Physics
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Like strange hyperons, it appears at high energies, and is relatively massive at 3.1 giga-electron volts per c squared, or about 3.5 atomic mass units. Until its discovery in 1974, it was believed that only three kinds of quarks existed: up, down, and strange, but this particle proved the existence of a fourth. Its name comes from the fact that two groups simultaneously discovered it: one at Stanford, and one at Brookhaven National Lab. FTP, name this meson composed of a charm quark and a charm anti-quark.
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Shin Inouye (IN-oo-ay) was involved in the observation of the first Feshbach resonance and super radiance within it. The Gross-Pitaevskii equation is used to analyze those substances capable of its formation, which occurs when de Broglie wavelengths of the involved atoms begin to overlap. Wieman, Cornell, and Ketterle first experimentally verified this shared quantum state that occurs when bosons making up a substance merge into the lowest energy level. FTP, identify this "fifth" state matter, named for the two scientists who proposed it in 1925.
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The transverse form of this phenomenon is purely relativistic, arising from time dilation. In conjunction with the Hubble constant, it gives the distance to astronomical objects, while on Earth it is used to determine the speed of planes and baseballs. For ten points, name this change in frequency caused by the relative motion of two objects.
Compton Effect
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Doppler effect [or Doppler shift]
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Ernst Mach
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Eugene Wigner
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Evangelista Torricelli
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Faraday effect or Faraday rotation (prompt on "magneto-optic effect")
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Fermilab
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Feynman diagrams
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Johann Christian Doppler
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Johannes Kepler
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John Henry Poynting
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Joseph John Thomson
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Legendre
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Lennard-Jones potential
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Leo Szilard
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Leyden jar (prompt on capacitor)
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Liouville's theorem
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Lise Meitner
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Louis Victor de Broglie
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Lucasian chair
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Ludwig Boltzmann
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Max Ernst
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Maxwell's demon or Maxwell's devil
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Meissner effect
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Mesons
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Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
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Michael Faraday
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Mossbauer Effect
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Mossbauer effect
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NMR or nuclear magnetic resonance
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Navier-Stokes Equation or Equations
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Navier-Stokes equation
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Navier-Stokes equation (do not accept "Euler's equation," which by definition contains no inertial cross-product terms)
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Navier-Stokes equation(s)
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Nernst equation
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Neutrinos
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Otto Stern
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Paul Dirac
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Prandtl number
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Precession
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Principle of Equivalence
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QCD or Quantum Chromodynamics
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Quantum Hall Effect
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Quark-gluon Plasma
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Raman effect
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Raman effect or scattering
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Raman scattering [accept Raman effect or Raman spectroscopy]
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Schrödinger's cat
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Seebeck Effect
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Seebeck effect (accept thermocouple effect before it's mentioned)
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Simeon Poisson
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Sir Arthur Eddington
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Sir Benjamin Thompson or Count von Rumford
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Surface Tension
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Theodore von Kármán
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Thomas Young
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Thomson scattering
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Torricelli's Theorem (or Torricelli's Principle)
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Tyndall effect
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Van Allen belts
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Van de Graaff Generator
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capacitance (prompt on C)
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chirality (accept chiral) (accept enantiomorph before it is mentioned)
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cold fusion
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crystal field theory [or CFT; prompt on ligand field theory or LFT until "bonding"]
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dark energy (accept cosmological constant until it is named)
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density
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dielectric constant (accept early "relative permittivity" and prompt on "permittivity")
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dielectric constant (or relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity)
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dynamo (accept word forms, e.g. dynamic)
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electroweak theory
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entropy
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hysteresis
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index of refraction (or refractive index)
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magnetic moment [accept electron charge or fundamental charge before the first mention of "charge"]
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magnetic monopole
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moment of inertia or inertial moment tensor
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partition function
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perturbation theory
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positron or anti-electron
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spin
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spin [accept spin angular momentum]
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spin [prompt on angular momentum]
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spin angular momentum
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spontaneous symmetry breaking [prompt on "symmetry breaking"]
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the weak nuclear force or weak interaction [prompt on quark mixing or quark flavor changing before "neutral-current interactions"]
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the Lagrangian [or Lagrange function; prompt on L]Â
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time dilation (accept gravitational time dilation or velocity time dilation before the asterisk)
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time dilation [prompt on "special relativity" before mentioned]
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 capacitor
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 electric field [or E field]
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 electromagnetism [accept word forms]
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 index of refraction [prompt on n]
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 phonons
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 piezoelectricity
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 principal quantum number [or n before read; accept energy level until mentioned]
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 superconductivity [or superconductor]
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 the Ising model
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Rudolf Ludwig Mossbauer
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bremsstrahlung
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impulse
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the Doppler effect [or Doppler shift]
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the Fletcher-Millikan oil-drop experiment [accept Millikan before it is read]
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the Ideal Gas Law (accept Redlich-Kwong before "Peng-Robinson", or van der Waals before "critical point")
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the Michelson-Morley experiment
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Cooper pairs
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Coriolis force
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Earnshaw's Theorem
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Edwin Hall (accept the Hall effect)
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Ehrenfest's theorem
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Erwin Schrodinger
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Franck-Condon principle
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Franck-Hertz experiment
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Friedmann Equation
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George or Georgiy Antonovich Gamow [or Gamov]
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Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis
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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
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Heisenberg uncertainty principle
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Hooke's Law
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Hooke's law
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Huygens' Principle [accept Huygens-Fresnel Principle]
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Index of Refraction [or Refractive Index]
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Raman scattering [or Raman effect; or Raman spectroscopy; prompt on inelastic scattering]
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Rayleigh scattering
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Rayleigh-Jeans formula
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Wilhelm Wien
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Zeeman Effect
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Zeeman effect
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aberration
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absolute temperature
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cold temperature fusion
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color (accept strong force, prompt on gluons until *)
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electric permittivity [prompt on permittivity]
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energy band gap
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excitons
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ferromagnetism
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frequency
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friction
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friction [or drag before “electrostaticâ€]
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fuel cell
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gamma ray burster
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gauge
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infrared spectroscopy
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insulators
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internal energy [prompt on partial answer]
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magnetic field
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magnetic fields
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magnetic monopoles (or magnetic charges)
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momentum
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optical fiber or glass fiber or fiber optics
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thermonuclear fusion
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Take two lead ions and smash them together. If the energy is high enough, J-psi particles will be formed, at an even greater energy the J-psi particles will be annihilated and strange quarks will be made, along with this material. The creation of it would signal the greatest freedom ever discovered for its constituent particles. For 10 points, name this material in which protons and neutrons break up into their constituent parts.
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The 'leakage' variety of this parameter is often utilized in gas discharge lamps to help prevent damage. When two elements with this property are placed next to each other, the dot convention is often used to keep track of polarity, and the coefficient of coupling is used to determine the magnitude of the 'mutual' variety based on the magnitudes of the 'self' variety of this parameter. It is defined as voltage drop divided by the derivative of current with respect to time, or more commonly as magnetic flux divided by current flow. FTP name this parameter that describes coiled circuit elements that oppose changes in current, symbolized L and measured in Henrys.
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The Lummer-Gehrcke type is interesting for its use of only one main component, and is useful in the study of hyperfine structure. The Fizeau-Laurent version is used to detect imperfections in flat surfaces, while lenses and prisms are tested using the Twyman-Green type, a variation of the most famous example. An etalon is used in the Fabry-Perot version of this device, but the most famous is the one used to disprove the existence of ether by Michelson and Morley. FTP, what is this instrument named for its production of optical interference fringes?
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The Ranque-Hilsch vortex tube operates on a principle similar to it to produce hot air from one end and cold from the other without moving parts. Smoluchowski argued against this concept on the basis of thermal fluctuations, and in a 1929 paper, Leo Szilard presented three different models of it and showed that none of them could work. It was definitively refutated in a 1951 article by Leon Brillouin, who showed that the titular entity would generate an entropy related to the process of memory storage. Supposedly able to sort molecules by speeds and thus violate the second law of thermodynamics, for ten points, identify this "demon" postulated by the formulator of the 4 equations of electromagnetism.
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The Sellmeier equation is an empirical relation describing the dependence of this quantity on wavelength. In left-handed materials, which have negative values of this quantity, the group and phase velocities point in opposite directions. Given by the square root of the product of the relative permittivity and permeability, for most materials it is approximately equal to the square root of the dielectric constant. FTP, name this quantity, equal to the speed of light over the local phase velocity, which appears in Snell's Law.
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The partial linear polarization of the cosmic microwave background radiation is the result of this physical process. In deriving this non-relativistic process, the magnetic component of the Lorentz force is neglected, and the relevant particles are modeled as being in a damped harmonic oscillator. Its total cross section is independent of the frequency of radiation and scales as the square of the particle's Compton radius. For ten points, identify this scattering of electromagnetic radiation from a charged particle, named after the discoverer of the electron.
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The phase variety of this phenomenon typically occurs in oscillators and is caused by fluctuations in the phase of a wave. The Brownian variety of this phenomenon has a spectral density proportional to the inverse square of the frequency, while the pink variety, which is sometimes also known as the one-over-f type, is proportional to the inverse of the frequency. Proportionality to the square root of the product of temperature and frequency is a characteristic of the thermal, or Johnson type, which occurs naturally in all resistors, while the shot variety is a Poisson process that occurs when the carriers of energy are discrete particles. Best known when it is a random process with flat power density, known as the "white" type, FTP, name this physical phenomenon, the ratio of signal to which is typically to be maximized.
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The reflective kind was coined by John Rawls and consistently shifts as a person's views on individual cases conflict with views on general principles. In economics the modern version of the general kind was modeled by Arrow and Debreu, and supply and demand falls under the analysis of the partial kind. Thermodynamics defines it as a state in which internal processes cause no change in macroscopic properties, while in chemistry it is the point at which the forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate. FTP, identify this term, which in physics is the state of a body at rest where the net force and net torque is zero.
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The surname's the same. The first conducted an experiment confirming the quantum nature of atomic energy levels with James Franck, for which he shared part of the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics. The second, uncle of the first, proved heat and light are electromagnetic and was the first to broadcast and receive radio signals. For ten points, give the common surname of these German physicists, also a unit of frequency.
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Two tensors giving the material and nominal stresses are named for Piola and this man, who demonstrated that current moves through conductors at the speed of light. Green's second identity applied to an integral taken over an aperture results in an integral expression of central importance in scalar diffraction theory named for this man and Fresnel. He explained the Fraunhofer by stating that cold, tenuous gases produce absorption patterns that match the emission patterns they would produce if heated. He co-discovered cesium and rubidium using the technique of emission spectroscopy he developed with his partner Bunsen. FTP, name this physicist who enunciated his namesake junction and loop rules of circuit analysis.
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Unlike its partner, it does not change sign under spatial reflection, though it does change sign under time reflection, and its boundary conditions stipulate that its normal component must be continuous across a boundary between media. The great strength of this property for a neutron star results in the formation of two "hot sports" on its surface and is responsible for the short timescale of a neutron star's rotational damping. A spin will precess around an applied one, and an equation which states that it is divergence-free indicates that classically, its monopoles do not exist. FTP identify this physical quantity whose behavior is governed by such equations as Ampere's law, the dual of the electric field.
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Although they were used originally in building digital cameras, due to disadvantages like a high stationary noise pattern, they were replaced by CCD technology. Historically, they were designed to operate at supply voltages much larger than their threshold voltages. They dissipate power by charging and discharging load capacitances when they are switched. One important device one can construct with them is a transmission gate. One problem with them is their susceptibility to electrostatic discharge. Developed by in 1963 by Frank Wanlass, it was originally an alternative to TTL, and despite being slow, became prevalent in portable electronic devices due to low power consumption. Although people often refer to the memory that stores the BIOS in a PC by this term, flash memory long ago replaced it. FTP, identify this class of integrated circuits that uses pairs of transistors for logic functions, in contrast to NMOS circuits.
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Coulson solved Chandrasekhar's X and Y functions for this process when a Lambert surface was underneath. The Babinet point is an example of a neutral point predicted by the theory of this effect. It is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of the light. This process predominates when the size of the particle is much smaller than the wavelength. This effect is seen as light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most noticeable in gases. This effect is enhanced for short wavelengths. For 10 points, name this elastic process named for British scientist that causes the sky to appear blue.
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Dividing this equation through by the acceleration of gravity gives you the head equation. This law can be derived by integrating the inviscid Newtonian Navier-Stokes equation along a streamline. It gains a term of the specific internal energy if the flow is compressible. A form of local energy conservation for an ideal fluid, it explains the Venturi effect and some aspects of flight. FTP, name this principle, usually stated as v-squared over two plus p over rho plus g z is constant; a principle of fluid mechanics named for a Swiss mathematician.
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He coined the term kinetic energy. He was also the first to describe the effect named for him, which deals with the apparent force on a moving object when observed from a noninertial, uniformly rotating system such as the earth. FTP name this French physicist.
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In electrodynamics, this effect leads to the formation of an instantaneous voltage called the Christoffel voltage, and cyclostrophic flow sees zero contributions from friction and this effect. The ratio of net acceleration of a fluid to acceleration due to this effect is the Rossby number. Its acceleration is given by negative two times the cross product between the angular velocity of the system and the velocity of the particle. It is the cause of the rotation of sunspots and creates geostrophic winds. This effect generally manifests in the deflection of an object because of the Earth's rotation. For 10 points, name this effect that does not actually change the direction of water swirling in toilet bowls.
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In molecular spectra, an analogue of this phenomenon causes a mixing between the rotational and vibrational levels of a molecule, and in electrodynamics, an analogous quantity appears as a compensatory factor known as the Christoffel voltage. Its interaction with pressure gradients is the cause of geostrophic motion, and an object moving only under its influence will describe an "inertial circle." The reason why cyclones can't form at the equator, it directs the direction of rotation of hurricanes. For ten points, identify this force seen in a non-inertial reference frame which is proportional to the cross product of the angular frequency and the velocity.
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It is adiabatically invariant for plasma, which is an important fact in the analysis of plasma mirrors. At an atomic level it is quantized, meaning that it may be oriented only at certain discrete angles relative to an applied field. For a current loop it is proportional to the current times the size of the enclosed area and is usually expressed in amperes per square meter. For 10 points, name this value that describes the measure of a magnetic dipole's ability to turn in the presence of an applied magnetic field.
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It utilizes the mass of a particle, Planck's constant, the total energy of the particle, and a linear relationship to the Laplacian of its representative variable. It then describes, in the steady-state case, the variation of that variable throughout a field with potential energy V. For a specified number of electrons and protons its solution will yield a set of corresponding eigenstates. It is always time-dependent, can be used in one-dimensional and three-dimensional systems, and always works in terms of psi, or the wave function. FTP, identify this fundamental equation of quantum mechanics named for the Austrian physicist who proposed it.
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Longitudinal concavity gives rise to this phenomenon in the Görtler Effect, which may be amplified by the introduction of Tollmien-Schlichting waves. The von Karman equation gives the net value for its measurement for isotropic cases of its occurrence, while another indicator of its presence is a Strouhal Number of at least 0.2. Its permeation of vector fields under Couette conditions is chaotic, though Kelvin's circulation theorem assigns it a constant in the case of incompressible inviscid fluids, and it must always equal zero in the application of Bernoulli's Law. Calculated as the curl of the fluid velocity, FTP, name this measure of the localized angular velocity per unit area of a fluid.
unitarity
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universal gravitational constant [or (upper-case) G]
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A Rindler observer near a Cauchy horizon sees an analogue of this phenomenon due to the Unruh effect. The power of this phenomenon decreases with increasing source mass, implying that currently-evaporating sources must be small. Its associated temperature is proportional to the surface gravity of the source, and it arises when one particle from a pair production event tunnels out through the event horizon. For 10 points, identify this type of thermal radiation that causes mass loss in black holes, named for the British physicist who wrote A Brief History of Time.
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A child prodigy, this man learned most of the European languages and many ancient languages by the age of 20. By his studies of the human eye, he showed that it focuses by changing the shape of the lens, and also discovered that astigmatism is due to an irregularly shaped cornea. From 1815 onward, he published papers on Eqyptology and helped decipher the Rosetta stone. The author of Outlines of Experiments and Enquiries respecting Sound and Light, he identified the property of interference in 1801. FTP, name this man who is also known for his absolute measurement of elasticity, known as his modulus.
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A gravitational one that may cause a brief 2% reduction in weight is generated in the Podkletnov Effect. A magnetic variety is produced by energetic solar shockwaves that cause rapid fluctuations in the Van Allen Belts over a period of minutes. In classical mechanics, the equation that describes it is the result of multiplying both sides of Newton's Second Law by delta-t. FTP, name this measure of a force acting over a period of time equal to the change in momentum between two velocities, symbolized J.
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A rule for these regions states that ones with a smaller value for “N plus L,†which is equal to the number of “nodes†for one of these regions, will have lower energy. The topologies of these entities are described by the principle, subsidiary, magnetic, and spin quantum numbers. Lennard-Jones's LCAO method combines these entities linearly to derive their “molecular†counterparts. Combining two of them is called “hybridization.†They come in S, P, D, and F types. For 10 points, name these regions around an atomic nucleus in which electrons are found.
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A transformation of coordinates can be shown to be a canonical transformation if and only if it preserves these quantities, while a dynamical system is Hamiltonian if and only if the time derivative obeys the Leibniz rule on these quantities. The operator obtained by taking this quantity for the Hamiltonian and the time derivative is called the Liouvillian, which can be used to rewrite the Hamilton-Jacobi equation in terms of this quantity. The Hamiltonian Noether theorem states that this operator applied to the Hamiltonian and a constant of the motion is zero. FTP, what is this concept, the classical mechanics analog of the commutator?
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According to the Sakharov conditions, the creation of these particles requires both a departure from thermal equilibrium and the violation of both C and CP symmetry. Gerard t'Hooft proposed a sphaleron interaction that could result in their creation, and their namesake oscillations can be seen in the large-scale spectrum of the CMB. A major unsolved problem of modern cosmology is the asymmetry of this class of particles with their anti-particles, and these particles account for about 4% of the total energy density of the universe, the rest lying in dark matter and dark energy. For 10 points, identify these fermionic hadrons which consist of three quarks bound together by the strong force, and which include the proton and neutron.
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An optical illusion that evens-out brightness gradients is this person's namesake band. Prandtl-Meyer fans consist of superpositions of this scientist's namesake waves, sonic pressures which occur due to pressure gradients in compressible flows. An influential philosopher of science, this thinker's principle states that inertia is relational and relative and his Society is also known as the Vienna Circle. His best-known namesake is a quantity measuring compressibility and equal to an object's speed divided by the speed of sound. FTP, name this Austrian scientist whose "number," when equal to one, quantifies the sound barrier.
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Application of this effect to cycles of sunspots allowed George Hale to determine the law of sunspot polarities. In its general form, the electron charge times the vector potential over the speed of light must be subtracted from the momentum. Spherical symmetry is destroyed in its strong variety, known as the Paschen-Back limit. It breaks the degeneracy of the Coulomb potential, and the weak limit yields energy spacings proportional to the magnetic quantum number. First observed as the broadening of the D-lines in the solar spectrum, for ten points, identify this effect in which spectral lines are split by the application of a magnetic field.
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Applying tunnelling theory to the nuclear Coulomb barrier yields a prediction for how the emitted particle's energy depends on the half-life. For this process, the emitted particle's angular momentum equals the spin difference of the parent and daughter since its spin is zero. Polonium-210 goes to lead-206 in, for ten points, what radioactive decay consisting of the emission of a helium nucleus?
