power) in the hands of very few people, who then have the power to exploit and oppress those with less money (and so less power).

what is the term used to refer to the way individuals may sometimes make unconscious use of stereotypes about particular groups even their own especially in situations where snap judgments are made even though one might explicitly disagree that the stereotype is an appropriate basis for judgment when you have time to think about it

Implicit bias

What does Sartre mean when he argues that responsibility for our own choices brings a kind of anguish?

In choosing to do a thing, we not just choosing for ourselves. "In choosing myself, I choose man". We are saying that everyone, in the same situation, ought to choose the same. So anguish is a feeling of deep and total responsibility for the choices we make, because others might emulate our choices.

When Kessler describes philosophical questions as "radical questions," what does he mean by this?

In the sense pertaining to roots, they are fundamental, very basic, questions.

Young notes a form of oppression she calls powerlessness, that is structured between two groups in our society. What are those groups and how does this contribute to oppression?

In this section of the argument, Young concentrates especially on the contrast between "professionals" and "nonprofessionals". The latter suffer a form of oppression, in addition to being exploited, in which they lack the authority, status and sense of self the "professionals" tend to have.

According to Pojman's analysis, what is the dependency thesis?

Individual acts are right or wrong depending on the nature of the society in which people act and judge actions.

What are the two kinds of virtue?

Intellectual and moral.

According to Camus, what is"the fundamental question of philosophy"?

Is life worth living?

What is the central question that COMMUNIST asks about how a society is organized?

Is there a particular economic sector of a society, for whose benefit that society is unfairly organized (e.g. the rich and powerful exploiting workers who also --or more-- deserve to be benefitted)?

What is the "Original Position", as Rawls describes it?

It describes a hypothetical starting point of equality in creating a social contract, in which people are ignorant of their own interests, position, characteristics, fortune, and other potential sources of bias, so they they would create a fair social contract.

Brennan argues that there are some forms of "epistocracy" that do not involve excluding some people from voting. Brennan explains a three-step process for enabling everyone--even children-- to vote. How is this supposed to help elections produce better outcomes?

It enables everyone to participate, but better represents the interests people would vote for if they were better informed and rational.

What objection does Pojman give to conventional ethical relativism?

It entails that nobody can criticize anyone outside of their culture, even if they do morally heinous things, since those others are just doing what their culture teaches them is right, which is the definition of being a moral person.

What does Mills think is the connection between the Racial Contract and economic exploitation?

It establishes a political and economic system which privileges those designated as "white" and exploits those designated as "nonwhite

For what reasons does McIntosh conclude that the term "white privilege" is misleading?

It has mostly positive connotations, of being a benefit, as something that everyone would want to have, and so we don't notice the ways it might bring negative effects to others, by people with privileges being over-empowered, part of a dominance relations that involve power over others, in ways that cause disadvantages or exclusions for others.

The veil of ignorance is important to Rawls' theory about Justice because

It helps ensure that self interest does not bias the deliberations of the people deciding on the distribution of rights and benefits in a to be formed society.

What is the "unfortunate side-effect" of democracy that Brennan's proposal is intended to correct?

It incentivizes citizens to be ignorant, irrational, tribalistic, and to not use their votes in very serious ways.

What reason does Camus give for thinking that life will be lived better if it has no meaning?

It makes our fate one of our own making. We are free to pursue life , choosing happiness or joy for ourselves, as we wish to live it.

What is the value of philosophy according to Russel?

It opens one's mind, and encourages impartial consideration of possibilities.

When Malcolm X discusses the economic philosophy of black nationalism, what does he say should change?

It should be easier for black people to set up business in black neighborhoods (such businesses should not only be owned by white people who don't live in the community), so black people should spend their money in black-owned businesses. You can make your community richer by spending your money in your community.

What does Camus think the absurd and its contradictory life teaches us, in terms of how to live?

It teaches that all experiences are unimportant, but all urges us tone conscious of one's life and experiences, and of the freedom that meaningless entails, and so "live life to the maximum."

What objection does Pojman give to subjective ethical relativism?

It would entail that an evil person like Hitler was, paradoxically, a very ethical person, if he lived according to his own ethical principles.

Nelson Mandela argues for the use of properly controlled violence as a means of achieving peaceful race relations in south Africa. Which of the following is not one of the reasons he gave for advocating such violence?

It would only result in the deaths of people who had chosen a path of violence and had actively participated in such violence themselves

What criterion does Brennan use to describe "better" outcomes of this three-step process, if not expressing the collective will of the people through counting the votes of as many people as possible?

It would take into account people's actual interests and needs, and would enable people's votes to support candidates who represent the voters' actual issues and concerns, and lessen the undemocratic effects of ill-informed voters who vote for candidates that don't represent the interests the voters mistakenly believe they represent.

What does the monk Nagasena suggest that the name "Nagasena" refers to?

It's a convenient practical word, but is nothing but a name. There isn't a person it ultimately refers to.

When Cornel West counsels that hope is a better attitude than optimism, he means that

It's better to understand the problems of the world and work to try and make them better, rather than simply believing that whatever we do is going to be ok.

Dewey believes that democracy is much broader than a political form for selecting leaders and making laws. What else does democracy do?

It's the best means for far found for forming the values that regulate the development of human personality, human relationships and the general welfare of human societies.

How is Job's case relevant to the relationship between God and the concepts of justice and goodness?

Job is a righteous person who is morally upright and blameless, yet God caused him to suffer, horribly, just to win a bet with "the Adversary". Job believes that God has treated him unjustly.

Socrates is brought in as an advocate, to argue Job's case. Socrates initially summarizes what he takes Shaddai's position on justice to be. What is this position that Shadai holds to be true of the concept of "justice"?

Justice is power. God's might and Their status as creator makes whatever They decree or do just.

what is an important difference between Martin Luther King Junior and Malcolm X regarding their response to the racial injustices during the 1960s?

King disagreed with using violence as a means of an acting positive change while Malcolm X thought it was important to bring positive change by any means necessary.

What are the three central claims of Feminist Standpoint Epistemology?

Knowledge is socially situated, marginalized groups have an advantage in being able to spot biases that the dominant group cannot see, knowledge should be built upon the marginalized perspective.

Wolf argues that the second of these criteria , "projects of worth", makes the test of meaningfulness "at least partly independent of a subject's [person's] ungrounded preferences or enjoyment". She does not give a clear definition, but suggests examples of projects that may or may not qualify as "worthy". Select ALL the descriptions she gives as examples of "worthy" types of projects or activities (that are "engaging" enough, for many people, to contribute to a meaningful life).

Lives of great intellectual or moral accomplishment, having deep loving relationships with friends or family, cultivation of personal virtues, religious practices, creation of aesthetic experiences for oneself and others.

what is the Maxi-Min principal as concerns a just social contract

Make the worst off in the society as well off as possible

What does McCloskey say in response to the question "why did you make that crossing"?