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Derived in full conservation form by Axford, this PDE can be obtained by ensemble-averaging moments of the Klimontovich equation, which represents as delta functions the objects that this equation represents as a continuum. Its homogeneous version is the Vlasov equation, which has no collision-operator term. The continuum equation is its zeroth velocity moment; higher moments yield momentum relations like the Navier-Stokes equation. It is usually stated by equating to zero the total time derivative, plus the force dotted with the velocity gradient, minus the collision operator, all operating on the distribution function of a fluid. FTP, identify this equation for the distribution function of a fluid, named for an Austrian physicist.
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Developed in 1958, this process allows for the most precise measurement currently possible in science, measuring the natural line width of a gamma ray spectrum to better than one part in 10 trillion. This is accomplished by imbedding radioactive atoms in a crystal lattice, allowing the recoil energy from each radioactive decay to be absorbed by the entire lattice rather than just the decaying nucleus. FTP, name this spectroscopic technique, named for its developer and winner of the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics.
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Different versions of this phenomenon have been experimentally tested by Ives and Stilwell on hydrogen atoms in 1938. Cherenkov radiation and verification of the absence of a medium of transmission for light are important consequences of its relativistic formulation. Johannes Stark predicted that high velocity rays of positive ions will demonstrate it, while Buys-Ballot [BOYS-ba-LOH] first verified it in 1845. First described by an Austrian scientist in 1842, FTP, name this effect that explains why a moving observer perceives a wavelength different from the source wavelength.
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Dynamically, it is governed by the Kruskal-Shafranov criterion of stability and the Vlasov, or collisionless Boltzmann, equation, and it frequently exhibits Langmuir waves, which are named for the man who first coined this term. Its behavior is governed in part by the Debye length and by its net Coulomb force, which causes collective modes of motion as well as its high susceptibility to magnetic phenomenon. Found in the Solar Wind, ionosphere, and the interiors of stars, it is thought to compose 99% of the matter of the universe. FTP, what is this fourth state of matter?
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Extrasolar ones may be found by the cosmic ray detector AUGER (pron. oh-ZHAY) via horizontal air showers. Because they were not warmed by electron-positron annihilation, they should have a 2 Kelvin blackbody background spectrum. Photomultiplier tubes can be used to detect Cerenkov radiation produced by these particles interacting with electrons in heavy water and pure water detectors such as the Sudbury Observatory and Super Kamiokande detector. FTP, name these leptons which can oscillate between three flavors, and have no charge and nearly no mass.
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Feshbach resonances may be observed in these, since a further transition from the collective ground state is required to emit an electron, while Denschlag et al. observed macroscopic solitons in them in 2000. Tonks-Girardeau gasses are examples of these aggregates, the first of which was created out of approximately 2000 Rubidium-87 atoms near 170 nanoKelvin in June of 1995. Resulting from the collapse of bosons into the same ground state at finite temperatures, FTP, name this phase of matter predicted by two physicists, one of whom was German and the other Indian, in the 1920s.
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From 1662 to the end of his life he held the post of "curator of experiments" to the Royal Society. He worked on a wave theory of light, a theory of gravitation, and speculated on the atomic composition of matter. After the Great Fire of 1666, he was named Surveyor of London. He discovered that spiral springs have a period of oscillation independent of amplitude, and helped Robert Boyle invent a gas pump. FTP, identify this scientist who, while looking at cork through a microscope, coined the term cell.
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Haag, Lopuszanski, and Sohnius showed in 1975 that this concept is the maximal possible extension of the Poincare type. It does so without violating the Coleman-Mandula theorem by transforming particles into particles that differ from the original by one-half unit of spin. This prediction of string theory states that at higher energy scales, every boson should have a fermion partner and vice versa. Examples of predicted particles include the selectron and the squark. FTP, identify this idea that results from superstring theory.
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He had his most important equation engraved on his tombstone. He determined a theoretical derivation for the law of black-body radiation, derived an exponential formula to describe the distribution of molecules, and mathematically supported the work of Maxwell. FTP name this pioneer in statistical mechanics, whose tombstone bears the inscription S = k log W.
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If sufficiently light, these particles could be produced in a Drell-Yan type process which would occur in proton-antiproton collisions at the Tevatron. The first solution to the Yang-Mills equation was one of these particles named for Wu and Yang, and Dirac showed that these particles imply quantization of electric charge. Providing symmetry to Maxwell's equations, these particles contradict the fact that the divergence of the B-field is zero, thereby violating Gauss's law for magnetism. For 10 points, identify these particles, the magnetic analogues of charge with either north or south-oriented directions.
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Inspired by difficulties in the Klein-Gordon equation, it describes the quantum mechanical particles of spin one-half. Derived by a clever factoring of the energy-momentum relation, this equation, unlike the Schrodinger equation, correctly incorporates relativity. FTP, name this equation, whose solutions predict the existence of anti-matter.
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Instead of employing the Debye-Hull-Scherrer powder method, its namesakes relied on an array of atomic planes. Its namesakes built a vacuum apparatus and employed a hot filament, an accelerating electrode, and an arc-mounted Faraday box. A leak in the vacuum led its namesakes to heat the target, resulting in crystallized nickel, which gave startling results. A plot of collector current against beam energy was explained by constructive interference, and the results in general could be derived by combining Bragg's equation with the de Broglie wavelength for electrons. FTP name this experiment named for two physicists, which proved that electrons diffract.
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Married to wealthy widow Sarah Walker in 1772, he served as a spy for the crown during the American Revolution, but in 1776 was forced to flee to London, where he served as undersecretary of state before returning briefly to command a British regiment in New York. Knighted in 1784, he left for Bavaria, becoming war and police minister and grand chamberlain, popularized the steam engine and the potato, and innovated a widely used fireplace design. Created a count of the Holy Roman Empire in 1791, he moved to France, married Lavoisier's widow and turned to the study of heat. FTP, name this scientist whose observation of the boring of cannon led him to realize that heat was not a finite liquid, but a form of motion.
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Martin Humason and Alan Sandage, who experimentally verified its validity as a correlative tool, offered a layman's explanation of it with their "flashlight analogy." It is now known that, after passing a mass, photons exhibit a residual amount of it, though not the value of 5.8, which is the highest known. Edwin Hubble theorized that it indicates the speed of recession of, and the distances of, the galaxies and attributed it to the Doppler Effect. FTP, give this two-word term that identifies the displacement toward longer wavelengths observed in the spectral lines of astronomical objects.
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Microscopes employing this phenomenon are used to observe single fluorescent molecules and detect their distance from a flat surface. Such microscopes take advantage of the Goos-Hanchen effect, also known as the "frustrated" form of it, in which a small amount of the energy in an evanescent wave is slightly scattered by the presence of a sphere with a different refractive index. Also employed in binoculars and fiber optics, FTP, name this phenomenon in which light rays approaching a boundary between two media at angles greater than the critical angle remain within the medium with a higher index of refraction.
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Monochromatic photons traversing transparent media usually exhibit Rayleigh scattering caused by elastic photon-molecule collisions. However, infrequent inelastic collisions can cause molecular excitations and change the photon's wavelength. Used with lasers to determine the composition and structure of chemical compounds this effect, for ten points, was discovered in 1928 and named for what Indian physicist?
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Møller-Plesset Theory calculates their Hamiltonian as the sum of their Hartree-Fock operators and a perturbation, while for simple substances correcting for deviations from the Born-Oppenheimer approximation yields an accurate wave-function. Same-spin electrons within them experience the Pauli repulsion, and the magnetic nature of a substance may be determined via bond order, or half the difference in the number of their bonding and antibonding electrons, which are placed in separate energy levels in accordance with Hund's Rules. FTP, what are these orbitals in which motion of electrons about two or more nuclei are described, the namesake of a theory of bonding?
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Normal mode expansion is used to decompose coupled versions of these systems. The quantum version of one of them has a minimum energy level of h bar omega over two. An electrical example of these systems is a series RLC circuit. This system becomes more complex if the right-hand side is changed from 0 to a force term, or if a first derivative term is added to the left side. Those phenomena in this system are called "driving" and "damping" respectively, and the basic version of this system is developed by equating Newton's second law with Hooke's law. For 10 points, name this type of physical system that is exemplified by a mass on a spring.
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Predicted in 1948 when van der Waals forces did not properly explain experimental measurements on colloids, it was successfully measured in 1997 by Steve Lamoreaux. Akin to Newton's law of gravitation on a microscopic scale, it is proportional to the quotient of the mirror area and separation distance to the fourth power, and it may be thought of as the attractive force between two parallel plates in a vacuum. FTP, this effect named for a Dutch scientist that results in an attractive force between two plates in the absence of other forces.
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Put a sample in a constant and in a varying magnetic field. The constant field couples with nuclear spin, forming new energy levels. The second field, usually radio waves, can have the frequency to excite transitions between the new states. A transition tells about the sample's composition-- usually, the presence of hydrogen and carbon-13. For ten points, name this type of spectroscopy, very similar to a medical scanning technique.
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Quartz crystals are used most often industrially in this effect because of their tensile strength and resistance to high temperatures. Its reverse effect can be seen if a quartz plate is subjected to an alternating electric field, causing the quartz to expand and contract at the field frequency, and the plate can be made to resonate if the field frequency coincides with the elastic frequency. In the standard effect, the electric polarization produced is proportional to the stress applied. FTP, identify this effect that occurs when a crystal is subjected to mechanical pressure, creating an electric potential.
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Relativistic effects cause a lateral adjustment in this phenomenon in its “transverse†type, which was confirmed experimentally by Ives and Stilwell. The classical formula describing this effect contains terms that represent the source and receiver velocities. This effect causes stellar objects to appear shifted towards the red or blue ends of the spectrum. For 10 points, name this effect in which waves coming from an object moving relative to an observer appear to change frequency, which is employed in weather radar.
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Robert Greenler's Rainbows, Haloes, and Glories contains photographic plates of this phenomenon. It is not strongly wavelength dependent and it predominates in cases with particle sizes larger than a wavelength. Because two of the scattering coefficients must identically equal zero due to symmetry, this is the simplest type of scattering. It produces a pattern like an antenna lobe with a sharper, more intense forward lobe for larger particles. FTP, identify this common type of scattering responsible for the white light from mist and fog and for the white glare around the sun.
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Substances exhibiting it can be analyzed by polishing the surface with an appropriate colloidal suspension, producing Bitter patterns. These patterns provide evidence for the "domain" theory explaining this property, as does the Barkhausen effect, which holds that it increases in a series of minute jumps as the applied magnetic field is increased. Occurring below the Curie point, FTP, what is this property seen in elements like cobalt, nickel, and iron, in which substances are magnetized by weak magnetic fields?
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The earliest tests of this theory will come when Fermilab's TeVatron comes on-line this year, but it is expected that the strongest measurements will be done by the Large Hadron Collider at CERN when it starts running in 2005. Developed in 1971 both in a standard field theory context and as a necessary result of introducing fermions into string theory, the current limits on the predictions for this theory come from the energy scale at which the electroweak and strong forces unify. In this theory, each standard model fermion has an associated boson with it and vice versa, but, because this theory is broken at a high energy level, these partner products have much greater masses than the particles we observe. FTP, name this theory in which squarks, sleptons and gluinos partner up with their more mundane quarks, leptons and gluons.
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The equation that dictates this law involves its namesake's constant, which can be derived by dividing one by the quantity 4 times pi times the permittivity of free space, normally symbolized by lower-case k. Following Newton's third law, this law follows its predecessor, another inverse-square law. FTP, identify this law that states that the square of the distance divided into the product of two charges and the constant k results in the force between those two charges.
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This instrument has five basic parts: a high vacuum system, a sample handling system, an ion source for producing a beam of charged particles characteristic of the sample, an analyzer for separating the beam into its components and a receiver for collecting the separated ion beam. It is based on the principle that moving ions may be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, and it works by sorting gaseous ions into those electric and magnetic fields. FTP, name this device that identifies chemical substances through the use of mass to charge ratios.
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Work on the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and the discovery of his eponymous effect led to a Nobel Prize. In this effect, nuclei in a crystalline solid do not recoil when emitting gamma rays, instead giving all the energy to the photon, which thus has a sharply defined wavelength. For ten points, identify this German physicist, winner of a Nobel Prize in 1961.
Bernoulli's equation
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Bernoulli's equation or principle
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CMOS also accept Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
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CP violation (or charge-conjunction parity violation)
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CP violation or charge conjugation-parity violation
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CP-violation or charge-parity violation
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Carl Friedrich Gauss
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Casimir effect (or force)
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Casimir force or Casimir effect
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Cerenkov effect or radiation
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Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
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Cherenkov or Cerenkov radiation
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Cherenkov radiation
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Cherenkov radiation /effect
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Cherenkov radiation or effect or light
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Newton's Second law of motion
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Nicola Tesla
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance or NMR
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Ohm's Law
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Oliver Heaviside
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Paschen-Back effect
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Pauli exclusion principle
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Pockels effect [or electro-optic effect]
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Poiseuille's equation
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Poiseuille's law or equation
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Poynting vector
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Aberration
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Ampere's Law
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Ampere's Law or Ampere-Maxwell's law
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Ampère's Law
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André Marie Ampère
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Auger Effect
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Auger effect
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BCS Theory or Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer Theory
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BEC or Bose-Einstein Condensate or Bose-Einstein Condensation
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Balmer series
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Balmer series (or lines)
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Fresnel Bright Spot
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Gauss' law [of electricity; do not accept "Gauss's law of magnetism"]
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Gauss' law for the electric field
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Geiger counter (accept Geiger-Muller counter)
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Glashow-Weinberg-Salam Model (Also Accept: Weinberg-Salam before "three originators" or electroweak theory before it is mentioned)
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Gustav Kirchhoff
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Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
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Hagen-Poiseuille equation
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Hall Effect [accept fractional quantum Hall effect or quantum Hall effect]
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Hall effect (accept thermal Hall effect until 'Kane')
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Hamiltonian
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Hamiltonian mechanics
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Hamiltonian operator or matrix (prompt on energy operator)
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Hans Bethe
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Hans Bethe [accept Bethe-Heitler process before Heitler's name is read]
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Hund's rules
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Huygens' Principle [or Huygens-Fresnel Principle]
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IR Spectroscopy [or Infrared Spectroscopy]
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Interferometer
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Ising model
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J/psi particle
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J/psi particle (accept "psi prime" before 3.1 GeV)
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James Clerk Maxwell
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Jeffries Wentzel Kramers Brillouin method (or Jeffries Wentzel Kramers Brillouin approximation; accept any permutation of the order of the names or initials, as long as it contains W, K, and B)
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Joseph Louis Lagrange
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Josephson junction (do not accept Josephson effect)
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Joule's law
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Joule-Thomson effect or Joule-Kelvin effect
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Joule-Thomson or Joule-Kelvin effect
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Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion
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Klein-Nishina formula
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Lagrange points
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Lagrangian
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Lagrangian function (prompt on L)
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Lamb shift
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Lambert-Beer law (or Beer-Lambert law or Beer's law)
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Lande g-Factor (accept gyromagnetic ratio; prompt on "g")
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Lord Kelvin [or William Thomson]
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Lord Rayleigh [John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh]
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Lorentz transformation
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Maxwell's Equations
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Maxwell's demon
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Mie scattering
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Minkowski space
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Wheatstone bridge
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Wheatstone bridge (only need the name after the end of the question)
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Wien's displacement law
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Wigner Energy
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X-rays
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Young's modulus [or modulus of elasticity; prompt on “stiffnessâ€]
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Z particle
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adiabatic demagnetization [or magnetocaloric effect]
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adsorption (accept desorption in the first sentence; prompt on "sorption")
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albedo (accept surface reflectivity before "whiteness")
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alpha decay (prompt on radioactive decay, but accept proton radioactivity until "equals")
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alpha particles
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alpha particles [or alpha radiation; or helium nucleus before read; prompt on helium]
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anthropic principle (accept weak anthropic principle before "participatory")
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general relativity [prompt on relativity; do not accept “special relativityâ€]
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glueball
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muon (or mu lepton, or mu particle)
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muons
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paradoxes
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paramagnetism
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phonons
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photoelectric effect
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photoelectric effect [or Hertz effect before mentioned]
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photons [accept gamma rays; prompt on spin-0 particles]
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piezoelectric effect or piezoelectricity
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piezoelectricity (or piezoelectric effect)
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positrons [accept beta-plus particle; accept antielectron before "electron" is read]
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tokamak (do not accept "stellerator"; for the show-offs, the Russian is approximately: toroidalnaya kamera ee magnitnaya katushka)
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tokamaks
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top quark
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universal gravitational constant or G
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van der Waals equation (do not accept or prompt on "ideal gas law" after the word 'cubic')
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vapor pressure
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viscosity
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vortex [or vortices]
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vorticity
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weak force or weak interaction
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 Bose-Einstein condensates [or BECs]
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 Brownian motion
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 Compton effect/scattering
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 Cronin-Fitch experiment [accept anything with Cronin and Fitch in it, also accept things like “The experiment that showed direct CP violation†before mention]
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 Particle in a Box [or [in]finite Potential Well; or Square Well; or Rectangular well]
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 capacitance
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 tokamaks [accept spheromaks before “JETâ€; prompt on fusion reactors; or plasma devices]Â
...
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A controversial recent paper by Kolb, Riotto, and others suggested it may not require new physics at all, but instead comes from super-Hubble-size perturbations arising from ordinary inflationary physics. Part of the evidence for it comes from the first peak in the cosmic microwave background, which says Omega total is 1, while other measurements suggest Omega matter is only 0.3. Unlike radiation or ordinary matter, it has a negative equation of state. The simplest explanation is a cosmological constant, while another is a scalar field called "quintessence." FTP, what is this mysterious acceleration of the universe?
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A convection term is contained in its material derivative, the time derivative of the fluid velocity in this equation. With two separate forms for incompressible and compressible fluids, its parameters are the pressure, velocity, density, and kinematic viscosity of the substance being described. It can be obtained by combining the equations for kinematics and constitutive relation into the equation of motion. Used to model turbulent flow or describe the motion of a non-turbulent fluid, this is, FTP, what fluid dynamical equation named after two scientists?
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A key part of this apparatus is an insulating stopper through which is passed a chain or conducting rod, which is then attached to the inner wall of the container. Usually charged using an electrostatic generator, it is coated on the inside and outside with metal foil, allowing it to store the electric charge. Now used almost exclusively in classrooms and named for the university at which it was invented, FTP, what is this jar, the earliest known capacitor?
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A kind of spectroscopy that is the main application of this phenomenon depends on chemical shifts arising from partial shielding of atoms or molecules by electrons. The surrounding electrons cause atoms to absorb radiation at slightly different field strengths for a fixed frequency. Atoms may only absorb radiation at photon energies equal to the difference between energy levels as determined by a characteristic spin, resulting in quantized orientations of the magnetic moment vector. FTP, what is this absorption of radiation at a precise frequency by nuclei with a nonzero spin that causes them to behave like small magnets?
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A student of Johannes Muller, he began his career in the mid-nineteenth century, studying the connection between nerve fibers and cells and inventing the myograph to measure the speed of nerve impulses. His more lasting accomplishments were in the area of physics, where his work on magnetic fields and current led to Maxwell's development of the displacement current and he served as mentor to Planck. FTP, name this postulator of the electron and the conservation of energy.