McCloskey would appreciate should be the courtesy of not being asked "why" the way we are not asked "why" in a judgmental way, about why we are an optimist or why we like peach ice cream.

What are the two parts that Descartes concludes a human being is made of?

Mind and body.

What is "identity theory"? What things are claimed to be identical with one another?

Mind and brain.

If reforming the medical care system works, then the president has shown good judgment. Reforming the medical care system has worked, therefore the president has shown good judgment. This argument is:

Modus Ponens

What reasons does Midgley give for her belief that "Moral isolationism would lay down a general ban on moral reasoning"?

Moral reasoning depends upon making comparisons; this is how we make progress, by comparing current standards to proposed improvements.

According to Midgley, moral isolationism, the refusal to make moral judgements about other cultures, leads to:

Moral stagnation, because making comparasions is nexessary to moral progress.

What does existence precedes essence mean?

Most objects have an essence that defines their purpose before they exist (a recipe, plan, DNA, blueprint, design specification, or platonic form). But Humans are different. First humans exist, then they define themselves by the choices they make.

Does Midgley approve of moral isolationsim? For what reason?

No, it prevents moral progress which depends on our policies with others.

Does Mills think the Racial Contract helps people (especially those designated as "white") to see the world more clearly?

No. It is an agreement among "white" people to misinterpret the world, but in officially sanctioned and validated ways that skew towards privileging white people and their racial entitlement to superior economic and political status.

Mill would argue that I should feel an obligated to promote the general happiness because...

Of the "conscientious feelings" of care and concern that people have toward one another as fellow human beings; feelings that are a natural part of human nature and are cultivated by education and experience.

Pojman describes two arguments for moral objectivism. How do they differ from each other?

One assumes a common human nature (and so common needs and interests of all humans), and the other has no reference to human nature

Kierkegaard describes the transition to the Religious stage as requiring a "leap of faith" that would require courage and would be made "in fear and trembling". Why does it require such a leap, and why would that leap require courage?

One can never have assurance one is doing the right thing, and that becoming a different person in this way is justified.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of what Nietzsche calls the "Master Morality"?

One ought never treat people merely as a means to an end. One should always treat them also as ends in themselves.

Under what conditions does Midgley think it would be appropriate or possible to make a criticism or praise of another culture's practices?

Only if it's a culture you know well and understand deeply enough to understand why people believe this practice is a good one.

Taylor says that "The picture of Sisyphus is the picture of existence of the individual man, great or unknown, of nations, of the human race, and of the very life of the world." What point is he making, about the point of Sisyphus' labors and of our own, by drawing this comparison?

Our lives are also pointless, like the life of Sisyphus. Each one of our days is one of his pointless steps. The only difference is we pass the boulder onto our children rather than continuing it ourselves.

What does INTERVENTIONIST argue is the problem with some kind of individual freedom, that justify restricting some choices people might want to make?

People can be badly informed, gullible, and can reason badly, and can sometimes make choices that are objectively bad for them, which they would not make if they were fully informed and reasoning clearly from solid evidence. So people sometimes need to be prevented from making choices that are objectively bad for them.

What is the main definition the author, Kessler, gives for Philosophy?

Philosophy is the attempt to formulate, understand and answer fundamental questions.

What is the theory of life on which Mill's utilitarian theory is based?

Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things that are desirable as ends, everything else desirable is desired as a means of achieving these ends.

What does Mill mean by happiness?

Pleasure and the absence of pain or suffering (including long-term and mental pleasures and pains).

McIntosh makes a distinction between positive and negative types of advantages. What is the difference between these?

Positive advantages are helpful and we should work to ensure that more people have them. Negative advantages reinforce unjust power hierarchies, and we should work to reject and undermine them.

Cornell West argues that the success of our democracy like every other democracy in history can be undermined by which two factors

Poverty and paranoia

Hannah Arendt argues that contrary to popular misunderstanding, these two factors are in fact not aligned, but are effectively opposites:

Power and violence.

Why does Arendt claim that power cannot grow out of the "barrel of a gun"?

Power can only be exercised by being recognized as legitimate by those who give the leader power. Preserving power by violence undermines that legitimacy.

What is the relationship Mills sees between racism and the "European Enlightenment humanism"

Racism was not a deviation from enlightenment ideals, but was deliberate policy. There was no attempt to live up to the ideal that "all men are created equal". The USA was instead built on the belief that only Europeans counted as "human".

What does West mean by "tragic comic hope?" How is it relevant to revitalizing and restoring democracy?

Recognizing how deeply problematic things are, especially for those who aren't ourselves, but having hope we can make these things better if we work hard, even in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds. It is the only way we can make progress as a democratic society.

There is an optimal strategy in the "Prisoner's Dilemma" in which both people can be better off. What is that strategy?

Remain silent, and trust their buddy to cooperate and do the same.

Who is the author of Descartes' Meditations?

Rene Descartes

Of the forms of violence open to the ANC, which does Nelson Mandela identify as the preferred form our which to advocate?

Sabatoge.

Nelson Mandela gives several reasons why sabotage was the preferred form of violence. Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons he gives?

Sabotage did not involve loss of life. It offered the best hope for being taken seriously, while avoiding civil war. Bitterness would be kept to a minimum and, if the policy bore fruit, democratic government could become a reality. These attacks would serve as a source of inspiration to the people. In addition, they would provide an outlet for those people who were urging the adoption of violent methods and would enable the ANC to give concrete proof to its followers that it had adopted a stronger line and were fighting back against government violence if mass action were successfully organized but involved no loss of life, and mass government reprisals taken that likely would involve loss of life, they felt that sympathy for their cause would be roused in other countries, and that greater pressure would be brought to bear on the South African Government. All of the above answers are reasons Mandela gave for sabotage being preferred over other forms of violence

Chanelle uses the example of Sabrina playing the oboe to highlight the difference between determinism and fatalism. If her playing the oboe was fated, then:

Sabrina could not avoid being a great oboist no matter what she did. It would be an externally assigned fate that she could no escape o matter how she tried to avoid playing the oboe.

Why does Searle think that a programmed computer would have syntax but not semantics? What common aspects of human thought does he think would be missing in a computer following a formal program?

Searle argues that an artificial intelligence program could produce syntactically correct sentences and so act like they understand , but they would lack any real understanding of the topics they are talking about.

How does the definition of artificial intelligence that Searle is critiquing differ from the definition of intelligence that Lycan proposes?

Searle is arguing against the thesis that a programmed computer could converse intelligently at a human level, while Lycan is proposing that a genuinely intelligent person or machine could act beyond its programming and solve problems in creative and flexible ways that could not be anticipated by its teachers, designers or programmers.