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After its namesake won a 1819 prize from the French Academy of Sciences, Siméon-Denis Poisson noticed that the theories in prize-wining paper clearly implied the existence of this, calling it "a strange result." Poisson, a supporter of the Newtonian model of light, believed that the impossibility of the existence of this would demonstrate that the wave theory of light could not successfully explain diffraction; he was hoisted with his own petard, however, when the prize committee arranged an experiment that clearly demonstrated this to exist. For ten points, name this central maximum that arises in the diffraction of light about an object with a circular image, named for a French military engineer.
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All known solutions of these satisfy the Clausius-Duhem entropy inequality and are only valid when there exists thermodynamic equilibrium over sufficient time and length scales. Derived in their most common scalar form by substituting the Newtonian stress tensor into the Cauchy momentum equation, examples of exact analytic solutions to them, which are generally only attainable under unrealistic assumptions, include the equations for Couette and Hagen-Poiselle flow. Simplifying to Euler's equation in the limit that the viscous stress is negligible, FTP, identify the equations that comprise the momentum balance for a fluid element and are named for named for a French engineer and British mathematician.
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Along with an electron, this particle is the product of the semileptonic decay of a D meson. Gell-Mann and Pais investigated the oscillations in its neutral type, noticing that a pure beam would become a beam of its anti-particle. Leon Lederman established that it had two different weak eigenstates, which are labeled "short" and "long." Its (*) charged type contains an up quark and is 4-mega-electron volts lighter than its neutral type, which contains a down quark. Originally known as a V particle due to its decay pattern, its tendency to decay into either two or three pions led to the Tau-Theta puzzle. FTP, name this meson which is heavier than a pion and contains a strange quark or antiquark.
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Alternatives to this idea are classified by the PPN formalism and include Cartan's connection theory and theories due to Nortveldt and Brans and Dicke. One of the objects central to this theory satisfies the Bianchi identities; that object appears in the field equation and is the namesake tensor of this theory's formulator. Effects predicted by the theory include frame dragging and lensing by mass. This theory is derived from the statement that inertial mass is indistinguishable from gravitational mass, the equivalence principle. FTP, what is this theory that is applicable to any reference frame; a theory of gravity developed by Einstein?
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An alternate statement of this rule is that a function and its Fourier transform cannot both be compactly supported. Local hidden variable theories tried to explain it in the context of the EPR Paradox, but Bell's Theorem disproved that explanation. Its derivation makes use of the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality, and it is most accurately understood in terms of wave-particle duality, whereby the product of the widths of two different wavefunction collapses must be greater than Planck's constant over 4 pi. Describing the non-commutability of the operators for pairs of observables, FTP name this principle whose most famous example relates the inability to determine the exact momentum and position of a particle simultaneously.
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An approximate screened potential is named for Thomas and this person. In superconductors, this scientist's namesake level is found in the band gap. His namesake paradox notes the high probability of the existence of but the lack of contact with extraterrestrial civilizations. The Pauli exclusion principle is obeyed by his namesake particles, which have half-integer spins, unlike bosons. Together with Szilard at the University of Chicago, he built the world's first nuclear reactor. Rutherford congratulated him for "escaping theoretical physics" when he discovered the transuranics. FTP, name this Italian physicist.
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As a quantum-mechanical operator, its eigenvalues are given by h-bar squared times its quantum number times the quantity that quantum number plus one and its eigenstates are given by spherical harmonics. It is also obtained as the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance, with the consequence that its conservation does not hold for generally curved spacetimes. The derivative of this quantity with respect to time gives the torque, and Kepler's Second Law is one expression of its conservation. For ten points, identify this physical quantity, given in classical mechanics by the position vector crossed with the linear momentum vector.
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As it predicted 65 years earlier, scientists at SUNY-Stony Brook and the Technical University of Delft reported evidence for currents of microamps flowing through a superconducting ring in opposite directions at the same time. Such an occurrence had already been theorized by this example of the way in which quantum mechanics could produce two states that differ dramatically. Sealed inside a steel chamber with a Geiger counter that releases a possibly lethal poison, FTP, identify this animal that was the subject of a 1935 paper by its Austrian namesake.
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At low temperatures, the mean free path of these particles is comparable with the dimensions of their propagation medium in the de Haas-Biermasz effect. One mechanism for the collision of these particles theorizes that the sum of the wave vectors of the original particles is equal to the final wave vector plus a reciprocal primitive translation vector, the Umklapp process. These particles always have 3 acoustic modes for a substance with greater than two atoms per unit cell. Their density of states is used to derive that the heat capacity is proportional to T cubed in the Debye Model. They drive the pairing of electrons into Cooper pairs in the BCS theory of superconductivity. For 10 points, name these bosons that propagate at the speed of sound in a solid, described as quantized lattice vibrations.
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COUPP proposes to use these to search for WIMPs. There are proposals to use them as breeding blankets for fusion devices as they sometimes contain dense deuterium. These devices have no direct energy spectroscopy, but have a lower refresh time and higher reactant density than their predecessors. They work by changing the pressure in a tank, which causes its contents to become superheated; charges moving in the detector volume then create the namesake objects. FTP, identify these devices largely replaced by spark chambers, used to detect charged particles, and invented in 1952 by Donald Glaser.
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Charged particles that encounter a magnetic mirror experience this man's namesake acceleration, and the idea that the existence of advanced extraterrestrial life in the Milky Way would mean we should see signs of them such as spacecrafts is known as his paradox. The highest occupied state of a system of electrons at absolute zero is an energy named for this man. He and Dirac name a set of statistics describing gases made of protons, neutrons, or electrons, all of which are particles named for this man that possess half-integer spin, unlike bosons. For 10 points, name this Italian physicist who developed the first sustained nuclear chain reaction.
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Common uses of this mechanism include converting heat from kerosene into power for radios in remote areas and detecting small amounts of heat exchange in enzymes. At high temperatures platinum and rhodium are used, but at moderate temperatures, iron may be used. It states that if two wires of different materials are joined at their ends and one end is maintained at a higher temperature than the other, a voltage difference will arise, and an electric current will exist between the hot and the cold junctions. FTP, name this physical effect, an analogue of the Peltier effect.
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Conceived by Richard Feynman and developed by David Deutsch in 1985, they attracted attention in 1994 with the release of Shor's algorithm for prime factorization which is exponentially faster than digital computers. The basic unit of information, the qubit (KYOO-bit), stores more than one number at a time as a superposition of states. For ten points, name this theoretical but potentially revolutionary type of computer.
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Confirmed to high precision by Hungarian physicist Roland Eötvös, this principle dates back to Galileo's observation that the period of a pendulum is independent of its mass. Although it does not apply to rotating systems or to systems in which the gravitational field varies considerably, it was the basis for predictions of such phenomena as the gravitational red shift. FTP, name this principle important in general relativity which maintains that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equivalent.
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Constants introduced by this tenet are involved in one application of the Sternheimer Method. Optically, it can best be tested with the interaction of heavy atomic vapors, especially those of bismuth and thallium, with indium-doped lasers. The GIM suppression mechanism and the Cabibbo Theory presaged this prediction by implying the existence of its two requisite particles, the discovery of which solved two major problems with neutral kaon oscillations. Its mathematical usefulness arises from the 't Hooft renormalization equations, and it utilizes a non-Abelian gauge group with broken symmetry. FTP, name this model which posits W and Z bosons as the mediators of the electroweak interaction, which is named for its three originators.
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Debye was able to derive a formula for specific heat of a solid by summing their energies over the vibrational modes of the solid. Like photons, they obey Bose-Einstein statistics, and can thus be considered bosons. They play a central role in the BCS theory of superconductivity by interacting with electrons and connecting them in Cooper pairs. FTP, name these objects, the quanitized vibrations of an atomic lattice.
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Denoted by a 4 by 4 matrix incoporating an arbitrary rotation and boost, it alters a four-vector of charge and current density just as it does a four-vector of time and position. It can be derived by assuming equality of inertial reference frames and the constancy of the speed of light. For ten points, reference frame changes in special relativity are described by what transformation.
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Detailed measurements of this phenomenon have been made by Barber and Putterman by measuring Mie [MEE] scattering. Most scientists have rejected Julian Schwinger's explanation of this in terms of emission of zero-point energy. The first experimental observation of this process was made in 1934 by Frenzel and Schultes, and interest in this effect was renewed by a discovery of a special form of it in 1990 by Felipe Gaitan. The Taleyarkhan group claims to have generated nuclear fusion via this process. Although the mechanism for it is still controversial, most believe that the observed radiation is due to bremsstrahlung that is produced by an in-falling shockwave caused by the collapse of an object that may be produced by cavitation. For 10 points, identify this process in which sound waves are passed through a liquid, causing bubbles to collapse and emit short bursts of light.
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Dirac came up with a clever method for solving the quantum version of this system, using raising and lowering operators. Though their best-known applications may be for keeping time, any system with a potential that is quadratic in displacement is one of these. In fact, it can be shown that any system exhibiting small fluctuations about a stable equilibrium is one. For ten points, identify this type of oscillator, the most common example of which is a mass and a spring.
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Discovered in 1934, it was explained by Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm three years later. Caused by the displacement of atomic electrons, it combines to form a strong electromagnetic wave similar to that of a sonic boom. Appearing as a weak bluish-white light, identify this radiation produced by a beam of high-energy particles passing through a transparent medium at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium, named, FTP, for the Russian physicist who first observed it.
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Due to its discrete nature, it led to a precise definition of the unit of electrical resistance, which was given the name of its discoverer. It only occurs in two-dimensional surfaces, which is why it is properly in the realm of semiconductor physics. Its discoverer found the surprising fact that it was exactly discrete, namely that electrical conductance equals v times e-squared over h, where v is any integer, e is the fundamental charge, and h is Planck's constant. The earlier form of it described the creation of a voltage in the direction perpendicular to a magnetic field applied to a perpendicular current and offered an interpretation of current, rather than as a movement of negatively-charged electrons, as a movement of positively-charged "holes". FTP, identify this effect for which Klaus von Klitzing won the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics.
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Due to this phenomenon, the Breit-Wigner formula must be altered in practical use. It contributes a negative temperature coefficient of reactivity to uranium-fueled nuclear reactors, since it increases U-238's absorption cross-section through its namesake broadening; because that same broadening applies to spectral lines, the formula for this effect can be applied to spectra to determine gas temperatures. It can be used for non-invasive flow measurements, as in echocardiograms. An instance of it is redshift. It is exploited in radar technologies utilized by police and meteorologists, though it is perhaps best observed when the frequency of a siren increases and decreases as it passes an observer. FTP, name this effect, a shift discovered in 1842 by its namesake Dutch scientist.
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During their production, two different spin states must be trapped in the f = 9/2 hyperfine ground state. The experiment that created them used Feshbach resonances to prevent molecules from forming instead of the intended result, and further experiments by Chin et al. on Lithium-6 strongly imply that they have superfluid properties. First created by Jin, Greiner, and Regal using 400,000 potassium-40 atoms, this substance must be created using Cooper pairs, since the Pauli exclusion principle does not allow its constituents to occupy the same quantum state. For 10 points, name this state of matter that roughly corresponds to Bose-Einstein condensate for particles with half-integer spin.
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Electron-like or hole-like quasiparticles can be created when these are bombarded by X-rays, making them useful for high precision detection of X-ray energy. First proposed by Froehlich, they were experimentally corroborated by the isotope effect and the evidence for a condensation to a boson-like state at the superconducting transition temperature. They are caused by the exchange of phonons. Named for one of the winners of the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics, FTP, identify this phenomenon important in the BCS theory of superconductivity, a type of coupling of electrons.
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Erwin Finlay-Freundlich proposed one explanation for this phenomenon that claimed its strength should be proportional to the radiation density. A version of this phenomenon in the CMB is known as the Sachs-Wolfe effect, while the quantity that describes the strength of this effect has a value of about 1100 for the surface of last scattering. One version of this effect was measured using the Mossbauer effect in an experiment by Pound and Rebka, and the magnitude of this effect is usually denoted "z." For 10 points, name this phenomenon, which can be caused by gravity or the Doppler effect, in which the wavelength of an object's light appears longer to an observer.
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Feynman and Bijl developed the first successful method of finding the excitation spectrum of one form of this substance. A theory of order in the bosonic form of this substance was developed by Penrose and Onsager, and is known as the "off-diagonal long-range order" model. Anthony Leggett used an analogue of BCS theory to explain the second-order transition in one form of this substance; that form of it is the only known perfect Fermi fluid. One form of this substance undergoes a phase transition at 2.17 Kelvin, a temperature known as its lambda point. Both forms of this substance can become superfluidic, as demonstrated by Osheroff and Lee's experiments with its isotope 3. For 10 points, identify this substance which exists below 4.2 and 3.2 Kelvin for the 4 and 3 isotopes respectively, a condensation of the second-lightest element.
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First observed by William Wollaston in 1802, they are assigned letters such as A which is made by terrestrial oxygen and extremely red in color. They are made by the absorption of selected wavelenghts of light by atoms of gas in the atmosphere of the sun and earth. FTP, identify these dark lines named after a German optician.
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Flaws in Schrodinger's equation or Bohr's formula can be corrected by introducing this value measured in multiples of a unit called the Dirac h, or h-bar. It was first proposed by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck to explain the spectra of light emitted by atoms of alkali metals. Calculated for complex nuclei by taking the vector sum of the intrinsic values for the constituent particles and their orbital angular momentum, it is zero for nuclei with even numbers of neutrons and protons in their ground states and for pions, while for electrons, neutrons, and protons the multiple involved is 1/2. FTP, what is this measure of the amount of angular momentum associated with a subatomic particle or nucleus?
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Following the work done five years earlier by Compton on X-ray scattering, this physicist began studying similar scattering properties in light of optical wavelengths in 1928. His demonstration that optical light had particulate aspects just like X-rays strengthened the case for quantum mechanics. More importantly, he also showed that the spectrum of the scattered light was effected by the nature of the molecules doing the scattering, providing another probe of the fine details of molecular structure. FTP, name this first Asian Nobel Laureate, winner of the prize in 1930.
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For a charged particle, this function includes the square of the difference of the momentum and e over c times the vector potential. Any quantity whose Poisson bracket or commutator with it is zero is also a constant of the motion, and in quantum mechanics, the eigenvalues of this operator are the allowed energies. Equal to the Legendre transform of the Lagrangian, FTP name this function named for the inventor of quaternions, who also lends his name to closed circuits that touch each node of a graph once.
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For viscous flow past a sphere, it's inversely proportional to the drag coefficient. Given by the product of a velocity and a length divided by the absolute viscosity, laminar flow occurs for values smaller than 1000. For ten points, the degree of a turbulence in a fluid is governed by what dimensionless number?
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Freeman Dyson pointed out that when it is negative, QED is unstable, so a perturbative expansion in it must be asymptotic rather than convergent. It can be measured from the Josephson effect and was independently confirmed by the quantum Hall effect. Attempts to propose formulas for its infrared value are regarded as numerology since it runs logarithmically. It was first introduced by Sommerfeld to account for small deviations from the Bohr model in hydrogen. FTP, identify this constant which is defined as e squared over h-bar c and often approximated as one over one hundred thirty-seven.
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Frustrated with the initial results, he performed his experiment again on top of California's Mount San Antonio, but with no luck. He redesigned the experiment in order to detect any effects caused by the earth's rotation; again, nothing. His half-silvered, half-transparent mirror worked just fine; his telescope received each half-pulse, and there was no difference in speed. An aether windspeed of only one or two miles per second would have had an observable effect, but none was seen. FTP, name this experimenter who disproved the existence of the aether.
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Gliner and Zeldovich are credited with the modern interpretation, in which it contributes its value times the metric tensor divided by 8 pi times the gravitational constant to the energy-momentum tensor. In the Friedmann equation, it appears on the right-hand side divided by three, and measurements from WMAP have suggested that its energy density is approximately 0.7 times the critical density. Its equation of state parameter w is -1, giving a negative effective pressure that tends to accelerate the expansion of the Universe. FTP name this simple form of dark energy, rejected by Einstein as his "greatest mistake."
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Hadamard introduced the "narrow sense" of this principle, and Kirchoff used an obliquity factor to eliminate its retrogressive implications. It only holds for an odd number of spatial dimensions, as this allows for higher order terms to vanish in the polar wave equation. It was modified to include superposition, which allowed it to explain diffraction, by Fresnel, and its namesake showed how it explained Snell's Law. For 10 points, name this principle that says every point on a propagating wavefront produces secondary wavelets which comprise the envelope of the wave, named for the Dutch physicist whose eponymous probe split from the Cassini to land on Titan in 2004.
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He became the first full-time Professor of Engineering in England at the age of 26 and dedicated most of his work to solving everyday problems as demonstrated by his "Sewer Gas and How to Keep it Out of the House." Considered the founder of the science of lubrication, his namesake equation is used as the basis for turbulent flow analysis, though he might be better known for another concept that, if greater than 3000, determines turbulent flow and, if less than 2000, determines laminar flow. FTP, identify this English scientist famous for his eponymous number in fluid dynamics.
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He was a Pythagorean, believing that there was an inner order to all sets of numbers that governed the Universe. After twenty of years of collecting and analyzing data, he formulated the laws that bear his name. However, his work was superseded by the publication of Principia Mathematica, which proved that his work could be derived in an afternoon by proceeding from Newton's Laws of Motion. FTP, name this man, considered the founder of modern optics but most famous for the Laws of Planetary Motion.
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His T to the three-halves law gives fractional change of magnetization in terms of temperature and is based on the magnon density of states. His namesake wall separates domains of a crystal magnetized in different directions. His namesake frequency describes the oscillation of an electron in a superlattice in a constant electric field. His equations describing magnetic relaxation are used in the study of magnetic resonance. FTP, name this physicist who proved the fundamental result of solid state physics that eigenfunctions for a periodic potential are plane waves times periodic functions, and shared a Nobel Prize in 1952 with Edward Purcell for the invention of NMR.
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His work explaining the instability of James Watt's fly-ball governor is regarded as the birth of modern control theory, and his mathematical analysis of the stability of Saturn's rings showed that they could be neither entirely solid nor liquid. He showed how to calculate stresses in suspension bridges and coined the term "curl" to use in the differential form of his most famous accomplishment; however, the only other real work he did on it was the addition of a term for "displacement current." FTP identify this British physicist best known for combining his revision of Ampere's Law with Faraday's Law and Gauss's Laws of Electricity and Magnetism to produce his four namesake "equations" governing electromagnetism.
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Identification of this particle rest almost entirely upon location of secondary vertices from decays of b-quarks because its lifetime is far too short for any hadronization to occur. This is because the Standard Model predicts that it decays into a W boson and a b quark nearly 100% of the time. Its mass of 178 GeV is vastly greater than any other fundamental particle known and is the reason it took so long to discover. FTP, name this sixth and last-discovered quark, the companion of the bottom.
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If one assumes a hidden variable theory as well as locality, general arguments produce this prediction for the measurement of, for example, the correlations of particle spins. However, it has been experimentally shown to be untrue in a manner consistent with standard quantum mechanics. First proposed in 1964 in response to the EPR paradox is, for ten points, what inequality?
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If the net charge on a body is zero, then this describes the highest-order term in the harmonic expansion of its potential in general. An oscillating one produces a radiation field with the asymptotic form of a spherical wave. The potential energy of one of these is given by minus its moment dotted into its associated field and the potential of one varies as one over distance squared. A physical one can be modeled as two separated charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign; its namesake moment will then be the charge times the separation distance. FTP, name this physical system containing two electric monopoles.