Chanelle uses the example of Sabrina playing the oboe to highlight the difference between determinism and fatalism. If her playing the oboe was not fated but were still determined, she argues, her being a great oboist is because:

She enjoys playing the oboe and so practices often, because she enjoys it and deeply prefers playing the oboe to many other activities. She is not conflicted about it (the way she is conflicted about liking cinnamon buns). This all means it is still her choice to play the oboe.

Vitrano raises what she calls "an obvious problem" with Wolf's position. What is the problem she describes?

She has no substantive theory on what makes a project "worthwhile."

What does West identify as "American Terrorism?"

Slavery, Jim Crow, lynchings. People being hated and subjugated to violence because of who they are.

Moral objectivism

Some moral principals are always correct, but some might override their application.

Moral Absolutism

Some moral principals are correct everywhere, and ought to never be violated.

McIntosh's discussion of privilege raises some issues about the way she argues privilege works. Which of the following is not one of the issues she raises.

Straight white middle-class able-bodied males are oppressors who should feel guilty for who they are and for having things so easy.

Don't even think about his arguement! He's opposed to the death penalty which means he wants murderers to walk away scot free, giving them a green light to murder anyone they want." What is this arguement an example of?

Straw Man.

According to Young, "new left social movements" redefined "oppression" as a structural concept? What does this mean? How is structural oppression caused and perpetuated?

Structural oppression is not the result of a few people's intentionally cruel choices or policies. Rather, its causes are the normal processes of everyday life; in the unconscious assumptions and reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions, in media and cultural stereotypes, in structural features of bureaucratic hierarchies and market mechanisms, in the unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols, in assumptions behind institutional rules and in the collective consequences of following those rules.

What is Descartes Method for achieving his goal?

Subjecting the foundations of his present beliefs to doubt, in order to see which cannot be doubted (and thus can be trusted), and which can be doubted (and thus should not be trusted).

What is the difference between the subjective version of ethical relativism and conventionalist ethical relativism?

Subjective relativism is that morality depends on the individual's judgments. Conventional ethical relativism is the view that moral principles are justified by virtue of their cultural acceptance.

According to the Buddha, what is suffering and what causes it?

Suffering is a result of "craving" or "grasping", when we want things to be different from how they are, or" attachment" when we like how things are and fear that they will change

Blatchford argues that to be free and responsible for our choices, a person must have been able to make different choices that the choices they have actually made. What is his argument regarding this requirement for freedom?

That although a person is free to act as they choose, each person will choose only as their heredity and environment cause them to choose. As such, we could not have done otherwise than what we have done, and are not free or responsible for the choices we are caused to make.

What is the "Competence Principle?"

That anyone or any deliberative body that exercises power over anyone else has an obligation to use that power competently and in good faith.

What idea, at the core of a Social Contract theory, does Communitarianism reject?

That each human being is basically independent and self interested, and has needs and desires that can be understood independently of the society they belong to.

What, according to Aristotle, have others rightly declared "the good" to be?

That end at which all things aim, it is the ultimate desire for which all other things are desired.

According to Blatchford, what is the "point" that the free will discussion turns on?

That human choices are caused, and that the causes of our choices (genes and environment) are not under our control. So the freedom chose our own actions is an illusion.

How does Socrates defend himself against the charge of corrupting the youth?

That it is very unlikely that he, among all the Athenians, is the only one who might be guilty of this offense and if he did it, he must have done it unintentionally and should have been admonished rather than prosecuted.

What is David Hume's objection to Social Contract theory?

That most societies were founded on conquest and do not develop from people consenting or agreeing to live together in peace.

The SKEPTIC argues that it might be to one's advantage to break the social contract, especially if most other people follow it. What is the CONTRACTARIAN's concern about this strategy?

That other people could think like this too, and if many people all break the contract, then we would deny ourselves the benefits of the contract.

What is the conclusion of al-Ashari's arguement?

That whatever God does or wills is good and just, by definition.

At one point Socrates compares himself to a gadfly (horsefly) and the Athenians to a thoroughbred horse. What is the point of this comparasion?

The Athenians are intellectually lazy and need a philosopher like Socrates to stimulate them to thought, like a horsefly's bite might stimulate a lazy horse into action. His philosophical activities are helpful in stimulating thought, even though they initially feel painful.

What are the names of the three "Stages on Life's Way" that Kierkegaards identifies?

The Ethical, Aesthetic and Religious stage.

What is the name Foucault gives for this third principle of exclusion?

The Will to Truth.

Why does Camus conclude that "one must imagine Sisyphus happy"?

The absurdity of life makes it up to us how we live, and we are free to follow our passions if there is no "higher destiny" controlling us. Tist freedom to create our own fate makes our life our own.

What is "Moral Isolationism" as Midgley defines it?

The belief that different societies with different moral principles should have an attitude of respect and tolerance for one another, and not be critical of different societies' different moral principles.

According to Russell what may be the chief value of philosophy?

The chief value of philosophy lies in the greatness of the objects which it contemplates, and the freedom from narrow and personal aims resulting from this contemplation.

What is the CONTRACTARIAN's solution (also Hobbes's solution) to the temptation of this strategy?

The contract needs to be enforced, so that penalties for breaking the contract act as a disincentive to breaking the contract.

What does Camus mean by "The Absurd"?

The contradiction between people search for meaning in their lives, and the fact that life is meaningless.

Conventional ethical relativism

The correctness of a moral principal depends on its cultural acceptance.

Subjective relativism

The correctness of a moral principal depends on the individual's judgements.

Under what conditions does Nietzsche describe the opposition between unegoistic (altruistic) and egoistic (selfish) arising, such that the terms "moral and "unegoistic" become seen as equivalent?

The decline of aristocratic value judgments enables the previously subordinated groups to begin to describe the noble type of person as egoistic, and creates the "prejudice" that altruism is superior to those egoistic values.

A third system of exclusion that Foucault discusses is:

The division between true and false speech.

Plato suggests a fable involving different people having different metals mixed with their souls, that might be used to explain to the people of the state the way the state can be a just society. What is this fable, and how does it contribute to Plato's definition of a just society?

The fable that different types of people have different metals (gold, silver, brass and iron) mixed with their souls, that makes them the kind of people that they are, with the interests and aptitudes they have. A just society assigns and trains different people for different tasks that need doing, so that each person works only at the task for which they are have a naturally aptitude.

Taylor describes the myth of Sisyphus as a picture of a perfectly meaningless existence. He imagines a "perverse" yet also "merciful" alteration to the story however, that perhaps makes Sisyphus' life a meaningful one. What is that alteration?

The gods give him a compulsion to roll the stone up the hill. It is what he deeply wants to do.

which of the following is not one of Robert Nozick's principles of justice

The justice in difference principle

According to Kant, the moral value or worth of an action performed from the sense of duty comes from...

The maxim or rule the agent is following in acting.

According to Pojman's analysis, what is the diversity thesis, and what follows from it?

The moral rightness and wrongness of actions vary from society to society, so there are no universal moral standards.

Adeimantus raises an objection to Plato's suggestion. Plato gives a parable of a ship, that illustrates the problem with that objection. What is the objection, and how does the parable refute it?

The objection is that philosophers are useless. Plato objects that people just do not understand philosophers and the leadership skills they have, just as the crew of a ship might seriously underestimate the experience and training needed to properly navigate a ship, and mistakenly think they could do a better job that the trained navigator.

What does Foucault identify as a second principle of exclusion, by which existing power structures are protected from disruption?

The opposition between reason and folly (or madness).

According to Nietzsche, what is the real origin of the concepts good and bad?

The origin of language itself is an expression of the power on the part of those who rule. So the true origin of the concept and judgment "good" is the noble and powerful who took for themselves the right to create values, and who ranked themselves and their actions as "good".

According to Nietzsche, what role does the priestly class play in the inversion of the aristocratic value equation (good = noble = powerful = beautiful = happy = beloved of God) into its opposite (good = powerless = humble = suffering = blessed by God)?

The priestly class as made up of those groups that are powerless in relation to the rulers, yet are able to exercise an effective type of influence among others who are powerless, and exact a type of spiritual revenge (ressentiment) against the powerful rulers who they hate, by redefining the powerful as evil and the powerless as good.

According to Dr, King, should everyone understand the purpose of Law and Order to be?

The purpose of law and order should be to preserve justice. He critiques using law and order as a means of preserving unjust system (preserving segregation).

Taylor describes caves in New Zealand in which glow worms create seemingly beautiful constellations of light on the walls of subterranean caves. What is the moral Taylor draws from this example, about the point of any living thing's life?

The purpose of life of every living thing is to only perpetuate life itself, to keep the same meaningless cycles of toil continuing for generations.

What is the central consideration raised my MORALIST about the obligation to follow the social contract?

The question "what if everyone acted this way?" is an important objective moral consideration that gives a moral reason for following the contract (it would be a disaster if everyone broke it, so I ought not break it"), even if your actions would cause no direct harm.

Why does Russell maintain that the "uncertainty of philosophy is more apparent than the real?"

The questions that have become defined enough to answer are placed in the sciences, and those left over without definite answers remain as the "residue which is called philosophy."

What does West think we as a society can learn from "American Terrorism?" How does this response illustrate the third pillar of democracy?

The response by the African American Blues tradition of persevering in the face of inhumanity and injustice, even when the odds of success are vanishingly small and very far off into the future.

What does Clifford claim the example of the shipowner show about the relationship between belief and evidence?

The right to believe is given by the adequacy of the evidence after careful investigation, not by the sincerity with which the belief is held.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of what Nietzsche calls the "Slave Morality"

The slave morality embraces submission to the will of others, and so places no value on freedom or happiness.

Among the consequences of communitarianism is the view that

The society you grow up in teaches you to value the things that society does. nobody forms their views about what is fair and just independently of social influence. there is no basic human nature because individuals can't be defined or understood independently from their society. you can't judge the worth of a society by how well it serves its members needs and desires.

Descartes concludes with the famous "Cogito Ergo Sum" ("I think therefore I am") argument. What does this conclusion or this argument entail about what exists or what can or cannot be known?

The statement "I am, I exist" must be true whenever he thinks it, because thinking requires a thinker

What does Arendt mean by the "rule by Nobody"?

The type of tyranny in which the bureaucracy is unable to hold any person or group responsible for any action, inaction, or ruling by that bureaucracy.

What does Russell mean when he asserts that the value of philosophy is to be sought in its "very uncertainty." How can uncertainty be a valuable thing?

The uncertainty of philosophy can free our thoughts from the tyranny of custom and dogmatism. It can bring a sense of calm freedom to at least consider the possibility that the conventional assumptions we have been taught may be untrue.

Where for Russell is the value of philosophy to be found?

The value is seen indirectly, in the effects it has on the lives of those who study philosophy, in helping them become more imaginative, more open minded and less self absorbed.

Young also discusses "systematic violence" and how it reinforces oppressive structural features of a society. How is this violence different from individual violent acts, such that it can be conceived of as a matter of injustice rather than individual immorality?

The violence exists as a social practice, rather than as individual actions. Some circumstances seem to make these forms of violence "called for" (e.g. a husband beating a disobedient wife; police beating or killing black people perceived to be threatening to them). this type of violence often justified as warranted or an expectable outcome of the victim's actions. Those who perpetrate it often face light or no punishment for it. It is treated as acceptable, according to the society's prevailing norms, laws and cultural beliefs and practices of justification. AKA, all of the above.

A foundationalist about rationality believes that

There is one universal rationality embodying the principles and procedures that are the foundation of any correct understanding of the universe.

Christine Vitrano gives a commentary on both Taylor and Wolf's papers. Which best describes her overall assessment of these two papers?

They are both partially persuasive but neither is entirely satisfactory.

Aristotle said that on a very abstract level, happiness can be considered as "living well and doing well." If so, the next question becomes, "Of what, specifically, does this consist?" Aristotle argued that whatever happiness must be something final, chosen for its own sake, self-sufficient, and an end of action. If this is so, why will health or wealth or pleasure or honor (all of which are goods) not count as the chief good or happiness?

They are not desired for their own sake, because people might not pursue these if they already had happiness. the end of being happy is not made more desirable by adding other conditions (like being wealthy and happy). If one is happy, being also wealthy becomes an excess. This end of being happy and also wealthy is not made more desirable than being happy. But if one were wealthy, one might still desire to be happy. they are not self-sufficient because they require additional goods to make one happy. Wealthy persons will desire health if they are ill are not final because they are not desired for their own sake by people who are wise. such people choose them also for the sake of happiness. AKA, all of the above.

As Kessler explains philosophy, in what sense are philosophical questions, universal questions?

They are the sorts of questions that might occur to any person at any time or place. They are not specific to any group, culture or profession.

Kierkegaard says that the "aesthetic stage both begins and ends in despair". The Ethical stage escapes this "despair". What characteristics of the person at the ethical stage enable them to escape this "despair"?

They give up on a flight from one exciting or interesting but temporary enjoyment to the next, and the boredom that comes with every enjoyment once the newness fades, and instead make a commitment to being "good" to love (and perhaps marriage), to the values of their society to a career, to being "normal", and so are doing things that others will praise them for, things that "matter" and they are reassured are "good".

According to King, what is the proper role of the Christian church leaders with respect to issues of social justice?

They should assume a role of courageous leadership and deep moral concern for ending segregation. They should lead people to higher levels of justice.