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In 1881, this man led an expedition to Mount Whitney to examine the absorbing effects of the Earth's atmosphere on the Sun's radiation; a year earlier, he invented the bolometer in order to measure radiation from stars. In 1887, he became secretary of the Smithsonian, where he founded the Astrophysical Observatory, but his interest later turned to aerodynamics. In 1896, he tested the first successful pilotless aeroplane, which was launched by catapult, and flew over the Potomac River for a distance of 4,200 feet. FTP, identify this scientist whose groundbreaking flight experiments paved the way for the Wright brothers.
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In 1925, Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck theorized its existence to explain some aspects of the periodic table, as well as fine structure. It explains the results of the Stern-Gerlach experiment, in which an inhomogeneous magnetic field split a seemingly uniform beam of silver atoms into two beams. Pauli suggested that it must have only two values, which are now defined as plus or minus one half. FTP, name this quantum number, usually symbolized as m-sub-s.
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In Grand Unified models, these particles catalyze proton decay in the Callan-Rubakov effect. One variety of them emerges and disappears in a tunneling event between two Gribov vacua, and in a 3-dimensional gauge theory with a Higgs field, one variety of them takes the role of an instanton. Besides the Wu-Yang and t'Hooft-Polyakov varieties, a dyon with no electrical charge is one of them. A curve from one of these to infinity is known as the Dirac string, while the Dirac one is a topological defect in compact U(1) gauge theories. Their existence would change the right hand side of Gauss's law and explain the quantization of electric charge. For 10 points, name these hypothetical particles which would be units of magnetic charge.
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In Schwarzchild space, the Fokker-deSitter type of this behavior can occur, while in Kerr space an additional type of this behavior named for Schiff may occur. The Rashba effect causes one type of this phenomenon in spin, and another variety of it corrects for time dilation between electrons and the atomic nucleus and is named after Thomas. One type of this phenomenon is exploited in NMR spectroscopy and occurs when an external field is applied to magnetic moments, called the Larmor type. Irregularities in axial motion due to it are called nutation, and it is commonly demonstrated in gyroscopes. For 10 points, name this physical phenomenon in which the rotational axis of a body changes direction.
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In a plasma, it is proportional to the ion and electron density and is therefore a good indicator of the pressure of a star's atmosphere. Its two-dimensional form can yield cascades when applied to quantum wires and it is particularly useful for molecular rotational spectra because its manifestations indicate low-J transitions. In its quadratic form, the first-order terms vanish in accordance with the Wigner-Eckart theorem, but a linear case exists which depends on the degeneracy of the 2s and 2p states and thus is not exhibited by alkali atoms. For ten points, identify this effect which breaks degeneracy through the application of an electric field.
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In a process for generating decaffeinated coffee, the solvent carbon dioxide is responsible for removing the caffeine from the beans by existing in this state. Water can exist in this manner above 374.4 degrees Celsius and 217.7 atmospheres, and its abnormal behavior can be attributed to an increase in molecular kinetic energy and increased intermolecular forces. FTP, identify this fluid state above the critical temperature and pressure of the substance brought about by liquefaction.
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In chemistry, the law by this name provides a definition of temperature for ideal gases, since it does not account for the intermolecular forces that would cause changes in the internal energy. The law by this name, which states that the internal energy of a given mass of gas is independent of its volume and pressure and is only a function of temperature, also shares its name with a law in physics given by the equation Q equals I squared times R times t. FTP, identify the common name for these laws, the latter of which deals with the heat produced when an electric current flows through a resistor.
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In hydrodynamics, setting this equal to zero in the Navier-Stokes equation leads to the Euler equation. The kinematic type is measured in stokes, while for Newtonian fluids it is a constant. Often thought of as the internal friction of molecules, for ten points, name this fluid property, the resistance of a fluid to relative motions.
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In semiconductors, the mobility is multiplied by this entity to get drift velocity. In the Lorentz force law, unlike a similar quantity it is not multiplied by the velocity. Its divergence is equal to the charge density divided by the permittivity of space. The cross product of this quantity with the magnetic field appears in the equation for the Poynting Vector. The Stark effect refers to this entity splitting spectral lines. It polarizes dielectrics, allowing capacitors to store energy in capacitors. For 10 points, name this field whose magnitude at a location is defined as the strength of the force divided by the point charge that experienced it.
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In stars it occurs when entropy increases outward. Its efficiency is measured by the Nusselt number and it's usually parameterized by a mixing-length theory which treats parcels of buoyant fluid. It occurs throughout low-mass stars and in the outer 30 percent by radius of the Sun where the magnetic field is connected to the associated fluid motions. For ten points, name this method of heat transfer.
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In the Kennelly approach, this quantity is measured against the field strength, and in the Sommerfeld approach it is measured against the magnetic field. In electrons, it is given by the equivalent current, or the charge over the angular momentum over 2 pi, multiplied by the orbital area. Usually measured in ampere meters squared, it is a measure of the strength of a magnet or current-carrying coil. FTP, identify this quantity that is a measure of the ratio of the maximum torque exerted on a magnet.
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In the chiral limit, the Nambu-Jona-Lasinio Model can be seen as a phenomenological version of this theory, and one version of it was formulated using an invariant equal to the trace of a path-ordered exponential known as the Wilson loop, and is referred to as the "lattice" variety. Another version relies on a series of factorization theorems, called the "perturbative" variety. The Gell-Mann matrices are the infinitesimal generators of the SU(3) group, which is central to this theory, and Gross, Politzer, and Wilczek derived one feature of this theory, which states that particle interactions will become weak at shorter distances, known as asymptotic freedom. FTP, name this theory that explains the strong force in terms of quarks, gluons, and color charge.
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In the current model, it is held to be mediated by the exchange of intermediate vector bosons. It is only known to occur between leptons and in the decay of hadrons, and is responsible for the beta decay of particles and nuclei. 10 to the 30th times stronger than gravity, FTP, what is this fundamental interaction whose name indicates its relationship to the electromagnetic and strong forces?
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In tokamaks in which a separatrix exists, the safety factor obtains this value at the separatrix. By analyzing the two-dimensional Ising model, Kramers and Wannier established that the specific heat took on this value at the Curie point. This value is obtained when computing the occupancy number for the ground state of a Bose-Einstein condensate, and classical calculations of electron self-energies also yield this value. In quantum field theory, terms having this value are removed through the process of renormalization, and this value is also obtained for the energy radiated by a black body when extrapolating the Rayleigh-Jeans law to higher frequencies. For 10 points, identify this value attained by the classical metric of general relativity at the singularity of a black hole, in which things get unquantifiably large.
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Instances of these devices with stacked lamination uses an alternate method of E and I laminations. Large ones can use oil for insulation. Scott-t ones can handle two to three phase connections. Their components can be in delta or wye configurations. The cores of these devices can be three, four, or five limbed. Electric audio amplifiers, particularly those in a class b, use center tapped ones on the input and the output. The ratio of voltages associated with one of these devices is proportional to the ratio of turns. They can be used to step up or down voltage. For 10 points, name these devices that transfer electrical energy from one AC circuit to another using induction.
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Interactions which have two of these particles in the initial and final states are described by Møller scattering. Julian Schwinger calculated a leading-order radiative correction for the anomalous magnetic moment of these particles, given by the fine-structure constant over two pi. The use of Stokes' Law to calculate drag force was part of an experiment to determine one of its properties, and they interacted with a nickel target in the Davisson-Germer experiment. Their antiparticles were discovered by Carl Anderson, and the Hall effect shows that currents in metals consist of, for 10 points, these particles whose charge was measured in Millikan's oil-drop experiment.
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It can be demonstrated by representing a partical as a Gaussian wavepacket and taking its Fourier transform. In position and wavenumber space, the packet widths are inversely correlated, so that a well-defined wavenumber implies an ill-defined position. FTP, name this quantum mechanical concept which denies the possibility of simultaneous arbitrarily precise measurements.
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It causes the weak bluish white glow in polls of water that shield some nuclear reactors. It is created by highly energetic charged particles that displace electrons in the medium through which they travel, and the subsequent electromagnetic wave in the wake of these particles is similar to the bow wave of a fast boat. FTP, what is this light produced when charged particles move through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium?
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It eliminates infinite quantities appearing in calculations of particle interactions at high energies by postulating undiscovered particles such as squarks, photinos, and gluinos. Connecting the elementary constituents of matter with the carriers of the fundamental forces, this concept relates transformations in spin to transformations in space-time. FTP, name this concept relating fermions and bosons.
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It enables exact measurements of relative motion made in space docking, as well as in measurements of magnetic, gravitational and electric fields. It describes those radioactive substances where atoms are held in a tight crystalline structure, and gamma rays are emitted at a frequency corresponding to the difference between nuclear ground-state energy and excited-state energy. If said gamma rays strike atoms of the same element in a similar structure, another gamma ray of the same frequency may be emitted, however that emission is always recoil free. FTP, name this effect named for the winner of the 1961 Physics Nobel.
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It is demonstrated by the fact that when frequency is small, the size of individual quanta will be negligible. If the h in Planck's constant equals 0, light will behave only as a wave and never as a particle collection. Before its formulation, there were two radiation laws: one classical, and one for the Bohr model. FTP, name this idea that in physics there is always some level at which nonclassical theory agrees with the classical.
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It is proportional to the reciprocal of the partial derivative of entropy with respect to internal energy. The equivalent of Ohm's law for thermodynamics states that the heat flow equals the thermal conductivity times the difference in it. What thermodynamic entity, for ten points, is established on an absolute scale by the third law, and is measured in units named for Lord Kelvin?
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It is strong evidence for quantum theory because an explanation requires one to treat light as photons rather than as waves. Conservation of momentum and energy requires that when a photon collides with a stationary electron, it loses energy. For ten points, what effect named for an American physicist is usually important only for gamma and X-rays?
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It is the basis of the Hanbury-Brown-Twiss effect and the Gross-Pitaevskii equation demonstrates why it also works for atoms having a negative scattering length. Problems with achieving it included the requirement that the deBroglie wavelength of the molecules becomes larger than their mean spacing. Based on the "grouping" tendencies of bosons and used to achieve an atomic laser, it was created by cooling a gas of rubidium-87 atoms to below 170 nano-kelvin by Carl Wieman and Eric Cornell. FTP, name this form of matter predicted by Satyendra and Albert in 1925.
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It is thought that in quantum gravity in asymptotically flat spacetime, it is the only gauge-invariant observable. For a time in the 1960s, quantum field theory was in doubt and the study of this object was dominant, as led by Chew and Gell-Mann. Chew's "bootstrap" was intended to provide a foundation for the study of hadron physics in terms of analyticity and unitarity properties of it. It provides the probabilities for transitions between different well-defined asymptotic particle states, and as such is particularly useful for obtaining predictions for collider experiments. FTP, what is this operator whose name reflects its derivation from "scattering"?
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It is unknown whether they are Majorana particles, and therefore it is unclear if they are released in double beta decays. They were recently used in an article in Nature to investigate the uranium and thorium content of the inner Earth. Found to oscillate between their different varieties by experiments conducted in Japanese mines, they were shown to not be massive enough to account for dark matter. However, the KamLAND and Super-Kamiokande experiments did show that, contrary to long-held suspicions, they do have mass. FTP, name these uncharged leptons that come in electron, muon, and tau varieties.
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It may include a pair consisting of a spinor field equivalent to the Levi-Civita connection and a complex conjugate spinor field known as a twistor, and it contains a four-element vector that undergoes the Lorentz transformation. Its namesake pseudo-Riemannian metric signature allows its essential coordinate to include the imaginary number root negative one, which is multiplied by time and the speed of light in special relativity. FTP, name this mathematical space characterized by a gravitationally variant metric signature, a Euclidean three-space plus the time dimension named for a teacher of Einstein.
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It was co-discovered by its namesake and Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933. When tin crystlals were cooled below 3.72 Kelvin, the earth's magnetic field was expelled. A partial effect can be seen in some materials like vanadium and niobium, called type II superconductors, while an external magnetic field can be made so strong that the effect does not occur. FTP, name this effect, the falling off of the magnetic flux within a superconductor when it is cooled below a critical temperature in a magnetic field.
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It was discovered in 1933 by Ochsenfeld and its namesake. Type I superconductors, like tin and mercury, can be made to exhibit this completely by eliminating various chemical impurities and by choosing proper geometrical shape and size. Type II superconductors, like vanadium and niobium, exhibit this only partially at intermediate magnetic field strengths, regardless of geometrical shape and size. FTP, name this effect that describes the expulsion of a magnetic field from the interior of a material when cooled below the transition temperature.
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Its "mutual" variety, symbolized by the letter M, occurs when two circuits or circuit components are linked magnetically. Its much more prevalent "self" variety, which also involves the creation of an emf, is a consequence of Lenz's Law and is usually given by the letter L. Its standard SI measure has units of volt-seconds per ampere, and as an electromagnetic analogue of inertia it basically measures a circuit's resistance to changes in current. FTP, identify this physical property measured in Henrys.
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Laszlo Tisza proposed a model to explain the first instance of this phenomenon. One material that exhibits this property has a curiously negative-sloping liquid-solid line on a phase diagram, and therefore can undergo Pomeranchuk cooling. Substances with this property can produce a Rollin film, and one model to explain this property posits an excitation that forms a roton. Quantum soundwaves remove internal resistance to movement in a model of this property postulated by Lev Landau, who proposed that it takes place below the "lambda point." For 10 points, name this property exhibited by certain Helium isotopes that occurs when all viscosity vanishes.
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Late in his career he became involved in the study of lightning, and in his studies of thunderstorms, he devised a method of protecting British wartime barrage balloons from lightning. But his most famous work involved another meteorological phenomenon which he harnessed as a detecting medium for radiation, in which a supersaturated vapor that condenses to tiny liquid droplets around ions produces a readable indicator by the passage of energetic charged particles. FTP identify this Scottish scientist and inventor of the cloud chamber.
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Less common ways of formulating this tensor-field quantity include one named after either Euler or Almansi which references the system's final configuration. The Green-Lagrangian tensor of this quantity is equal to one-half the difference of the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor and the identity, a formulation equal to one-half the difference of the product of the deformation gradient times its transpose and the identity. A yield surface maps out the values of this beyond which a material suffers plastic, rather than merely elastic, deformation. Young's modulus measures the stiffness of a material by computing the ratio of stress to this quantity. For 10 points, what is this dimensionless measure of the deformation of a body, given in uniaxial form by the change in length divided by the original length?
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Less-famous work of this physicist is his research on the production of interference by rays of hydrogen and helium and his experimental verification of Maxwell's law of velocity distribution in gases. Better-known is his measurement of the magnetic moment of the proton, accomplished with a molecular beam which he also used in an experiment wherein it was found that a beam of silver atoms shot through a nonuniform magnetic field onto a glass plate split into two distinct beams instead of broadening into a continuous band. FTP name this man, awarded the 1943 Nobel Prize for this latter experiment performed with Walter Gerlach.
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Massey and Burhop proved that when relativistic effects are taken into account, the yield of this phenomenon is much lower, while Martin and Eggleston calculated this phenomenon for xenon and krypton. The Kasha-Vavilov rule is used to calculate the yield in cases where this phenomenon is substituted by fluorescence. Lise Meitner is said to have discovered it before its namesake and this effect occurring in iodine-125 can possibly cause damage to DNA samples. FTP, name this physical effect that occurs when excited electrons, instead of emitting X-rays in the form of photons, cause secondary emission of electrons.
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Materials susceptible to this phenomenon generally lack inversion centers, and current research stems from its utility in MEMS sensors. The inverse of this phenomenon is known as electrostriction and was demonstrated in the year following its discovery, and was shortly thereafter used in the first SONAR. Discovered by analogy to Brewster's work with heat in the same context, this was discovered when, in 1880, tourmaline, quartz, topaz, and Rochelle salts were compressed by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie, who named the resulting effect from the Greek for "squeeze." FTP name this effect, the evolution of a voltage across the face of a crystal in response to mechanical strain.
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Mathematically, this role can be played by any smooth, real-valued function on a symplectic manifold, and those quantities whose Poisson bracket with it is zero are conserved over time. In quantum mechanics, when a non-trivial unitary operator commutes with this quantity, degeneracy will occur, and this quantity can also be written as "minus i times h-bar times the partial derivative with respect to time of the wave function." Appearing in the Schrodinger equation for finding eigenstates and obtained by a Legendre transform from the Lagrangian, for ten points, identify this physical quantity which represents a system's total energy.
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Maxwell's equations may be derived by extremizing the time integral of the one of these corresponding to a charge in an electromagnetic field. Its form for a mechanical system is motivated by requiring the virtual displacements in d'Alembert's principle to vanish. Generalized momenta are velocity partials of this function. If it is cyclic in a coordinate, that coordinate's generalized momentum is constant due to the equation of Euler and this function's namesake. FTP, identify this function central to a non-Newtonian formulation of physics and conventionally equal to the difference of kinetic and potential energies.
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Metals exposed to them induce the creation of Landau levels, allowing the mapping of Fermi surfaces through the De Haas-van Alphen effect. In some elements, such as bismuth, their presence gives rise to forces that attempt to counter or expel them, the most famous example of which is seen in semiconductors via the Meissner effect. They fall off as the inverse of the distance around a current carrying wire, and can be represented by continuous lines that emerge from north-seeking poles and enter south-seeking poles. FTP, what are these regions in which the namesake force is observable?
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Mylar and Kapton are films used in these objects at low frequencies. Their failure in motherboards is called their namesake “plagueâ€, and the mica types of these objects have the advantage of being highly stable over time and at varying temperatures. For a spherical one of these, its associated quantity is defined as four-pi times the permittivity of free space divided by the difference in the inverses of the sphere's inner and outer radii. That quantity is simply defined as charge over voltage for the parallel plate type of this device. It is often symbolized by two parallel lines in circuits. For 10 points, name these devices with the ability to store charge.
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Nearly all of the energy leakage in a nuclear fusion reactor is due to this phenomenon, and it is also observed when beta decay products propagate through uranium in a fission reactor. When coherently applied to crystals with incident energetic electron beams, photon beams in the range of 200 giga-electron volts have been observed. FTP, name this phenomenon in which x-rays are produced when charged particles are accelerated by the strong electric fields of atomic nuclei, whose name comes from the German for "braking radiation."
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Neglecting inertial cross-product terms and time-averaging this relation yields a form of the Moore-Greitzer equation. In standard form, the right hand side of this equation is the local inertia, equal to the density times the Stokes total time derivative of Eulerian velocity. The solutions of this vector equation probably reside in an infinite-dimensional state space, which would explain its behavior at high parameter values, and most of its complexity arises because it contains the divergence of the viscous stress tensor, ? ["tau"]. Rigorous non-dimensionalization of this equation results in the Reynolds number, while integrating it along a streamline collapses it to Bernoulli's equation. FTP, identify this partial differential equation that is the form of the momentum balance in a continuum fluid and is named for French and Irish physicists.
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Nevill Mott won a share of the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on the amorphous type of these materials. The properties exhibited by the intrinsic type are generally poor and temperature-dependent. The more useful kind is the extrinsic type, which are classified as p or n types and which often possess "holes" after impurities are added, a process known as "doping". Important examples include gallium arsenide and silicon. FTP, what are these materials, which exhibit levels of conductivity between those of conductors and insulators?
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New evidence from the Hanbury Brown-Twiss experiment indicates that electron pairs may act like these particles, which if cooled to extremely low temperatures condense and form a "super-atom." They have integer spin measured in h-bar units, and do not obey the Pauli-exclusion principle. A nucleus is defined as this type of particle if it has an even number of protons and neutrons. They include weakons, gravitons, photons and gluons. Distinguished from fermions, FTP, name this type of force carrying particles, which include Goldstone and Higgs varieties, whose name implies that they obey Bose-Einstein statistics.