Plato has a special concern with the "Guardians" of the state. He argues that a guardian, like a well-bred watchdog, must be gentle to people he knows and fierce towards strangers. This means a good guardian must also have have a "philosophical element" in their nature. What does Plato mean by this?

They should have an instinctive love for knowledge, understanding and wisdom.

McIntosh concludes by discussing many interlocking (often now people use "intersectional") aspects of unearned advantage and oppression. She says one fact remains clear about them all. What is that commonality?

They take active forms, involving the intentional, individual actions of cruelty, meanness or discrimination, which are easier to see and condemn. But they also take structural and embedded systems that invisibly confer often unsought dominance on certain groups.

What consequence does COMMUNITARIAN's viewpoint have for the contractarian theory of society as resulting from a contract between free individuals?

This contractarian theory has things backwards: free people do not create their societies, societies create their people, whose idea of "freedom" is also shaped by they society.

According to Young, what is Marginalization as it relates to her structural conception of oppression?

This form of oppression involves excluding groups of people from useful participation in the material and social life (such as employment), so that they are subject to material deprivation, or are dependent on those in power and unable to meet many of their basic needs for themselves.

According to Young, what is the central insight expressed in the concept of exploitation, and how does it relate to her structural conception of oppression?

This form of oppression occurs through a steady process of the transfer of the results of the labor of one social group to benefit another. It's maintained through a systematic process in which the energies of the have-nots are continuously expended to maintain and augment the power, status, and wealth of the haves.

Is the following a fair description of what Nietzsche calls the theory of the "English Psychologists" about the origin of the concept of good? The "English psychologists"theorize that the origins of the concept of judgment "good" lie in the usefulness of unegoistic actions, which were deemed "good" by beneficiaries of such actions. The believe that the praise of unegoistic actions as good became a matter of habit, and the origin of "good" was forgotten.

This is fair.

Which of the following does Foucault give as an example of a prohibition that makes some topics of conversation ones that are not polite to talk about?

Those dealing with sexuality.

What role can traditionally marginalized perspectives play in creating the conditions for "good" science?

Those in traditionally marginalized positions and perspectives might have insight into the assumptions and biases of those who have traditionally had power and influence (e.g. feminist researchers might identify sexist assumptions).

What does Jiddu Krishnamurti say is the true purpose of education?

To help you find what you really love to do so that from the beginning to the end of your life you are doing something which for you has deep significance.

"One of the central moral values conveyed by both versions of the sermon is the injunction to love your enemies, and be kind to those who hate you or want to hurt you"

True

"The Buddhist approach to living a Good Life, is the Noble Truth of the Way of Practice Leading to the Cessation of Suffering, also called the 'eightfold path', which involves developing and practicing a way of thinking, understanding, acting, speaking and living, that can (with commitment and practice) enable one to transcend the cravings and attachments that cause suffering."

True

Aristotle says that one can be too angry or not angry enough, and a virtuous person is good tempered; they are neither never angry, nor quick to anger.

True

Both Matthew and Luke have a similar message of Jesus teaching that we should treating our enemies as if they were friends, but Luke's account (6:35) also lists some benefits to doing so, namely having a great reward and being "sons of the Most High".

True

If being loved by God is a sufficient condition of goodness, then something that is not loved by God might still be good.

True

Is the following a fair explanation of Aristotle's argument, in section 7, to the conclusion that the final human good (happiness) is an activity of soul in accordance with virtue? The difference between something and a good one of those things is performing its function well (in accordance with the appropriate excellence). For example, the difference between a lyre player and a good lyre player is to play the lyre well (in accordance with the standards of excellence in musicianship) So the difference between man and a good man is to perform the function of a man in accordance with the appropriate excellence. Human beings' main function is to be rational (an activity of the soul or mind). So human good or excellence is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (excellence).

True

Is the following statement true or false: Thomas Hobbes argues that the origin of justice is the obligation to keep one's agreements

True

Is the following statement true or false: dewey claims that non-democratic authoritarian rule assumes that the contributions of some individuals are worth more than the contributions to society of others.

True

Is the following true or false: Hannah Arendt describes power as the human ability to exercise action due to others making it possible for that action; one person cannot have power without others allowing that person to exercise power and treating their power as legitimate.

True

Is the following true or false: Jason Brennan is concerned about the way voters in a democratic state have an incentive to not exercise their vote responsibly

True

Luke's message has a similar focus to Matthew, on one's attitudes and intentions, but adds a more proactive undertone—better still than simply avoiding harming others by having good intentions, one should live so as to help other by performing good actions. Is the following true or false: "An example of this difference is where Matthew (5:44) advises us to " pray for those who persecute you", while Luke (6:27) do good to those who hate you"

True

When Noddings says that "the moral viewpoint is prior to any notion of justification?" she means something like this: Moral assertions like "it is good to care for others" or "I must respond to this person as one-caring" are derived from moral attitudes and feelings of natural and ethical caring, rather than being derived from any facts that might justify actions as right or wrong. It is not-caring for a particular person in a particular situation (because of care for ourselves as ethical selves, or obligations to care for others) that one must justify.

True

is the following true or false: in the republic Plato's character Socrates argues that justice is when everyone performs the social function that naturally best suits him or her. And injustice is when one individual performs a plurality of functions or exchanges his or her natural function for another

True

Slave morality begins with a revolt by subordinate groups, in which they take spiritual revenge ("ressentiment"; grudge-bearing resentment) against the dominant groups that have established the "master morality" of noble values. This revenge is necessitated by the socially powerless position of the subordinate groups. Ressentiment is a reaction against noble valuation which inverts the aristocratic value equation and equates nobility in all its forms as "evil." This inversion of values (revaluation of values) is the creative deed of ressentiment and slave morality.

True.

True or False: According to Bertrand Russel, part of the value of philosophy is breaking out of the confines of ones own concerns."

True.

When he discusses the political philosophy of black nationalism, Malcolm X says that "a ballot is like a bullet". What does he mean by this?

Use your vote wisely, to support someone who will actually have your interests at hear, not someone who makes hollow promises. Like a bullet, you don't throw your ballots until you see a target, and if that target is not within your reach, keep your ballot in your pocket.

Is this arguement valid or invalid? No one who eats popcorn is tidy. All sports fans eat popcorn. No sports fan is tidy.

Valid.

What does Aristotle mean when he claimes, "Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e., the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it.

Virtue is a quality of our personality concerned with making a rational choice, the results of which lead to finding the mean for us (that which is neither excessive nor deficient for us).

How does Noddings answer the question "How are we to make judgments of right and wrong under this ethic?"

We are not meant to identify actions as right and wrong under a caring conception of ethics. Instead, we are meant to identify which actions demonstrate care and perpetuate the feeling of being cared for, in those toward whom we act.

What does Sartre mean by despair?

We are responsible for our own mistakes and have nobody to blame but ourselves.

Why does Sartre say we are condemned to be free?

We can do whatever we want, and this fact creates fear in us, because we are responsible for our choices and nothing can tell us that we made good choices.

The next step in Descartes's argument is to reach the conclusion that he is a thinking thing. How does he reach that conclusion? Why does he not conclude instead that he is a physical thing?

We cannot doubt we are thinking when we are thinking. Thinking requires the existence of something that does the thinking. So that fact that I am thinking means that I must be a thinking thing.

What is the relationship between craving and pleasure?

We crave what gives us pleasure, so in this way pleasure is the cause of craving.

Why does Socrates think fearing death is unwise?

We do not know what death is , so it is not rational to fear what might very well be like nothing, or perhaps even a great good, like an afterlife inhabited by interesting virtuous people in which he could continue his philosophical investigations.

One of the central points made by Malcolm X is that:

We must pursue justice in America by creating pressure that forces the government to recognize our humanity and our rights. And the government should know that the alternative might be o form a black nationalist party or even a black nationalist army

What does Sartre mean when he claims, "In choosing myself, I choose man"?

When I judge that an action is a good choice for me, I am effectively affirming that it is a good choice for everyone in a similar situation. Others can use my choice as a guide, so I am responsible for the example I set to others.

What is the metaphor McIntosh uses to explain the advantages she experiences as resulting from white privilege?

White Privilege is an invisible weightless knapsack of unearned assets.

White privilege as McIntosh explains it is the idea that

White people are protected from some systematic injustices that affect non-white people and so may be less aware of or less concerned about rectifying those injustices

What is the central point Charles Mills Raises in his paper "The Racial Contract"?

White supremacy has always been a part of our society, by design.

What does it mean to say that knowledge is socially situated?

Who we are as knowers can affect what we know.

What is the skeptic's main question?

Why does society have the right to make laws that oblige citizens to obey?

Who is the author of "The Ethics of Belief"?

William Clifford

Who is the author of "the Will to Believe"

William James.

In Book 2, section 9, Aristotle gives some advice for those who wish to practice virtue. Is the following a fair restatement of his advice? --------- Some people are very attracted to an excess or a deficiency about particular feelings, which we can understand by examining our feelings of pleasure and pain, comfort and discomfort. To become more virtuous we must try to force ourselves away from what is comfortable or pleasurable, so that we might find a more moderate way of being and be closer top the mean. So, for example, if one is often inclined to be not brave enough, one can become more close to a mean about bravery by forcing oneself to act more bravely than one is comfortable being. And if one is inclined to be foolhardy and take unnecessary risks, one should force oneself to be more prudent and careful about risky situations. This is like applying pressure in the opposite direction to the bend in a stick, to straighten it. One gets away from error and vice, by dragging ourselves towards the opposite extreme. And like straightening a bent stick one can go too far in the opposite direction and need to correct back again until one finds a mean between the extremes of excess and deficiency.

Yes, it is fair.

Is the following a fair description of some of the main points of Held's argument, and the kinds of social policies that might follow from it: According to Held, the relationship between mothering parent and child create a model for a just society, in that the relation of a society to its citizens is usually not voluntary (people are born in a society), and the society has certain obligations to care for the wellbeing, needs and rights of its citizens, and to help citizens become independent and able to take care of their own lives. It also recognizes that all citizens being equally worthy of respect and consideration might mean that some with greater needs might require more care than others, and thus that unequal treatment (such as providing need support to one citizen that another doesn't need) is a matter of providing equal respect and consideration, and an equal chance of becoming an autonomous person able to take verse of themselves and their life.

Yes, it is fair.

Is the following a fair description of what McIntosh calls "arbitrarily conferred dominance" and how she argues it functions in our society? This is a benefit that results from other people being excluded. It's one that reinforces racial hierarchies and patterns of inclusion and exclusion, power and powerlessness. An example would be people taking a white applicant for a professional position more seriously than a black applicant, which reinforces the power hierarchy in which its easier to get such jobs if you are white, because equally- or better-qualified black applicants are not permitted to fairly compete with white candidates . These are the kinds of advantages over other people, dominance advantages that nobody in a just society should have, and that we should work to identify and eliminate.

Yes, this is fair.

Is the following a fair description of the major differences between a socialist economic system and a communist economic system? Communists advocate government ownership (that is collective ownership by all the people) of all industries and means of production so they can be run to benefit workers rather than enabling private owners to benefit themselves and unfairly exploit their workers and customers. Most socialist countries allow a large degree of private (that is capitalist. profit-motivated) ownership of some things, but maintain collective ownership of the most crucial aspects of a society so that these can be run to benefit everyone, not just their private owners. Thus there is publicly-owned education, major infrastructure, banking, transportation, electricity generation and distribution, policing, and often healthcare, and also public.

Yes.

How does Mill answer the question, "How can I know what is right?"

You can know what is right by examining the consequences of each option open to you. An action is right, if it tends to promote a higher quantity and quality of happiness, and less pain, for everyone affected by the action, compared with any alternative action you could have taken.

What, does COMMUNITARIAN argue is the consequence of the above view, for how we judging the worth of a society?

You cannot judge the worth of a society by how well it fits the needs of individuals, because what individuals think of as their needs are shaped by their society.

What reasons does Chanelle give for arguing that the "grande-sized" version of freedom Sabrina wants "is nonsense"?

You have to be somebody to make your own choices. It's impossible to choose who you are to be, from a state in which you have no preferences or reason to choose one thing rather than another. And nobody starts with a totally clean slate like that.

Consider the following arguement: "The professor said to pass the course you must come to all classes. So I don't think it'd be a good idea to skip class friday." What is the implied (unstated) premise of this arguement?

You want to pass this course.

Descartes gives an example of things that are so complex that we cannot have a mental image of them or imagine them in our minds, yet we can have a clear understanding of what they are by having a description and definition of them. Which of the following does Descartes give as an example of such a thing:

a chiliagon ( a thousand-sided figure)

After he is given a new body, what surprising thing does Dennett discover in the story; a thing that he ends up calling "Hubert"?

a computer-based back-up brain that that replicates the information processing structure and operations, and the computational speed of his biological brain

What is the "enabling" conception of justice, that Young advocates?

a just society does not just distribute rights and benefits equally, but also includes the cultural and institutional conditions necessary for enabling the development and exercise of individual capacities.

The notion of surviving death and the notion of a soul are closely related. Because of this, what would a Buddhist who rejects theories about the existence of a soul or self believe about a perfected being who has died?

a perfected being is released upon death into a state that transcends all expression, all communication and all knowledge

In the introduction to this section, Kessler explains the "Turing test" for Artificial intelligence. What is this test?

a test for the ability to converse by text in a way that is indistinguishable from the conversation of actual human beings.