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Noether's Theorem yields an important result about how this quantity changes for systems with symmetry under translation. In relativity, its square times the speed of light cubed is one in the equation for the square of the total energy and it must be redefined to use the rest mass and the Lorentz factor, and when Newton first described his second law, the "ma" term was in the form of the time derivative of this quantity. FTP identify this vector quantity which is equal to the mass of an object times its velocity, and is often denoted using the letter p.
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Observations at this site recently ruled out neutrino oscillation as an explanation for the LSND result; those data were acquired by an experimental group including Steve Brice and Richard Van de Water. The MINOS experiment is intended to study neutrino oscillations by sending a beam from its NUMI line to the Soudan mine 450 miles away; ARGONeut and MicroBoone are prototypes for a large neutrino detector to be installed at the DUSEL facility at the Homestake mine to work in conjunction with beams from this facility. Bison were introduced to this facility in 1969, with the current herd count at 45. Its Robert Rathbun Wilson Hall overlooks the ring which houses the DZero and CDF experiments, which jointly discovered the top quark in 1995. For 10 points, name this U.S. national laboratory that is home to the Tevatron and that is located in Batavia, Illinois.
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Observations of interference between various types of kaons led Good to conclude that this stuff does not experience gravitational repulsion. The ATRAP and ATHENA projects are working on methods of containing its atoms, with the goal of using it to test the CPT theorem. Some of it was synthesized following the Big Bang, but no remnants have been observed. The first example of it was discovered by Carl Anderson during observations of cosmic rays with sufficient energies to undergo pair production. That first example was predicted by Paul Dirac as a "hole" state of negative energy. FTP, name this material which undergoes annihilation when it combines with regular matter.
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Oganesyan, Fradkin and Kivelson showed that this phase can arise among electrons in materials near a quantum critical point, possibly due to a Pomeranchuk instability. X-ray scattering in this type of phase reveals diffuse spots or diffuse rings that become quasi-Bragg peaks if it is cooled and enters a smectic phase. The order parameter for this phase is a traceless symmetric tensor, which becomes nonzero after a first-order phase transition from an isotropic phase, indicating breaking of rotational symmetry. It is characterized by typically rod-shaped particles with long-range orientational but not translational order, and named from a Greek word meaning "thread." For 10 points, what is this ordered phase of matter, a twisted form of which is often used in digital LCD displays?
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One analog of this phenomenon is described by the Righi-Leduc effect. Kane and Mele developed a model for one variety of it and the Corbino effect is a special case of it. In plasmas, its namesake parameter is the ratio of electron gyrofrequency to the particle collision frequency, and a version of this effect was discovered in a gallium arsenide heterostructure by Tsui and Stormer and explained by Laughlin. The resistance associated with this effect t can be measured by the Van der Pauw method and its quantum analogue, which breaks down into integer and ractional varieties, was discovered by von Klitzing. Resulting from an asymmetric distribution of charge density, which in turn creates an electric field, for 10 points, name this effect, in which a potential voltage is produced in a conductor in the presence of a magnetic field.
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One of Irving Langmuir's classic examples of "pathological science," the so-called Allison effect, falsely claimed to use this phenomenon as the basis for a new method of spectroscopy. In its "inverse" version the spin of certain particles can be converted into angular momentum. It causes an amount of circular birefringence dependent on the Verdet constant of the medium, and its direction is caused by the direction of the magnetic field producing it. FTP, identify this rotation of a light beam's plane of polarization, discovered by a British scientist who is also the namesake of the unit of capacitance.
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One recent, and unlikely, method for achieving this was given experimental evidence by Rusi Taleyarkhan, who applied sonoluminescence. Other methods even less likely to succeed include the muon-catalyzed and anti-matter catalyzed varieties. An important goal for the useful application of this is the ignition point, but an easier goal is the Lawson Criterion, or break-even point, where a net energy is actually created. FTP, name this nuclear process in which two atoms combine to create one larger atom, and which takes place in our Sun.
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Opponents of the Big Bang theory have used this phenomenon to explain redshift, though this is not generally accepted as its influence would be seen in spectral lines. It was observed by viewing particles that were directed at a carbon target, deflected through a calcite crystal, and then sent into an ionization chamber. Independently detected by Peter Debye, it occurs during the interaction of electrons and photons with energy levels between 0.5MeV and 3.5MeV. FTP, name this scientific effect that demonstrates the particle nature of light.
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Overduin and Wesson successfully eliminated the cylindrical assumption from this theory, while Coquereaux and Jadczyk were the first to consider this theory's G-invariant scheme. Containing an extra scalar field known as the "dilation," this theory involves the "rolling up" of proposed higher dimensions in a process called spontaneous compactification. First postulated by its namesakes to unify classical gravity and electromagnetism, FTP, identify this unified-field theory that proposes at least five space-time dimensions, named after its two German creators.
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Particle detectors that utilize this effect can emit pulses with widths as low as 10-10 (read: 10 to the minus 10) seconds and can be used in time-of-flight measurements. The angle of emission is related to the speed of light and the index of refraction of the medium, and measuring the angle can determine the particle's speed. Discovered by Frank and Tamm and predicted by its namesake, FTP, identify this effect where a blue light is emitted from a particle when it passes into a medium at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium.
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Paul Wesson's variant of this theory shows that the soliton solutions of the equation R sub a b equals zero contains the Robertson-Walker metric; that version called the space-time-matter theory. Randall and Sundrum developed a variant of it that relies on a bulk that contains two branes separated by sixteen units. Separating out its equations gives rise to a scalar field called the radion. It posits a topology of R4 cross S1, and used a first-order Fourier expansion to characterize a periodic, compact extra dimension. FTP, name this five-dimensional gravitational theory that attempted to unify electromagnetism and general relativity, named for its two formulators.
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Pershin and Di Ventra proposed that this device can work based entirely on the electron-spin degree of freedom. Tungsten oxide was used in this device in a 1990 article describing its possible use in electronic neuron networks. The graph of its IV characteristics was described to look like "pinched hysteresis loops" by the scientist who defined it as a two-terminal element in which the magnetic flux is a function of the amount of electric charge passing through it. In the current version of this device two layers of titanium oxide are used, one of which contains TiO2-x instead of TiO2. For 10 points, identify this device postulated by Leon Chua which is able to change and maintain its namesake value based on the current and voltage across it, the fourth fundamental circuit element.
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Problems with these devices historically included the high incidence of bremsstrahlung created by the current it employs, though these devices are now used to produce that very braking radiation in the form of low-frequency x-rays. They consist of a vacuum chamber in a narrow gap between the two poles of a large, constant strength magnet in which two dee electrodes are housed. A relativistic correction by one over gamma explained why larger values of its namesake, fixed frequency of electric field reversal between the dees could not indefinitely increase acceleration. Improved by Veksler and McMillan's synchrotron, FTP name this device invented by M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence, named for the circular path taken by accelerated particles.
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Raymond Birge first jointly referenced the namesakes of this idea in a 1926 Physical Review article on the band structure of carbon monoxide. A schematic representation of the absorption and fluorescence spectra using this principle leads to an approximate mirror symmetry when applied along with Kasha's rule. A close analogy of it occurs due to the interaction of phonons and the quantum mechanical formulation of this principle can be interpreted such that the intensity of a vibronic transition is proportional to the square of the overlap integral between the two vibrational wavefunctions involved. For 10 points, name this dually eponymous principle sometimes interpreted to mean that electronic transitions occur instantaneously relative to nuclear motion.
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Research by the Argonne National Laboratory has revealed that diagonal matrix elements in two-body n-p pairing scenarios explain this phenomenon's near-ground level density differences for odd-numbered groups with a count difference of 2. A system's total binding energy may be calculated from the sum of the Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov Energy and this quantity. Characterized by a sharp slope discontinuity at N = Z for even-even and odd-odd nuclei group surfaces, it arises due to an induced Frenkel defect, and may be safely released by gradual elimination of the resulting interstitials during adiabatic heating, a process known as annealing. FTP, name this type of potential energy that may have caused Britain's worst nuclear accident, which is named for the discoverer of parity conservation and the subject of a thought experiment involving his namesake "friend."
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Rossi and Hall measured the extent to which this phenomenon affected mu mesons observed at the top of a mountain and at sea level. This concept explains why simultaneity is not absolute for individuals separated by a long enough distance, and in the transverse Doppler effect, it explains the frequency reductions seen by both observers. A gedanken-experiment involving this effect concerns the aging of an individual traveling in space versus one remaining stationary on earth. The twin paradox arises from, for 10 points, what consequence of special relativity whereby clocks in moving reference frames tick slower than those in stationary ones?
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Schwinger calculated that a strong one would cause pair production from the vacuum. Surface defects concentrate it, leading to emission and breakdown. When added to the time derivative of the vector potential, it is curl-free. Relativistically it makes up half the components of the field strength tensor. Atomic spectral lines split when one is applied, a phenomenon known as the Stark effect. It exerts a force proportional to an object's charge and unrelated to its velocity. FTP, what is this concept introduced by Michael Faraday, proportional to the gradient of an electric potential?
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Shapiro and collaborators showed that radar-echo time delay measurements between planets constrain it to change by no more than a part in 10 billion per year. Dirac had suggested, in some numerology known as the "large numbers hypothesis," that it decreases over time. In string theory, the effective value is inversely proportional to the volume of the compactification manifold. In a system of units with h-bar and c set to 1, it is simply one over the Planck mass squared. Its value is 6.67 times 10 to the minus 8 cubic centimeters per gram second-squared. It was first measured, using a torsion balance, by Henry Cavendish. For 10 points, what is this constant, which multiplies the masses of two objects divided by the square of their separation to give a universal force between them?
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Since this phenomenon occurs when the separation scale is on the order of about 4 angstroms, it displays the limitations of the Bethe-Slater curve, which predicts the opposite behavior. Like a similar phenomenon, its susceptibility curve is non-differentiable at a critical point, at which a spontaneous sublattice moment develops. This phenomenon is exploited in the exchange bias technique, and the susceptibility of materials that exhibiting it behaves according to the Curie-Weiss law in the paramagnetic regime. For ten points, identify this behavior which disappears above the Neel point, and in which neighboring magnetic domains align with spins pointed in opposite, rather than the same, directions.
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Slim-loop hysteresis and optical isotropy are observed in the relaxor type of materials exhibiting this property. The presence of antiphase boundaries in materials with this property appears to contribute to fatigue-free behavior. This property is not observed in quartz, though perovskite crystals, such as barium titanate. Materials exhibiting this property, such as PZT, are used to build RAM devices that use relatively little power to write and store data. Like a similarly named magnetic property, this property is not observed above the Curie temperature. For 10 points, name this property, in which the application of an external electric field causes a material to experience permanent electric polarization.
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Some tertiary amines such as 1-chloro-2,2-dimethylaziridine, have this property because the nitrogen is part of a three-membered ring and is connected to an atom with an unshared pair of electrons. Because of the crowding of the rings, hexahelicene must have this property, as does heptalene due to its twisted structure that also helps prevent resolution. FTP, name this property of molecules, from the Greek for "hand," which is simply defined as not being able to be superimposed upon a mirror image of one's self.
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Spin foam serves as a model for 4-geometries used to dynamically observe the quantum form of this force. Mossbauer spectroscopy of an iron-57 gamma emitter was used to measure Doppler redshift associated with this force in the Pound-Rebka experiment, and two lead balls were used to construct a torsion balance to measure the magnitude of this force in the Cavendish experiment. Conceptualized by wells in spacetime, for 10 points, identify this weakest fundamental force that causes objects in the air to accelerate to Earth at 9.8 meters per second squared.
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The 18-coefficient tensor used for calculations of this effect can be simplified to 4 independent values if Kleinman symmetry is present, and it is most complex in the case of triclinic crystals. This effect allows perovskite to be used for photon-induced electric field poling and can also be used as a shutter for Q switching in a laser. Cells that utilize this effect are most often created with potassium dehydrogenated phosphate or lithium niobate. Those cells will cause polarization rotation if they are not aligned parallel or perpendicular to the light beam, and are used in voltage-controlled retarders. For 10 points, identify this effect in which an electric field creates a linearly proportional birefringence, unlike the similar but quadratically proportional Kerr Effect.
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The Aharonov-Bohm effect is the classically impossible influence of this field alone upon charged particles, and it is introduced along with its counterpart to collapse a set of four PDE's to a set of two. The square of the norm of its combination with its scalar counterpart is Lorentz invariant, and its relation to the vector field it generates is suggested by Gauss' law for that field, since the divergence of the curl of a well-behaved vector field identically vanishes. It may be transformed by the addition of the gradient of a scalar gauge function. FTP, name the electromagnetic vector field that is often symbolized A and the curl of which is equal to the magnetic field.
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The Berry phase is almost never present in it, with the exception of the "JT valley" caused by the Jahn-Teller effect, and it fails for graphenes, due to rigid oscillations of Dirac cones and a stiffening of the Raman G peak. Its first step consists of solving the time-independent Schrodinger Equation to obtain namesake potential energy surfaces, which can be used to determine nuclear eigenvalues, while Eckart conditions are used in its second step. The Franck-Condon principle assumes that the vibrational and electronic wavefunctions are separate in, FTP, this physical approximation used to model molecular dynamics, which assumes nuclei do not move in relation to electrons and is named for two physicists.
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The Hay test for jaundice makes use of this property because bile can alter its value for urine. Thermodynamically, it is defined as the partial derivative of Gibbs free energy with respect to area at constant pressure and temperature, and it is related to temperature via the Eotvos equation. LaPlace's law relates the collapsing pressure of a spherical bubble to twice the value of this property, which is also the driving force of capillary action. Measured in dynes per centimeter and explained by the cohesive forces between molecules with nothing above them, FTP name this quantity that can be lowered by surfactants and allows certain bugs to walk on water.
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The Keyes equation modifies this cubic equation for the effects of surrounding molecules, while the Dieterici equation modifies it for density variations due to higher potential energies near boundaries. The Berthelot equation corrects its "attractive force" term by making it temperature dependent. Inaccurate especially around the first-order phase transition, its "a" term corrects for intermolecular forces and its "b" term corrects for the real volume of gas molecules. FTP, name this equation of state, the first correction to the ideal gas law which is named for a Dutch scientist also known for some namesake intermolecular forces.
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The Landau-Lifschitz-Bloch Equation models this phenomenon's onset. It develops in stepwise fashion via the Barkhausen Effect and leads to Ising-like behavior at low temperatures. Materials exhibiting this property display magnetostriction, leading to the low vibration of gadolinium metals under high applied fields. Appearing below the Curie Temperature, FTP, what is this type of magnetism in which net magnetic moments line up so that magnetization persists after the removal of the applied field, named for the fact that iron exhibits it?
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The Murchison Widefield Array will detect the redshifted relic of this radiation from the reionization epoch, as will a namesake telescope in Xinjiang formerly called the Primeval Structure Telescope. It offers a rare chance to probe the "cosmic dark ages" between recombination and reionization. The Pioneer plaque shows a schematic of the transition responsible for it, and indicates that the Pioneer probe's height is approximately eight times this wavelength. It was first detected using a horn antenna at Lyman Lab at Harvard in 1951 by Ewen and Purcell. It is about three hundred thousand times the wavelength of the hydrogen-alpha line. For 10 points, what is this wavelength of microwave radiation, originating from a transition between two hyperfine levels of the hydrogen atom?
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The SLIM experiment at Chacaltaya in Bolivia is an attempt to discover intermediate-mass ones; another bound comes from a Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment at the South Pole. On Valentine's Day in 1982, a possible but unconfirmed signal of one was recorded by Blas Cabrera. JJ Thomson showed that a static configuration of one separated from an electric charge by some distance has a classical angular momentum along the line between them. Restricting this angular momentum to be a multiple of one-half h-bar leads to the Dirac quantization condition, which is one way to understand why they famously could explain the quantization of electric charge. Another explanation involves Dirac strings. For 10 points, name this theoretical object that produces a B field similar to the E field produced by a point charge.
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The Thiemann operator is a candidate for this type of constraint, which would describe kinematics in quantum loop theory. Vector fields described by this adjective are obtained by rotating the gradient field components ninety degrees, and are important for determining equations of motion in phase space. Ehrenfest's theorem relates the time derivative of an observable with the commutator of this operator with that observable's operator. Cycles of this type touch every vertex of a graph once before returning to the starting vertex. When applied to wavefunctions, the operator of this type yields energy eigenvalues. For 10 points, give this term describing an operator that equals the sum of kinetic and potential energy, named for an Irish mathematician and represented by a capital H.
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The balloon-borne CMB experiment TopHat uses ferric ammonium alum in its implementation of this technique, which was first developed fully by William Giauque. In 1997, gadolinium alloys were used to discover a giant version of the effect which makes this technique possible, and in 2000, that same effect was discovered in Heusler alloys. The most common cycles utilized in this technique are the AMR, Ericsson, and Stirling cycles, and the effectiveness of this technique is limited by Nernst's Equation. Devices employing this technique typically utilize a salt pill with a high magnetic moment and the theory of this technique is derived by adding a B-dM term to the thermodynamic relation. For 10 points, identify this technique in which a change of the B-field at constant entropy results in a cooling.
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The cross product of this quantity's vector with the L vector, minus “mass times k times r-hat,†gives the Laplace- Runge-Lenz vector. One law governing this quantity is a consequence of the Lagrangian's translational invariance. The time rate of change in this quantity is equal to a particle's net force according to Newton's second law. Taking Planck's constant over this quantity gives a particle's de Broglie wavelength. Like all closed systems, both inelastic and elastic collisions conserve this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that equals mass times velocity.
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The energy loss which results from this effect is governed by the formula h times the quantity v sub 1 minus v sub 2. When low-energy photons and high-energy electrons are involved the inverse effect occurs. This effect results in an increase of the wavelength of the radiation involved, and it was first discovered in 1923, resulting in a share of the 1927 Physics Nobel Prize for its discoveror. FTP, what is this effect in which the energy of high-energy photons is reduced when they are scattered bu free electrons?
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The fact that these entities are predicted to have greater-than-unity transmission probability at an infinite potential barrier is the original form of the Klein paradox. That paradox can be resolved in part by noting that, above a cutoff energy, these particles will react with a strong electric field to produce an electron and positron, a phenomenon known as pair production. Spontaneous emission of one of these particles occurs when an electron drops from a higher to a lower energy state, and the energy of one of these particles is given by Planck's constant times the speed of light over wavelength. For 10 points, name these particles, the quanta of light.
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The geometric interpretation of one of them involves redefining a function in terms of the intercepts of its tangent lines. This class of variable-change transformations is named for the man who also developed an orthogonal set of functions which can be derived from the Rodrigues formula, or as a Gram-Schmidt reorthonormalization of the monomials. In thermodynamics, one of them relates the Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies. FTP, what French mathematician's name is given to the relation between the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian?
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The largest and smallest of its eigenvalues correspond to stable motion, but the middle one to unstable motion, according to the tennis racket theorem. Diagonalization of this quantity gives the principle axes of the system, and when it operates on an angular velocity vector the result is the net torque. It has a beta of two-thirds for a spherical shell and two-fifths for a solid sphere about their centers, and one-half for a solid disk. FTP, what is this tensor, whose eigenvalues are analogous to mass for rotational motion, usually symbolized with a capital I?
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The linear variation of this quantity with applied electric field is known as the Pockels effect and evanescence occurs when the magnitude of this physical quantity is dominated by the extinction coefficient. The path integral of this quantity is classically stationary according to Fermat's principle; a fact which may be used to derive the law of Snellius, which governs this property's namesake phenomenon at the interface of two media with different values for it. FTP, identify this physical property that is commonly defined as the ratio of the speed light in a medium to that in a vacuum.