Young argues that while in a sense different groups are oppressed in different ways, there is a general sense in which all oppressed groups suffer similarly. What does she describe as this general characteristic of oppression?

all oppressed groups suffer some inhibition of their ability to develop and exercise their capacities and express their needs, thoughts, and feelings

In his paper, "Chanelle, Sabrina and the Oboe", Waller uses the term "Platonitis" to refer to:

an affliction brought on by reading too much philosophy, causing people to feel disoriented and confused. It's often brought on by reading about free will.

What does Held mean by "Contractual Thinking"

assuming that society is formed by independent, self-interested people who enter into a contract with one another for mutual advantage

Dewey emphasizes a crucial element for limiting the possibility of authoritarianism in a democratic republic like ours. This is:

ensuring that democratic processes permeate all aspects of life so people expect that all institutions should operate democratically and so people feel responsible for how their society operates at every level.

in the Republic Plato has his character Socrates explain the parable of the ship, the purpose of this parable is to argue that

everyone on board the ship incorrectly thinks they can steer the ship better than the one trained in navigation. But navigation (like a ruling state) is a skill that is acquired through education and training

What type of "nonessentialsm" does McCloskey's account exemplify?

gender nonessentialism: gender is not entirely biological and is more about how we think of masculinity and felinity

Lycan distinguishes Type A and Type B empirical questions from Type C philosophical questions. Which of the following an example of an actual Type C question raised by the prospect of artificial Intelligence.

given that a futuristic supercomputer could answer questions intelligently and flexibly, even about topics it hasn't been directly programmed to answer (like humans can), would it really understand the questions and answers?

What is "moral personhood" as Lycan defines it?

having moral and civil rights and privileges

What reasons does Lycan give for thinking that if we denied that Harry is a person, this would be a moral failing on our part?

he compares denying that Harry is a person to racial or ethnic prejudice based on what he's made of, rather than judging him on what he can do.

Of the two answers to the question "where am I?" that Dennett faces after Surgery, which seems more intuitive

here I am, staring at my own brain

Of the two answers to the question "Where am I?" that Dennett faces after Surgery, which does he think should be the one he adopts, based on his physicalist approach to philosophy of mind?

here I am, suspended in vat of bubbling fluid, being stared at by my own eyes?

After the incident under Tulsa, what entity does Dennett consider (on p. 537) might have moved from Tulsa to Houston at the speed of light?

his self, soul, or mind

What is James's thesis about the relationship between belief in a "genuine option" and evidence?

if we face a "genuine option" that cannot be decided based on reason and evidence, then it is not only permissible, but required, that we settle whether or not to believe it based on emotions , such as the hope that it is true, or the fear of making a momentous error.

What is the alternative conception of "objectivity" that contrasts with the "view from nowhere" approach?

include as many perspectives as possible, especially marginalized perspectives

what is the term used to refer to the interconnected nature of social categorization such as class, race and gender as they apply to a given individual or group regarded as creating overlapping an inter-dependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage

intersectionality

What according to Iris Marion Young does all oppression have in common

it inhibits peoples abilities to develop and exercise their capacities or to express their needs thoughts and feelings.

Descartes ends the first Meditation with the famous evil demon argument. What is the point of this argument?

it is always possible that an evil demon is working to deceive us about what our senses appear to tell us about the world

What reasons do Standpoint Epistemologists like Sandra Harding give for this claim that science, as traditionally practiced, is flawed?

it lacks space and methods for researchers to reflect on their social situation, leaving them blind to their inherent biases

Lycan also raises the example of potential machines that are complex, eclectic and impressively intelligent, but also quite different from humans. What does Lycan say about the question of personhood for such entities?

it will be very hard to draw a precise line at which personhood begins.

Which of the following approaches to political philosophy best describes the views of Robert Nosick?

libertarian

In explaining functionalism, what does the analogy with a mousetrap show about the nature of a mental state like my belief that pizza is tasty?

like a mousetrap. it matters what it does, not what it is made of.

Taylor eventually describes a different way "to look at all of life —at one's own life, and each day and each moment it contains; of the life of a nation; of the species; of the life of the world; and of everything that breathes" that suggests how life could be seen as worthwhile, or significant, or meaningful. This meaning " far exceeds in both its beauty and permanence any heaven of which men have ever dreamed or yearned for. " what is this way of looking at life that Taylor argues reveals the meaning?

looking at it subjectively, from within, in terms of what that person or creature wants to be doing. A person's life is meaningful if the person is subjectively satisfied that the things it does are worth doing and does them because it subjectively wants to do them

Ryle's Philosophical Behaviorism and Identity Theory are similar in some regards, but different in an important ways. They are similar in that they both argue that:

mental state words do not refer to non-material things like states of a non-physical mind.

What is "Interactionist Dualism"? What are the interactions supposed to be between?

mind and body

Chanelle distinguishes two different senses of responsibility. [ Select ]is what justifies praise and blame, reward and punishment. In contrast [ Select ]is about understanding how to enhance our our freedom, our fortitude, our creativity and our self-control, by making it up to us to get something done, and then being rewarded or blamed for the success of our efforts to get that thing done.

moral responsibility; taken responsibility.

Descartes says that "nature" teaches him that he is not merely "in" his body, in the way a sailor might be in a ship, but has a different relationship to his body. What is the relationship Descartes describes between himself (his mind or essence, a thinking thing) and his body

my mind is intermingled with my body, forming a union with it.

______ Rights entitle members of our society to have the liberty to do whatever they choose about this aspect of their lives and no one is allowed to stop them. While ______ rights are those that entitle one to certain benefits that every member of our society should have

negative; positive

which of the following policies is most likely to be supported by a socialist approach to the responsibilities of government but disputed by a libertarian approach?

publicly funded universal healthcare

What is the initial operation Dennett has in the story?

separating his brain from his body, and connecting them remotely through radio

West argues that every historic effort to forge a democratic project has been undermined by poverty and paranoia. These undermined democracy by:

separating us into factions that don't work together for the common good, by generate despair that escalates social conflict, and distrust that deepens social divisions

Searle's Chinese Room argument depends on a distinction between the syntax of statements and their semantics. What is the difference between syntax and semantics (as explained by Kessler in the introduction)

syntax is about the arrangement of words in formal grammatical structures, while semantics has to do with understanding the meaning of the words.

What relevance does McCloskey's comment that "talking to each other can make us all mutually human" have for considering questions of Self and Idenitity?

taking about who we are makes them more "normal" and less "Demonized" as "disgraceful Others". People whose stories are heard and told have lives that might be imagined as one's own, without shame or judgment.