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The maximum energy involved in this effect is given by the equation h times f minus phi, and it will only occur if h is greater than the work function divided by the threshold frequency. Although it usually occurs with ultraviolet light, it can sometimes occur with sunlight. Discovered in 1887 by Hertz, FTP, what is this effect in which a surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation emits a stream of photons, most associated with the work of Albert Einstein?
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The naive form of this statement may be amended by the inclusion of a buildup factor in the case that the medium length or beam diameter is non-negligible; it must be suitably modified with a transfer coefficient if interference can change the incident wavelength. This law's major factor is essentially equivalent to the medium's macroscopic cross-section, which is turn directly proportional to the interaction probability per unit path length. If the incident flux is of monochromatic light is in the appropriate concentration range, this spectroscopic law is generally highly accurate. FTP, name this law named for either one or a pair of German scientists that states that the absorbance of a medium is equal to the product of its absorptivity, path length, and absorber concentration.
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The poloidal magnetic field is usually made by a solenoid driving a toroidal current within this device. A vertical field corrects for drift, while exterior coils generate a toroidal field which can be 10 Tesla. Acting as a magnetic bottle, the fields constrain the plasma in the torodial containment area. FTP, give the name, originally a Russian acronym, of this type of fusion reactor.
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The ratio of this name is the ratio of the high and low voltage points in a transmission line system, which can be used to find impedance via a bolometer, and a like-named ratio of maximum to minimum dilatation is used in acoustics. Classical cavity electromagnetic modes are of this form, but the use of that fact to predict a blackbody spectrum results in the erroneous Rayleigh-Jeans law. Schrödinger modified the Bohr model of the atom by treating electrons as these, which may be considered as a superposition of oppositely directed waves of equal amplitude, frequency, and wavelength. FTP, identify these types of waves so named because they appear to be stationary.
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The relationship between this quantity and wavelength is defined by the Sellmeier equation, which models dispersion. Taking the arctangent of the ratio of this quantity for two materials gives Brewster's angle. For two materials, the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence at an interface equals the ratio of this quantity for both materials, a result that derives from Fermat's principle of least time. For 10 points, name this physical property that can be determined from Snell's law, defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a given medium to that in a vacuum.
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The son of a city official in Lyons, one of his inventions was the astatic needle, which made possible the modern galvanometer. He was also the first to show that two parallel conductors carrying currents travelling in the same direction attract each other, and, if travelling in the opposite direction, repel each other. His electrodynamic theory and his views on the relationship of electricity and magnetism were published in 1826 in Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena. FTP, name this French scientist, eponym of the unit of electric current.
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The spherical helix is the tangent indicatrix of a curve of constant this. A relativistic form of it occurs for bound electrons due to their being in non-inertial frames and is named for Thomas. Vector quantities generally undergo this phenomenon when orthogonal to their time derivatives. A second-order type of this motion is called nutation. Analysis of the best-known type of it requires the understanding that the torque due to gravity is the time derivative of the angular velocity. FTP, name this physical phenomenon, a periodic change axial direction of a rotating object, exhibited by gyroscopes and spinning tops.
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The spherical model of Berlin and Kac can be used to show that this quantity varies linearly with defect concentration. Landau-Ginzburg theory defines four critical exponents related to this quantity, two of which are the degree of the critical isotherm and the heat capacity. One way of deriving this quantity is through a theory in which the effective field is replaced by its mean equilibrium value; that method produces disagreements with experiment of up to a factor of two, and is known as the Weiss theory. When this quantity is approached from below, the magnetization goes continuously to zero, and rotation symmetry is broken at this point, which represents a second-order phase transition. Above this analogue of the Neel point, magnetic ordering is lost. For 10 points, identify this temperature above which a ferromagnet becomes paramagnetic.
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The tensor analog of this quantity can be diagonalized by defining a coordinate system along the principal axes, and its middle eigenvalue corresponds to unstable motion according to Euler's Equations of Motion. The deflection of a cantilevered beam is inversely proportional to Young's modulus and this quantity. It is given by "cross-sectional area times the square of the radius of gyration", and it can be found by the parallel axis theorem. For a sphere it is equal to "two-fifths m r squared", while it has half the value for a disc that it has for a ring. For 10 points, name this quantity symbolized "I", the rotational analog of mass.
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Their interactions typically proceed along two modes, the so-called "normal" processes and the "U" or Umklapp processes. Their dispersion relation give rises to branches known as acoustical and optical, and the Mossbauer effect occurs when an object recoils without emitting one of these. They obey Bose-Einstein statistics and obey the periodicity conditions set by Brillouin zones. Treating these particles as analogous to waves yields a quantity called the crystal momentum, and they explain such properties of solids as electrical and thermal conductivity. For ten points, identify these pseudo-particles, which represent the quantizations of lattice vibrations.
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These undergo resonant pion production above energies of approximately 1020 electronvolts, resulting in the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cutoff. They have overabundances of lithium, beryllium, and boron relative to the sun, in part due to secondary species production by spallation reactions with interstellar gas. Auger investigated the extensive air-showers that occur when high-energy ones strike the top of the atmosphere. The first pion, muon and positron detections occurred during studies of, FTP, what high-energy particles produced across the universe?
Polyakov "hedgehog" solution is an example in an SU(2) theory equipped with a Higgs field. Better known is the Dirac string example, which predicts that the existence of one would lead to the quantization of electric charge, but the third of Maxwell's equations claims that they don't exist. FTP, what are these hypothetical particles possessing an isolated elementary magnetic charge?
They generically occur in theories in which the U(1) group of electromagnetism is embedded in a larger non-Abelian group G. The 't Hooft
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This accounts for the superfluous negative energy states of an electron as predicted by the relativistic quantum mechanical theory proposed by Dirac. A spin one-half particle, it was observed in cloud chamber photographs of cosmic rays, and it is ejected by proton-rich radioactive nuclei in positive beta decay. FTP, identify this particle, discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson.
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This concept from physics is a throttling process, and there is a characteristic inversion temperature for each gas for which a throttling process will always produce a rise in gas temperature. It is caused by the conversion of heat into work done by the molecules in overcoming attractive forces between them as they move apart, and can be felt in the cool air that escapes through the valve of a bicycle tire. Identify this effect in which a compressed gas will cool as it expands, the basis of modern refrigeration, which, FTP, is named for the two 19th century British physicists who discovered it.
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This construct is related to the m = 5 and m = 6 cases of a Virasoro algebra discrete series representation. A chiral form of it was developed by Rodney Baxter, and the Tutte polynomial is a generalization of the chromatic polynomial that applies to the partition function of this construct. Pauline Hogeweg extended its cellular type, also known as the Glazier/Graner model, to the study of morphogenesis, and its original formulation, known as the clock model, becomes the XY model as q approaches infinity. Its Hamiltonian is expressed as a summation of Kronecker delta functions of all sites on the lattice. For 10 points, identify this model that is also known as the Ashkin-Teller model and is exactly solvable in one dimension, a model of lattice spins that is a generalization of the Ising Model.
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This effect can be witnessed in a rotational microwave spectrometer, in which one looks for signal low J line transitions. Its discovery was the result of the first application of perturbation theory to quantum mechanics. This effect, generally not symmetric like its magnetic counterpart, occurs when an atom becomes polarized and the resulting dipole moment interacts with the electric field. Analogous to the Zeeman effect, FTP, identify this effect that results in the splitting of an atom's energy levels by an electric field.
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This elastic process results from forcing harmonic oscillators below their natural frequency. It predominates for particles less than one-tenth the wavelength of the incoming radiation, which distinguishes it from the analogous Raman process. Its namesake calculated that the intensity goes as one over the fourth power of the wavelength, so that the blue end of the optical spectrum is favored. FTP, name this type of scattering which explains the color of the sky.
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This equation behind this physical law was amended by Newton to take the form 4 pi squared a cubed over T squared equals G times the quantity m plus m sub p. First published in the work "Harmonices mundi" in 1619, like its two partners it was derived from data found in its namesake's "Rudolphine Tables". Stating that the square of a planet's period is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun, FTP, what is this famous law of planetary motion?
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This institution's current incarnation contains the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, which houses the Ryle Telescope and one receiver from the MERLIN array. Its original site housed the Medical Research Council Unit where Perutz worked on the structure of DNA, and Josephson junctions were developed here. Its research included Thompson's cathode ray experiments and Bragg's work with x-rays; its first professor was Maxwell, who was soon joined by Rayleigh. FTP, identify this prestigious physics laboratory at Cambridge named for the British scientist who discovered hydrogen and made an early measurement of the Earth's mass.
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This man hypothesized a primordial material he termed "ylem." The optimum bombarding energy is closely related to the peak of his namesake window for tunneling through a Coulomb barrier. He wrote a series of books in which a bank clerk hunts a very uncertain quantum tiger and rides a bike in a city where the speed of light is a few kilometers per hour. In addition to writing the Mr. Tompkins books, he predicted the cosmic microwave background and proposed the idea of a genetic code. For 10 points, name this man who worked on hot Big Bang nucleosynthesis with Alpher and added Bethe's name to the resulting paper.
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This property's emergence can be modeled by a second-order phase transition with an order parameter proportional to the attractive potential between electrons. This property, which has characteristic lengths called the penetration depth and coherence length, can be understood as the condensation of Cooper pairs. Some materials with this property are perfect diamagnets that expel internal magnetic fields via the Meissner effect. BCS theory models Type I materials with this property. For 10 points, name this property in which materials have zero electrical resistance.
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This statement contributes to the repulsive one over r to the twelfth term in the Lennard-Jones Potential. Its rigorous statement requires that particles with half-integer spin have anti-symmetrical wave functions, and it also explains neutron degeneracy, which prevents smaller neutron stars from collapsing into black holes. The "+1" term seen in the denominator of the Fermi-Dirac distribution arises due to this statement, and bosons do not have to obey it, but fermions such as protons and electrons do. For 10 points, name this law of quantum mechanics, which states that no two identical fermions can occupy the same quantum state at the same time.
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This theory was tested by passing a laser through a vapor of thallium atoms. This theory was based on the earlier Fermi and Cabibbo theorems, and was the result of observing neutral kaon systems and strangeness oscillations. Finally calculated using the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix, its developers postulated the existence of the W-plus, W-minus, and Z-naught particles. Developed by Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, FTP, identify this theory that combines two of the fundamental forces.
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Those containing an odd number of electrons provide a controlled environment for studying the Kondo effect. They could perhaps be used as artificial fluorophores for intraoperative detection of tumors, because their theoretically high quantum yield gives them useful optical properties. Fabrication processes include epitaxy, in which they form spontaneously, and lithography. They are quasi-zero dimensional and have a sharp density of states making them potentially useful for manufacturing blue lasers or qubits. They are semiconductor devices containing small numbers of electrons or holes confined in all three dimensions. FTP, what are these objects sometimes referred to as "artificial atoms"?
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To exhibit this property, phosphorus must be compressed at a pressure of two and a half megabars. Two types of devices use this property, one of which was not verified until after the Meissner effect was discovered. Of the elements exhibiting the other type, lead does so at the highest temperature. Some materials with this property have limits on the amount of magnetic field in which they can be to exhibit it, while others work by trapping a magnetic field. FTP, what is this property in which a material loses all electrical resistance?
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Together with Mellin and Newton, this scientist gives his name to a cycle that relates the Norlund-Rice integral to the Mellin transform. His spot is sometimes called the Arago spot and appears at the center of a circular screen, while Gouy-Chapman theory provides a solution to the equation named for him and Boltzmann, which models salvation and describes electrostatic interactions in ionic solutions. The dimensionless quantity of lateral strain over axial strain is known as his ratio. For 10 points, name this French scientist whose name also adorns a distribution governed by a single parameter, lambda, used to predict the occurrence of a number of events.
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Values of this property diverge near absolute zero, the first observed example of asymptotic freedom. The von Klitzing constant is written in the units of this property, which can be measured very precisely because of the quantum Hall effect. Three known quantities of it can be used to measure an unknown fourth in the Wheatstone bridge circuit. Its generalized complex form, which includes an imaginary reactance term, is called impedance. It equals voltage over current. For 10 points, name this property, measured in ohms, the opposition to the flow of electricity.
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When applied to turbulence, this term refers to the method of following fluid particles by means of a substantive derivative, giving rise to chaotic advection. For the electromagnetic field it can be written as minus one over 16 pi times the 4-product of the field tensor minus one over c times the 4-product of the 4-current and the 4-potential. If it is subtracted from the time-derivative of the generalized position times the generalized momentum, it gives the Hamiltonian. FTP, identify this quantity, defined for a system to be the kinetic energy minus the potential energy.
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When this effect was first thought of, in 1892, it was just an "a priori" explanation for the Michelson-Morley null result. However, Einstein produced a relativistic explanation of it. Although it fits perfectly with theory, it is hard to verify experimentally, because of the difficulty in securing an object of appreciable length that also moves at a fast enough speed. FTP, name this relativistic shrinking of longitudinal length, named for a Dutch physicist.
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While not an ideal description, this equation is considered a good approximation of the movement of blood through vessels. This equation indicates a high dependency on the radius of the tube involved since it utilizes a proportionality that raises the radius to the fourth power. It surpasses the Bernoulli equation in terms of realistic descriptions because it takes into account a fluid's viscosity and pressure, though it does not hold true for non-laminar flow. FTP, identify this equation of fluid mechanics named after a French physicist and used to calculate a fluid's volume flow rate.
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Wilhelm Hallwachs created an experiment to better demonstrate it but could not explain it. Philip Lenard studied it further but could still not offer an explanation. It was first demonstrated using two pieces of brass by Heinrich Hertz, who also could not offer an explanation. It was fully explained mathematically twenty years later when the work function was introduced into the equation. FTP, name this effect that states that light shined on a surface will cause the emission of electrons.
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With J.M. Nuttall he discovered the empirical rule describing the linear relationship between the logarithm of the range of alpha-radiation and the radioactive time constant of the emitting atoms, and with Walther Bothe he devised the technique of coincidence counting, using it to clarify details of the Compton effect. In 1909 he and Marsden anticipated Rutherford by demonstrating that gold atoms occasionally deflect alpha particles, but he is better known for a devise improved by Walther Muller. FTP, who was this German physicist who introduced the first successful detector of radiation?
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With Piola, this man names a stress tensor that, unlike the Cauchy stress tensor, defines stress relative to a reference state, rather than to the present state. Building on the experimental work of Fraunhofer, this man showed that hot solids produce continuous spectra, while hot gases produce discrete emission spectra. That work was done partly with Bunsen. This man's second law applies to closed meshes. His first law is a statement of the conservation of charge. For 10 points, name this German physicist who developed two rules for analyzing circuits, his eponymous node and loop rules.
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With Seigert, this man names a frequency shift that occurs during the Rabi oscillation, and another construct named for this man employs the Fubini-Study metric and is used to model a two-level quantum system. A phenomenon named for him is the product of a plane wave envelope function and a periodic function. In addition to his namesake sphere, which is used to model qubits, and his namesake waves in crystalline systems, his theorem is used to model an electron placed in a periodic potential. His walls separate magnetic domains, and another set of equations named for him is used to model the relaxation time in a technique he co-developed. For 10 points, name this physicist, who, with Purcell, developed NMR.
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Wright et al. determined that Stimulated Raman Adiabatic Passage could be used to transfer orbital angular momentum to this type of substance. Ignat and Millot verified the appropriateness of the Thomas-Fermi approximation of solutions to an equation that describes the behavior of these substances. Optical lattices are used to study certain varieties of these entities, including Tonks-Girardeau gases. Described by the Gross-Pitaevskii equation, one of these composed of diatomic lithium was created in 2006, and the creation of the first one won Wiemann and Cornell the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. Predicted in 1924 by one of its namesakes, for 10 points, name this type of substance, first created by supercooling rubidium-87 atoms, the so-called "fifth state of matter".
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You have a metal cavity with a small hole in it. You send electromagnetic radiation through the hole and calculate that the amount of standing waves in the box is proportional to the inverse fourth power of wavelength. Then you figure that the radiance from the hole will be proportional to the number of standing waves. Your formula works OK at shorter wavelengths, but gives catastrophic results for energies above the visible spectrum. FTP, name this law that was corrected by Planck, the breakdown of which caused the ultraviolet catastrophe in blackbody radiation.
Second Law of Thermodynamics (accept H Theorem, Kelvin-Planck, or Clausius before they are mentioned)
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Seebeck effect
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Stark effect
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Stefan-Boltzmann equation (do not accept just "Boltzmann" equation)
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neutrinos [prompt on nus]
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noise
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non-Newtonian fluid
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nuclear fission
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nuclear fusion (do not accept "cold fusion")
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potential energy
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quantum Hall effect or quantized Hall effect (do not accept or prompt on "Hall effect")
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quantum computer
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quantum computers
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quantum dot or semiconductor nanocrystal (prompt on "semiconductor crystal")
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quantum tunneling
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quark
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redshift [do not accept or prompt on "Doppler effect"]
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renormalization
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rho meson
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semiconductors
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simple harmonic motion
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simple harmonic oscillator
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simple harmonic oscillator [or SHO; prompt on “spring†or “pendulumâ€]
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skin effect
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soliton
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sonoluminescence
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stress-energy tensor
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stress-energy tensor (accept energy-momentum tensor or stress-energy-momentum tensor)
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superconductivity (prompt on "superconductors")
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superconductivity [accept word forms like superconductors etc.]
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superconductivity [or superconductors]
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superconductor
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supersymmetry or SUSY
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surface tension
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synchrotron radiation (or magnetobremsstrahlung)
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tachyons
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the Mossbauer Effect
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top quark (or t-quark or truth particle)
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torque
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total internal reflection
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transformer
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turbulent flow or turbulence
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Johannes Stark
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Kaluza-Klein theory
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Lev Davidovich Landau
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Lev Davidovitch Landau
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Lev Landau
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Snell's Law
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Symposium
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polarization [accept word forms]
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positron
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Higgs Boson
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Edward Williams Morley
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Sutherland's formula gives this quantity for ideal gases, and like thermal conductivity, it can be found by applying Green-Kubo relations to the Navier-Stokes transport coefficients. Euler's fluid equations assume a zero value for this quantity, and the Grashof number is inversely proportional to its square. The no-slip condition generally exacerbates its effects, and it has dynamic and kinematic varieties. The Reynolds number is inversely proportional to this quantity, and it is constant for Newtonian fluids. For 10 points, identify this quantity, the ratio of shear stress to shear velocity, used as a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Evanglista Torricelli
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George Gamow
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High Performance Liquid Chromatography (accept "Pressure" instead of "Performance")
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index of refraction [or refractive index; prompt on n; prompt on IR; do not prompt on partial answers]
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kinetic energy
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kinetic energy [do not accept "energy" or "potential energy"; accept energy of motion before mentioned; prompt on "K"]
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linear momentum
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linear momentum [do not accept “angular momentumâ€]
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linear momentum [prompt on p]
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pendulums
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Kerr effect
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Bragg's law (or Bragg's equation or Bragg condition of order n, etc.)
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Brewster's law or angle (prompt on "polarization" on a first-sentence buzz)
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Brownian Motion
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Brownian motion
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CMB [or CMBR; or Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation]
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Born-Oppenheimer approximation
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Bose-Einstein Condensate
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Bose-Einstein Condensate or B-E-C
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Bose-Einstein condensate
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(quantum mechanical) perturbation theory
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21 cm line of hydrogen [accept hydrogen line or HI line or 1420 MHz before "wavelength"]
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A/D converter or analog-to-digital converter (do not accept D/A or anything else with the answers in the wrong order)
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Abberations
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Albert Einstein
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Albert Michelson (accept Michelson-Morley Experiment before "this experimenter")
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A Hele-Shaw appareatus is used to visualize systems with one extremal value of this quantity, and the Oseen approximation contains a "one plus cosine theta" term inversely proportional to this quantity. Under certain conditions, the skin friction coefficient is inversely proportional to the square root of this quantity, and certain values of this quantity result in the development of Von Karman sheets. From the Buckingham-pi theorem, ti follows that a model cannot replicate both the Froude number and this quantity due to its proportion to a characteristic length scale. Low values of this quantity are indicative of laminar flow, while high values correspond to turbulence. For 10 points, name this dimesionless quantity, the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
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A common empirical formula for the temperature-dependence of its magnitude gives its value as equal to its zero-temperature value minus alpha times T2, divided by the quantity T plus beta, and this is known as Varshni's formula. Depending on the material, it can be either "direct" or "indirect." For the "indirect" case, conservation of momentum requires a phonon to be emitted during recombination, and during recombination, a particle travels from the top of it to the bottom of it. It can be crudely modeled in the Kronig-Penney model, and for undoped materials, the Fermi level is directly in the middle of this region. For 10 points, identify this characteristic of semiconductors, a region of forbidden energies separating the valence and conduction electrons.
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A kernel named for this behavior is used in the standard integral to create thermally averaged cross-sections. The non-classical form of this phenomenon is used by the Ives-Stilwell experiment and is known as the transverse form, while absorption resonances and spectral lines are given finite width due to this effect's namesake broadening. The magnitude of the classic version of this effect is determined by the factor of v over quantity v plus or minus v s, where v s is the propagation speed and v is the observer-frame normal source speed. For 10 points, name this effect in which the frequency of waves is altered when the source is moving relative to the observer.
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Experimental evidence for these objects was first obtained by Project Spectre at Savannah River by Cowan and Reines. Proposed because two-body collisions cannot in general conserve both momentum and kinetic energy, one type of these also conserves lepton number in beta decay. Postulated by Pauli in 1930 and named by Fermi, these elementary particles were initially thought to be massless, but this was undermined experimentally in the 1990's, with evidence of oscillation among their flavors. FTP, name these uncharged leptons denoted nu, many of which are emitted by the sun, but very few of which react with matter.
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For orthotropic materials, a 36 member compliance matrix can be used to generalize this law. For an isotropic solid this law can be expressed in terms of the two Lamé parameters. The anisotropic form of this law was expanded to describe three dimensional objects by Cauchy. The negative sign in this law describes the tendency to return to equilibrium position, and this law does not apply beyond the elastic range. It states that stress is directly proportional to strain. For 10 points, identify this law, more commonly stated as f equals negative k x, which can be used to calculate the restoring force on a spring.
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Hadronic contributions for this quantity of the muon have been a major source of theoretical uncertainty in understanding the Brookhaven experimental result. The Dirac equation provides the relationship between this quantity and spin, as summarized in the quantity g. The deviation of g from its leading behavior is calculated in QED, determining the "anomalous" value of this quantity. For a current loop in a magnetic field, the torque is the cross product of this with the field. FTP, name this quantity, whose value is proportional to the current and the area of the loop.
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Hans Hendrik Andersen demonstrated that the stopping power of these objects does not follow the Bethe formula, a result that proved the existence of the Barkas effect, and they are the cause of both pleochroic halos and of mineral metamictization. The last step in the CNO cycle creates a carbon atom and one of these. These are only associated with elements heavier than tellurium. Timothy May discovered that emission of these from DRAM can cause soft errors in microprocessor operations, and the Geiger-Nuttall law relates the life of an isotope to the production of these. For 10 points, identify these particles that escape from radioactive elements via quantum tunneling and Coulomb repulsion, which were used in Rutherford's gold foil experiment and are identical to a helium-4 nucleus.
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Invented by Samuel Pierpont Langley in 1860, its original construction was very simple: two strips of platinum connected by a Wheatstone bridge. Modern versions use temperature or electrically-sensitive materials, and have been used to measure the heats of very distant stars. FTP, name this device that measures very small amounts of microwaves or other forms of radiant energy.
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Jean-Pierre Petit used an elliptic solution of this to derive the Friedmann equations in a paper on galactic dynamics. This was developed by its namesake when considering the implications of the experiments of Merrill and Webb on Boltzmann's equation. The name of Poisson is appended to this equation when considering the zero-magnetic field limit, a situation that occurs in double layers. Mathematically it consists of many statements that relate the distribution functions of ions and electrons which vary with momentum, position, and time. Applying in situations involving charged particles that undergo long-range Coulomb interaction, for 10 points, identify this system of equations that describes the dynamics of plasmas.
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Jones and Stoicheff characterized an inverse version of this effect, which relies on the interaction of two different pump waves. In solid-state media, this effect occurs together with the Kerr effect due to the instantaneous response of the electrons, and it is used to induce qubit transitions in ion-trap quantum computing. The selection rule for this process requires a non-zero polarizability derivative, and plasmons are reponsible for its surface-enchanced variety. This effect occurs when an electron enters a virtual excited state, then relaxes by photon emission to a higher or lower vibrational energy level, creating respectively the Stokes and anti-Stokes lines. Also the basis of a type of spectroscopy employing a continuous-wave laser, FTP, name this type of inelastic scattering named for an Indian physicist.
identify this effect, a change in the energy levels of hydrogen-like atoms due largely to electron self-interaction, predicted to a high degree of accuracy by quantum electrodynamics.
Naïve computations of this give the unphysical value of infinity but, in 1947, Bethe (bet-uh) obtained approximately the correct value without resort to relativity. The majority of this effect arises from mass renormalization diagrams; vacuum polarization enters with the opposite sign. For n=2 hydrogen states, this induces a splitting of about 1.058 gigahertz. It is very small except for L=0 states, and breaks the degeneracy in hydrogen between s and p states of the same principal quantum number and total angular momentum. For 10 points
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One term in the Lagrangian for this interaction is the inner product of an 8-component gauge field. Another term dictates that the carriers of this interaction are themselves subject to it; that fact leads to of asymptotic freedom and confinement, according to which no observable particle can have a non-zero value for its corresponding charge. An S U 3 gauge theory, quantum chromodynamics. details how this gluon-mediated force affects colored particles like quarks. FTP, name this fundamental force that binds nuclei together and is named for the fact that it is powerful enough to overcome the repulsion between protons.
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PEVD largely works by the dissociative version of this phenomenon, so its balance with its associative inverse provides the reaction isotherm for such deposition reactions with the occupancy fraction as a parameter. The coefficient for this type of process is generally a decreasing function of the fractal dimension of a surface, and the coefficient of loss to the walls of a device is generally given as a product of a diffusion coefficient and coefficient for this process. This bonding process has in chemi- and physi- varieties, which correspond to different types of wells in a surface's potential. FTP, identify this sticking of atoms onto a surface, which may be contrasted with absorption.
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Published in 1842 in the work "On the Nature of the Forces Which Regulate the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether," oscillating fields are an exception as they will induce an alternating current in a conductor. Gauss's Law ensures the truth of this because it implies that a point cannot exist in empty space such that the force vector everywhere on the surface of an incremental region surrounding that point is directed inward. It is also violated by the principles of diamagnetism, which compensate for external magnetic fields as seen in maglev trains. FTP, name this theorem which states that there is no stable and static levitation of fixed magnets, or alternatively that point charges cannot be in equilibrium under purely electrostatic forces.
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Studies at CERN show that they decay into three types of neutrino, which indicates that there are only three sets of leptons and quarks. Having a mass about 100 times greater than the proton, they have been observed in collisions between protons and antiprotons, and have been used to explain "neutral current" interactions between electrons and neutrinos. Electroweak theory provides for the existence of two neutral particles: one being the photon and the other being, FTP, what boson, the neutral counterpart of the charged W particle?
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Systems for this technique generally include a vacuum degasser unit, a pump, an autosampler, a column compartment, and a detector, usually either UV or refractive index. The Snyder polarity index can be used to develop an appropriate mobile phase for the samples of interest. By way of historical accident, the most popular method of this procedure is known as reversed-phase, which passes a polar mobile phase generally containing a mixture of water, methanol, and acetonitrile through porous silica particles coated with a hydrocarbon. FTP, name this technique that separates substances by forcing them through a packed column at several thousand p.s.i.
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The angle through which radiation is dispersed in this phenomenon varies inversely by the fourth power of wavelength, enhancing the shorter wavelengths. It can be considered elastic, because the energies of the scattered photons are not changed, and it specifically refers to interactions with molecules with diameters less than 1/10 of the wavelength. FTP, name this type of scattering discovered by its namesake in 1871 that accounts for why the sky is blue.
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The mathematical formulation of this physical theory is based on a namesake function on a symplectic manifold. The symplectic form of the manifold defines the Poisson bracket of the theory. When the symplectic manifold is the cotangent bundle of a space, it directly corresponds to the physical idea of phase space, i.e. of coordinates and momenta. This differs from the Lagrangian formulation, based on coordinates and velocities. The namesake function is the generator of time translations, and plays the role of total energy. FTP, what is this formulation of mechanics named for the discoverer of quaternions?
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The meter type of this device incorporates a one meter long wire with a sliding contact which can run along it, while other popular versions utilize one or more rheostats to vary the quantity involved. One major advantage is that no calibration is required of the measuring device, which is usually a galvanometer placed between two opposite junctions. When the galvanometer registers no deflection, the device is balanced, and can be used to calculate an unknown resistance based on the known values of three other resistances. FTP, what is this famous "bridge" named for the man who popularized it?
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The setup for this experiment was improved by using platinum wire wound on a pyrex glass support to reduce the amount of metal, and that version was performed by Goucher and Davis. An apparatus named for its performers requires a precise temperature-pressure environment to avoid changing the mean-free path of electrons. The sudden drops in voltages at multiples of 4.9 volts allowed its performers to come to its conclusion. Its setup used a tube containing an anode, a cathode, and a counter electrode whose potential relative to the other electrodes was negative, and the inelastic collisions between the accelerated electrons and the electrons in the mercury vapor was observed in this experiment. For 10 points, identify this experiment which demonstrated the idea of energy quantization and was performed by two German physicists.
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The square of this quantity is known as the enstrophy and is used as a diagnostic variable in many atmospheric codes. This quantity appears as the analogue of current in the fluid analogue of the Biot-Savart law. In order for Bernoulli's equation to apply, a fluid must have a value of zero for this quantity. For a force-free fluid, the Reynolds transport equation for this quantity has as inhomogeneous term given by the cross product of the pressure gradient with itself over the density squared plus the curl of the divergence of the viscous stress tensor over the density; that equation represents conservation of angular momentum in a fluid. For 10 points, name this fluid quantity that is equal to the curl of the velocity field and that represents the local circulation rate.
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The technique for creating these was invented in 1947 during Dennis Gabor's efforts at improving the resolution of electron microscope images. They can be used to study elastic deformation effects as well as tiny mechanical variations. They are recorded by shining a laser beam on an object and recording the scattered and reflected light along with a reference beam to obtain phase information. When the process is reversed, the recorded interference fringes act like a diffraction grating and produce a real image with more information than a standard photo. With a name derived from the Greek words for "complete" and "message," FTP name these advanced photographs that allow the storage of three-dimensional information.
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This phenomenon was first measured when its namesake utilized the Zeeman effect and exposed a beam of hydrogen atoms to microwave radiation at 2395 megahertz. The Planck relationship demonstrated that the energy separation in question was 4.372x10-6 electron volts. It results from an electron's self-interaction and its namesake discovered that there was a slight movement of the corresponding spectral lines. Demonstrated by the fact that the 2p(1/2) state is slightly lower in energy than the 2s(1/2) state, FTP, identify this phenomenon named after the 1955 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
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This property is altered in the Voigt effect, and the Verdet constant describes the extent to which it is altered in an effect used in that effect's namesake's isolator. Glan-Taylor and Glan-Thompson devices impart this property with a high extinction coefficient, and it can be represented in a set of two by two matrices named for Jones. In more complicated cases, a Mueller matrix is used to describe how a material will alter its characteristics, as represented by I, Q, U, and V in a Stokes vector. The intensity resulting from creating this property is related to an average cosine squared in Malus' Law, and it is imparted for an incident beam hitting a surface at Brewster's angle. FTP, name this property that can be elliptical, circular, or linear, in which an electric field oscillates in a single plane.
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This property is measured by the Jones vector, and is said to be elliptical if the Jones vector contains a non-real entry. The circular form may be created by shining light perpendicularly onto a doubly refractive quarter-wave plate, while the linear form results when light is shone off a plane surface at the Brewster angle. According to the Faraday effect, an external magnetic field alters, FTP, what property of light waves in which the electric field points in a specified direction, which was exploited in cameras made by Edwin Land?
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Topological ones could use anyons to avoid the problem of decoherence. These objects use Hadamard gates, and the no cloning theorem makes error correction difficult for them. One of them is used in the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, and one of them allows the use of Grover's algorithm to search through an unsorted database in sublinear time. They can use Shor's Algorithm to factor primes in "order log cubed of n" time, and their individual elements are represented by two-state systems. Loss and Vincenzo have proposed one constructed of a certain type of dot. For 10 points, name these devices that store information in the form of superpositions of ones and zeroes, in qubits.
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Transferred electron devices are a form of these components that utilize negative differential resistance and are generally named for Gunn. A law giving their current is named for transistor-inventor William Shockley. One of these and a MOSFET is used to form a synchronous rectifier, and four of these devices are arranged in a namesake bridge in full-wave rectifiers. If these have a large enough negative voltage drop, they go into breakdown, though reverse-bias operation is possible in their Zener variety. For 10 points, name these devices that normally consist of a p-n junction and only allow current to pass in one direction, and which also come in light-emitting types.
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Various phenomena associated with this force can be described by the creation and annihilation of modes called shearons. Defects along a surface can lead to energetic corrugations resulting in this force according to the Tomlinson model, which describes it on the atomic level. The triboelectric effect is charging as a consequence of this force, whose “skin†variety occurs at a body-fluid interface. It is independent of surface area according to one of Amontons' Laws, and superlubricity is the total absence of this force. For 10 points, identify this force which is perpendicular to the normal force and provides resistance when two surfaces slide over each other.
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Important quantities in it include the Nambu-Goto action and the Polyakov action, while one of its most important results is the AdS/CFT [read as initials] correspondence. That correspondence was shown in part due to the work of Juan Maldacena, and one problem in it is the discovery of its namesake landscape, which consists of something like 10 to the 500th power metastable vacua. Another of its important results is that the 5 consistent theories of this type could all be viewed as a limit of a single M-theory, due to Edward Witten. FTP, name this theory of physics, which predicts that we live in 26 space-time dimensions in the bosonic version, or 10 dimensions in its 'super' version, and which gets its name from the fact that its elementary building block is no longer an elementary point like particle, but rather a 1 dimensional object.
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In 1934 he obtained a patent for the nuclear chain reaction, which he immediately assigned to the British Admiralty. The namesake of a petition that attempted to block the use of the atomic bomb against Japan, he later became so disillusioned with his work that he dropped out of physics altogether, and spent the last decades of his life as a biologist. For 10 points name this influential Manhattan Project physicist, who is perhaps best known as the real author of Einstein's letter to FDR urging research into nuclear weapons.
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In 1978, DRAM soft errors in Intel chips were linked to these entities. Created in the fifth step of the proton-proton cycle, their production is modeled by preformation and tunneling in the Gammow model of their namesake decay. In 1908, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden incorrectly hypothesized that their angular deflection would be approximately one-one-hundredth of a degree in a certain experiment; three years later Geiger and J. M. Nuttall noted the empirical relationship between their kinetic energies and half lives. FTP, name this ionizing form of radiation that was deflected in Rutherford's gold foil experiment; free helium-four nuclei.
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In 1992, a pair of Russian researchers proposed the use of grazing reflections off the walls of small glass capillaries to guide this particle. If it turns out to have a nonzero dipole moment, it would imply CPT violation, as both P and T would be violated. This lightest particle classified as having isospin -1/2 is taken by an isospin rotation into its stable partner. It is stable when in a bound state, but in a free state it undergoes beta decay with a lifetime of approximately fifteen minutes, emitting an electron antineutrino along with an electron and another baryon. Consisting of two down quarks and one up quark, for ten points, what is this particle, discovered by James Chadwick in 1937 as the neutral counterpart to the proton?
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In 1995, Kazuaki Kuroda raised concerns about the most popular method of measuring this quantity, and in that same year German scientists used a mercury bath to get a surprisingly different value for it. It is replaced by a scalar field determined by the distribution of the universe's mass-energy in Brans-Dicke theory. It is combined with the speed of light and Planck's constant in equations that give the Planck time, length, and mass. First measured with a torsion balance by Henry Cavendish, FTP name this constant of proportionality found in an inverse-square law posited by Sir Isaac Newton, which represents the intrinsic strength of the weakest fundamental force.
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In 2001, Polish physicists suggested that this man's namesake field has a very small coherence length when the number of particles gets too large. The Gross-Pitaevskii functional is used to model this man's namesake rotating, two-dimensional type of gas, and his name denotes a mean-field approximation from spherical to deformed particles along with Hartree. Though initially rejected by Philosophical Magazine, his paper on deriving a certain black body radiation law using a phase-space approach, entitled "Planck's Law and the Hypothesis of Light Quanta," was translated into German by Einstein in 1924. FTP, name this Indian physicist, the namesake of a class of particles with integer spin and namesake of a state of supercooled matter with Einstein.
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In 2001, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley Labs discovered it in an aluminum matrix doped with molten lead. A mathematical description of this Wiener process typically begins with the Langevin equation and the Stokes flow for a sphere. Jean Perrin provided evidence for the most famous formulation of this process, for which, in the limit of small times, the rms displacement is proportional to the time squared. In the large time limit, it is a diffusive process which can be described by the Fokker-Planck equation and it has a diffusive constant proportional to the temperature. Observed by its namesake in pollen grains suspended in water, and explained by Einstein using the kinetic theory of gases, FTP name this random motion of small particles in a fluid.
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In 2004, Alex Zettl used boron-nitride nanotubes to observe a "giant" variety of this effect, and the Autler-Townes effect is an AC version of it. A low-energy tail in the absorption edge of semiconductor spectra known as the Franz-Keldysh effect is related to one type of this effect; that type results in an increase in interband separation and a decrease in exciton binding energy, and is known as the quantum-confined variety. According to Kramers' theorem, this effect can only break degeneracy completely for a system in which the sum of the particle spins has an integral value. The linear version of this effect can only exists for degenerate states that are not parity eigenstates, while for non-degenerate states, only the quadratic variety exists. Analogous to the Zeeman effect, for ten points, identify this quantum-mechanical effect in which spectral lines are split by an applied electric field.
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In his famous 1903 Silliman Lectures at Yale, this physicist foreshadowed Einstein's theory of photons with his proposal of a discontinuous theory of light. His elucidation of positive rays and application to neon led to his discovery of neon-22, the first known isotope. This work was continued by his student Francis Aston, one of seven students to also receive a Nobel Prize. Developing the Cavendish Labs into the world's leader center for subatomic physics, his most famous discovery came from his investigation of cathode rays. FTP, who was this British recipient of the 1906 Nobel Prize for his discovery of the electron?