What does Dennett say on (p 537) would be a physicalist philosopher's only way out of believing that this happened (the entity in the previous question moving at the speed of light)?

taking the counterintuitive view of banishing all talk of persons

Ryle's Philosophical Behaviorism and Identity Theory are similar in some regards, but different in an important ways. They are different in that identity theory believes this, but Ryle's Philosophical Behaviorism disagrees:

that mental state terms refer to states and processes of the brain and central nervous system

What "border" did McCloskey cross?

the border between genders: the border between men and women

What sort of freedom does Sabrina say she wants, when she describes herself as wanting not just a moderate amount of freedom, but "grande sized" freedom?

the freedom to choose herself from the ground up, to choose her own deep preferences, her own nature. the freedom to make her own creative choices the freedom to make a choice that could genuinely go either way She wants to not be the product of any external causes that make her who she is. AKA all of the above

What conception of the self supports the idea that Dennett is "wherever he thinks he is"?

the location of the point of view is also the location of the person

What does LIBERTARIAN argue is the kind of restrictions on individual liberty that could be justified in a state?

the only restrictions that can be justified are those the preserve equal freedom for everyone, or that people freely bargain away in exchange for benefits that make the restriction worth it to them.

Select ALL the criteria that, according to William James, constitute what James calls a " genuine option"

the option is "live" (it is possible for one to believe it; you do not think it "crazy" or "silly" or "impossible to take seriously"). the option is "momentous" (it matters to some degree whether you choose it; it is not trivial) the option is "forced" (it is one that you either choose or do not choose; it cannot be avoided by choosing a third option; waiting to find out more is effectively not choosing it (yet)

What does McCloskey mean in saying that "my crossing was motivated by identity, not by a balance sheet of utility"?

the point was not that life would be better after crossing, it was that being on the other side of the border is "who I am".

According to Held, there are distinctive features of the relationship between mothering person and child, that are relevant to understanding a just society. Which of the following is NOT one of those features?

the relationship is not voluntary for the child, and is not in most cases voluntary for the parent in that they cannot know in advance the nature of the child and choose to form a parenting relationship with this particular child. The relationship involves affection and emotion; parents should care for their children To a parent, no child is a replaceable commodity. The loss of a child cannot be compensated for by replacing it with an equivalent child. (the same goes for loss of a parent, to the child.) The relationship between mother and child (or several children) is not a matter of equal legal rights, but a matter of being equal worthy of respect and condsideration. the obligations parents have to children cannot be fulfilled by leaving the child alone, to be an independent, autonomous person.. Children have rights to what they need to live, that incur obligations on the part of parents to provide for those things the child has a right to You Answered the normal state of being, for a parent with a child, is one of the child depending upon the parent for their basic needs. So the parent is initially involved in very personal aspects of the child's life. The notion of a right to privacy, a right to be left alone, is not the starting point for a human being, but an eventual accomplishment, once the child becomes more independent and able to take care of their own needs. The role of power for a parent has more to do with using one's power to empower the child, to foster transformative growth so the child can eventually gain control of their own life. It is not (in its healthy state) a relation of dominance and control. !!!This is a trick question. All of the above are features that Held describes of the relationship between parent and child that are relevant to understanding society.

What are some similarities and differences between the text of the sermon from Luke and from Matthew? (select all that are accurate descriptions of similarities or differences).

the version in Matthew (5:1) is given on a mountain, whereas in Luke (6:17) it's from "a level place". Both list the Beatitudes or blessings, though they differ in number and some details. Luke also lists "woes" after the blessings, but Matthew does not Luke's account is more brief, focussing on how one should treat others, while Matthew's account is longer, and also addresses how one should worship, and how one should treat oneself. Both include the injunction to be kind to those who harm you or hate you. Both have a version of the injunction: "If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also. And if anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, hand over your coat as well." that's Matthew 5:39, but this is also in Luke 6:29). Only Luke adds "Do to others as you would have them do to you." (6:31). Matthew does not mention this injunction after the injunction to turn the other cheek. 5:38-42) AKA all of the above.

How does Dewey connect education with democracy?

the way in which the educative process shapes the attitudes, dispositions, abilities and values of citizens is crucial for the effects it has on the society in which those people go on to participate democratically.

In the introduction, the author describes Buddhist teaching that there are no substances or forms. How do they describe the world, then?

the world is constant changing processes with no eternal substances

When Young discusses "Cultural Imperialism", a kind of oppression involving the universalization of a dominant group's experience and culture, and its establishment as the norm, projecting their own experience as representative of humanity. She describes a paradox involved in how cultural imperialism affects members of less dominant groups. What is this paradox?

they are both marked out by stereotypes and at the same time rendered invisible. They are defined from the outside, by the dominant group's network of stereotyped and inferiorized representations. But at the same time, they are treated as invisible, in that the culture has little knowledge of the rich diversity of perspectives and experiences of members of marginalized groups, at most only representing them in stereotyped or marginalized ways.

Many interpret Ryle as arguing that Descartes Dualism is a result of a mistake in the grammar or logic of terms like "mind" "belief" "idea" that appear to refer to "things" in the mind. If they do not refer to things, then how should we understand terms like these to operate in our language?

they describe the ways a person is apt to behave in certain conditions

Of the many guardians who will have the required characteristic to lead, Plato argues, some guardians are to be rulers and some are to obey. By what process does Plato argue the best guardians, those selected for the task of ruling, are to be identified?

they should be care about the good of the whole commonwealth, so that their own interests are identical with those of the commonwealth.

what reasons does Arendt give for claiming that power cannot grow out of the barrel of a gun

violence often undermines the kind of support that is needed to make power legitimate

Another objection Lycan considers, raises concerns about whether a being like Harry could be conscious. What is his response to that concern?

we cannot prove conclusively that other people are conscious in this sense either, but we don't let this stop us from recognizing one another as person based on our abilities. That should apply to Harry too.

James explicitly discusses certain types of truth that we would not believe if we were to follow a rule like Clifford's rather than following his rule. These are:

where faith that something is true, can make that thing true (such as making a friend, which requires as a prerequisite believing that the person could be your friend)

McIntosh describes these advantages as ones "about which I was 'meant' to remain oblivious"? How does she think one can be oblivious about one's own advantages?

white people are taught that their experiences are normal, morally neutral, average, and ideal, so they don't notice the ways others lives are not like theirs,. Or they think that these advantages are the result of individual choices they make, that could be the case for anyone who made similar "good" choices.

What is the pattern McIntosh describes Elizabeth Minnich pointing out, and how does it contribute to people seeing racism as a problem, but not seeing white privilege as its corollary?

white people are taught that their experiences are normal, morally neutral, average, and ideal, so they think that anyone else could have the same advantages if the world was less racist. Racism is seen as only about others' disadvantages, not about the advantages they might have as a result of others' exclusion.

What does the notion of "Identity" explained in section 11.7 say your sense of personal identity is shaped by?

your cultural, historical and family environment