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In holographic models it is a Kaluza-Klein mode of the vector SU(2) symmetry, which refines the older idea of hidden local symmetry. A precise measurement of the spectral function on this resonance could improve one of the largest uncertainties in the theoretical calculation of muon g minus 2, namely the hadronic vacuum polarization. It is a triplet under isospin; the neutral component of the triplet mixes with the photon, and thus has rare decays to electron pairs. The corresponding isospin zero particle is the omega meson. The tau lepton frequently decays to one of these plus a neutrino. FTP, what is this lightest spin-1 particle in QCD, which decays to two pions?
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In one phase of matter it can be thought of as work required to remove an area of an outer layer or as force acting on that area to minimize its extent. In the former case, it has the unit of energy per area, and in the latter case the equivalent unit of force per length. Arising primarily from London and dispersion forces, its high value in some liquids, such as water, is because of hydrogen bonding. FTP, name this property of liquids, used to explain why they form droplets.
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In one version of this effect, allowing higher order mutipole transitions diminishes its energy. When it emits energy proportional to 3 times the incident frequency plus or minus the frequency of a transition, it's called “hyper.†Techniques based on this effect include a spatially-offset method, and another method involves adsorbing molecules to a rough metal and is enhanced by incident radiation hitting plasmons. Only molecules which undergo a change in polarization via this effect are visible in its namesake form of spectroscopy, which often employs a continuous-wave laser. Emission occurs when the molecule either has a net gain or loss in energy, giving the Stokes and anti-Stokes lines. For 10 points, name this inelastic scattering of light by a molecule, named for an Indian physicist.
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In quantum mechanics, these operators obey the commutation relation L sub i with L sub j equals one-half i epsilon i j k times L sub k, and addition of two of them is governed by the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. In classical mechanics, if the Lagrangian is invariant under SO(3) [ess-oh-three], this quantity is conserved. For a particle in a circular orbit, its magnitude is m v r, and for a spinning body, it is given by I times omega. Generally, its time derivative is the net torque, and it is defined as the cross product of position with linear momentum. FTP, name this quantity that measures the rotational inertia of a mechanical system.
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In quantum mechanics, this law has been formulated using the concepts of quantum collapse and the Ergodic Hypothesis. The grouping of microstates into macrostates led to Boltzmann's statement of it, known as the H Theorem. The first statement of it, now called the Kelvin-Planck theorem, says that not all of the heat extracted from a hot reservoir can be used for work, and the Clausius form says that heat cannot flow spontaneously from a colder body to a hotter body. FTP, what is this numbered law of thermodynamics stating that the entropy of an isolated system increases over time?
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In the Peccei-Quinn theory, which seeks a solution to the strong CP problem, the triangle anomaly involving these particles spontaneously breaks symmetry and gives mass to the axion. Evidence for the existence of these particles was deduced from three hadronic jet events with zero total angular momentum using electron-positron collisions in the PETRA experiment, which also determined this particle's spin. Deep inelastic scattering of photons off protons reveal that these neutral particles carry away about half of the proton momentum. Like quarks, these particles are unobservable in the singlet state due to asymptotic freedom. These spin-1 particles are massless and mediate a force described by the SU(3) symmetry group, which results in their carrying a color charge. For 10 points, identify these gauge bosons of QCD, which mediate the strong force.
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In the chiral bag model of nucleons, this effect explains the origin of non-zero expectation values for fermion bilinears, and it has been proposed as a possible explanation for sonoluminescence. It has been measured to within 1% of its theoretical value using a polystyrene sphere attached to the tip of an atomic force microscope. Its namesake originally proposed it after investigating van der Waals forces in colloidal solutions, when he noted that fluctuations in the second-quantized electromagnetic field could explain the interaction between two neutral particles. FTP name this effect that describes the attractive force between two uncharged conducting plates in a vacuum, which is named for a Dutch physicist.
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In the scattering of weak gauge bosons in the Standard Model it is perturbatively violated unless there is a relatively light Higgs boson. As a property of the S-matrix, it implies the optical theorem. The CKM matrix has this property, allowing the namesake triangle to be constructed. "Wave-function collapse," which occurs in some interpretations of quantum mechanics, does not obey it, but normal quantum processes do as a consequence of the Hamiltonian being hermitian. FTP, what is this basic property of quantum mechanics which implies that the sum of all possible probabilities is 1?
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In the simplest case, their energy level is inversely proportional to the total number of nodes in the wavefunction plus one squared; that is, 1 divided by the principal quantum number n squared. There are seven of them in a 4f sub-shell and only 1 in a 1s shell. They can be of several types, including "hybrid," "delta," "sigma," and "pi" varieties. FTP, give the term for a region in which an electron may be found in an atom or molecule.
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In this gas-filled cylinder, the voltage between the walls and the axial wire is larger than in either a proportional counter or ionization chamber. Entering energetic particles ionize the gas and produce an avalanche of electrons that generate a current pulse. What detector, for ten points, does not measure particle energy, instead producing the same characteristic click for all radiation?
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The analysis of one form of this technique relies on sequential walking for the correct assignment of crosspeaks, which are generated in the Overhauser effect. That effect forms the basis for the NOESY version of this technique, which along with HNQC and COSY are two-dimensional versions of it. In solid state forms of it, the magic angle reduces unwanted effects, while desired effects include the induction of Larmor precession, the decay of which gives rise to signals that are split into multiplets based on spin-spin coupling and measured in chemical shift. For 10 points, name this spectroscopic technique that begins with the alignment of nuclei in a strong magnetic field.
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The Blandford-Znajek process can only occur in this area, and plasmas in this region will generate Alfven waves that emit energy outward via the Poynting flux. Superradiance is the spontaneous emission of positive-energy photons in this region, and, under certain conditions, negative phase velocity propagation can occur here. One interpetation of this defines it as the area in which it is impossible for a particle to move on an integral curve of a Killing vector. Small relativistic jets can form in this area since it is undergoing the Lense-Thirring effect, and it only exists when a Kerr metric is present. Penrose processes take place in, for 10 points, what ellipsoid region outside of a black hole from which energy and mass can be extracted?
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The Boussinesq approximation of this relation reduces nonlinearity in the body in question by ignoring non-gravitational contributions of density. In another form, the insertion 2 omega cross u-sub-r accounts for motion in a rotating reference frame, and it also has two nonspecific variations that cover compressible and incompressible fluids. One of its most important solutions defines the conditions for Hagen-Poiseuille Flow. This equation relates viscosity, the pressure gradient and density to the partial derivative of velocity with respect to time. FTP, name this equation that describes the momentum of fluids at low speeds.
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The Coulomb one, in which the divergence of the vector potential is set to zero, is often used when sources are not present. Within the Lorentz one, the divergence of the vector potential plus the product of one over c and the time derivative of the scalar potential is zero. Transformations given this name include, for instance, the addition of the gradient of a scalar function to the vector potential. For 10 points, give this physics term denoting the invariance of electromagnetic fields to particular changes in the potentials.
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The Fermi distribution is used over the Curie relation in gauging this phenomenon in metals, resulting in a smaller susceptibility. This phenomenon contributes an induced field that adds to the applied field, and the resulting alignment tends to compete with thermal motion, thereby randomizing the dipole orientations. The dipoles interact weakly with each other in the absence of an external field. Occurring in free radicals and transition-metal compounds, FTP, identify this type of magnetism occurring in all atoms with free electrons whose spin moments are aligned with an external magnetic field.
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The Fermi energy in these materials lies near the middle of the band-gap and moves toward the valence band edge as acceptors such as boron and aluminum are introduced, or moves toward the conduction band edge with the introduction of donors such as phosphorus. The continuity equation expresses the change in carrier concentration in them as a function of factors such as Auger [OH-zhay] recombination, generation-recombination, diffusion, and drift. Having a zinc-blend or diamond crystal structure, their atoms are generally bonded to their four nearest neighbors. Examples include cadmium telluride, indium antimonide and the most well-known non-elemental type, gallium arsenide. FTP name these materials, including elemental germanium, that have properties of both insulators and conductors.
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It can encode phase and frequency information when formulated as a complex number, appearing in that capacity in the Havrilak-Negami relaxation. For the purposes of analytical chemistry, it can be used as a measure of polarity, and when the material it describes is not isotropic, it is written as a second-rank tensor. If this value is negative for a material, along with the magnetic permeability, then optical effects result that include reversed Cerenkov radiation, an reversed Snell effect, and a reversed Doppler shift. For 10 points, name this quantity whose value for the vacuum is called the electric constant.
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It can generated in periodic materials via the Smith-Purcell effect. This phenomenon is exploited in the Sudbury and Super-Kamiokande detectors, where it is generated by interactions with passing neutrinos. The cosine of its opening angle is given by one over the refractive index times the beta factor. It produces an intensity proportional to frequency, explaining its characteristic blue color seen in water, which is often used as the medium for this effect. For ten points, identify this electromagnetic analogue of the sonic boom which results when a particle passes through a medium faster than the local speed of light.
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The Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in the XY model arises from a Coulomb gas of these, whose proliferation is thermodynamically favored at high temperatures. They have an associated nonzero integer winding number and represent a form of localized disorder. In type II superconductors in an external magnetic field above the lower critical value, magnetic flux penetrates the conductor in the form of these. Kármán streets involve a staggered pattern of them. In fluid dynamics, they are detected by a namesake quantity computed as the curl of the velocity distribution. In the atmosphere they occur on many different scales, including tornados and hurricanes. For 10 points, what is this physical phenomenon in which there is some circular flux around a center?
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One version of this phenomenon is caused by high gravitational fields, and likely causes the high values over 3 seen in quasars. Predicted by Einstein, this gravitational version is very similar to the more common version, which is usually given a value expressed as delta lambda over lambda, but for relatively low velocities of recession, the equivalent value v over c is used. FTP, what is this displacement in the lines of the spectra of certain galaxies towards longer wavelengths, most famous in its Doppler form?
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Robert Hanbury Brown is known for developing the intensity type of this instrument. The Fabry-Perot type uses a pair of parallel half-silvered glass plates, one of which is adjustable, while an acoustic version can be used to measure the velocity and absorption of sound waves in a gas or liquid. Identify this device that splits electromagnetic radiation into two parts, used in radio astronomy and which was, FTP, essential to the Michelson-Morley experiment.
population inversion
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This framework's predictions match measurements of heat capacity in vanadium, which increases exponentially with the low-temperature band gap, three times the critical kinetic temperature; this corresponds to microwaves. Unlike Bose-Einstein condensation, it considers both sign-change and lack-of-sign-change label exchanges involving both bosonic and fermionic particles. It assumes that, in the absence of lattice vibrations, the critical temperature would be zero; a result derived from the isotope effect. FTP, name this theory postulating a band gap below which Cooper pairs can form to mediate a state of reduced resistivity; a theory of superconductivity named for the initials of three physicists.
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First detected in 1965 by radio astronomers studying the Orion nebula, Earth-bound attempts at producing this phenomenon were made twelve years earlier by Charles Townes. Molecules undergoing this process are rapidly excited into higher energy states, resulting in amplified emission in spectral energies in the megahertz and gigahertz regimes. FTP, name this radiation mechanism, the molecular analogue of the more well-know photon cascade used in pointing devices and eye surgery.
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In electrodynamics, its analog is the Christoffel voltage. In the Navier-Stokes equations, it is propotional to omega cross v where v is the velocity and omega is the rotation. It arises using Newton's laws in a rotating reference frame. For ten points, name this force which is responsible for the rotation of hurricanes and the deflection of artillery shells.
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It's the other particle produced in the fusion of two protons to form a deuteron and a positron. The SAGE experiment uses gallium, Super-Kamiokande uses water, and the Homestake mine uses cleaning fluid to detect their weak interaction with matter. For ten points, name this neutral lepton with little or no mass.
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The Large Electron Positron Collider only saw a trace of it at around 114.9 GeV (giga electron-volts). Its interaction with the electroweak force causes the difference between the electromagnetic and the weak forces. It has two isospin states, one with charge +1 and one neutral, but it is unique in the Standard Model because it is the only spin-0 particle. Proposed to give particles their masses, FTP, identify this hypothetical boson.
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The Schrodinger equation gives the quantum number for this value, which confirmed the Bohr theory that it is quantized, where it equals the principle quantum number times Planck's constant divided by 2 times pi. More popularly, this value is conserved, which leads to Kepler's Law stating that a line from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. FTP, name this concept which, in a rigid object, is defined as the product of the moment of inertia and angular velocity.
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The canonical form of this is the partial derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized velocity. For a photon, it is the energy divided by the speed of light, while Newton's second law states that force equals its time derivative. For ten points, what quantity is sometimes written as the product of the mass times the velocity?
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The linear version of this effect occurs only in the n>1 states of the hydrogen atom, owing to the degeneracy of the 2p and 2s states in a pure Coulomb potential. The ground state of the hydrogen atom exhibits the quadratic version of this effect, as do alkali metal atoms because they approximate a one-electron atom. FTP, identify this analogue of the Zeeman Effect, in which applied electric fields cause spectral lines to split.
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These particles vary greatly in mass, ranging from 140 mega-electron volts to 10 giga-electron volts. One of the early successes of the Eightfold Way was the prediction of their eta type. We know that they are sensitive to the strong force because their constituent quarks are strongly interacting, and as a result, they provided the means for discovering the charmed, bottom and top quarks. Several types of them have been discovered since they were first postulated by Hideki Yukawa in 1935. FTP, name this class of subatomic particles composed of an even number of quarks and antiquarks and whose members include pi, K, and J/psi varieties.
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This physical phenomenon is widely used in many republics of the former Soviet Union to power radio receivers in remote areas. The discoverer of the effect mistakenly thought that conductors were directly magnetized by the difference in temperature, when, in fact, a thermoelectric potential was being generated between the metals. FTP, name this effect behind the thermocouple, first observed in 1821 by its namesake Russo-German physicist and the inverse of the Peltier effect.
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This process is modeled in an equation that uses the four factors, including thermal utilization and resonance escape velocity. The number of particles required to sustain this process is the “effective neutron multiplication factor,†k. Beryllium is used as a neutron reflector to reduce this phenomenon's necessary supercritical mass. Breeder reactors facilitate this process, which can sustain itself in a “chain reaction.†For 10 points, name this process in which large atomic nuclei break down into smaller parts, which was used in the atomic bombs dropped on Japan.
Balmer series [or Balmer lines]
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Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory
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Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity
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Bekenstein-Hawking radiation or effect [prompt on “black-body radiationâ€]
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Bell's inequality or Bell's theorem
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Bernoulli's Law
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Bernoulli's principle (or Bernoulli's equation; accept similar phrases involving Bernoulli)
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Boltzmann equation (prompt on "Vlasov equation" before it is mentioned)
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Born approximations
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Bose-Einstein condensate [or BEC]
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Bose-Einstein condensate [prompt on BEC]
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Bosons
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Bragg's law
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Casimir effect
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Cavendish Laboratory (prompt on Cambridge University)
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Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman
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Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
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Clebsch-Gordan coefficients [or Wigner 3j coefficient]
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Compton Scattering, Effect, etc.
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Compton effect
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Compton effect (don't accept inverse Compton)
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Compton effect or scattering or shift, etc.
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Coriolis effect
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Coriolis force or effect
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Correspondence principle
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Cosmological Constant
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Coulomb's law
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Count Rumford (accept early Benjamin Thompson)
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Curie Point or Curie Temperature
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Curie temperature [or Curie point]
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David Joseph Bohm
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Davisson-Germer Experiment (prompt on "electron diffraction")
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Davisson-Germer experiment
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DeBroglie waves [prompt on 'matter waves' or 'particle waves']
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Debye (shielding) length
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Diamagnetism
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Doppler effect
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Doppler shift
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Dulong-Petit Law
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EPR Paradox or Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox
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Ehrenberg-Siday-Aharonov-Bohm effect (accept: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
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Ehrenfest's Theorem
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Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi [accept Fermi-Hart paradox until “this man†in first sentence]
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Euler's equation of inviscid flow
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Felix Bloch
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Felix Bloch
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Fermi surface (prompt on "Fermi")
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Hans Christian Ørsted
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Hans Geiger
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Hartree-Fock self-consistent field method [prompt on self-consistent field method]
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Hawking radiation
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Helmholtz free energy (prompt on "free energy," until "Gibbs")
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Hendrik Lorentz
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Hertz (Gustav and Heinrich, respectively)
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Holograms
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Kaluza-Klein theory (Accept things like "Five dimensional general relativity" or "Five dimensional warped geometry" before )
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Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction
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Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction (accept either name)
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Ludwig Prandtl
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Mach number
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Magnetic dipole Moment
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Magnetic monopoles
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Magnetoresistance [accept Giant Magnetoresistance or GMR]
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Malus's Law
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Mass Spectrometer
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Mass Spectrometer (accept Mass Spectrograph)
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Maxwell's Demon
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Millikan-Fletcher oil-drop experiment [prompt on “Millikanâ€]
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Murray Gell-Mann
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Mössbauer effect
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Newton's constant [or "G Newton" or the universal gravitational constant or big G]
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Noether's symmetry theorem
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy
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Ohm's law
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Osborne Reynolds
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PN junction (prompt on "diode" before "three of them")
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Pathetique or Symphony No. 6 in B minor
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Peter Debye
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Pion or Pi meson
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Poisson Bracket or PB
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Potts model [accept Ashkin-Teller model before it is mentioned]
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Poynting's theorem or Poynting vector
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Raman scattering (or Raman effect or Raman spectroscopy or Raman microscopy)
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Rayleigh-Taylor instability
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Reissner-Nordström Solution (accept variations such as Metric, Equation, Theory, etc)
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Reynolds number
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Richard Feynman
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Robert Hooke
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Rudolf Clausius
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S-matrix
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Samuel Pierpont Langley
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Satyendra Nath Bose
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Scanning Electron Microscope
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Schrodinger wave equation
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Thomas precession
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Van de Graaff generators (accept pelletrons before they're mentioned)
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Vlasov equations
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an electric dipole [prompt on one over distance squared or other close equivalents before "one over distance squared"]
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angular momentum
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anisotropy
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antiferromagnetism
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antimatter
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anyons
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atomic orbitals [do not accept “molecular orbitalsâ€]
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baryons
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beta decay
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beta decay or reaction (or equivalents)
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bipolar junction transistor [accept BJT]
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birefringence (or double refringence)
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birefringence or double refraction (accept equivalents)
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branes [Accept membranes before the final word. P-branes is acceptable at any time. D-branes or Dp-branes are acceptable answers until "NS5" is read.]
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bremsstrahlung [accept pair-production before mention in the question; accept free-free emission before "free-free" is read]
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bubble chamber
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bubble chambers
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bulk modulus
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calorimeters
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capacitance
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chirality
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cold or nonbaryonic dark matter
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conservative
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corona [accept coronal mass ejections or CMEs until “entity†in first sentence; prompt on “Sun†until “region†in second sentence]
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correspondence principle
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cosmic rays
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cosmological constant or lambda
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critical mass
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cyclotron
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density matrix
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dielectric constant
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diodes [accept early buzz of Gunn diodes]
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electric dipole moment [or EDM; prompt on "dipole moment"]
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electric field
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electrical impedance [or complex impedance]
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electrical resistance
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electron neutrino
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electron orbital
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electrons
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equilibrium
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ergodicity
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ergosphere
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fermionic condensate
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ferroelectricity (accept word forms)
...
ferromagnetism (prompt on "domain formation" or equivalent)
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ferromagnetism [accept word forms]
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fine-structure constant (accept Sommerfeld constant until he is mentioned; accept alpha)
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flux
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gamma
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gluons
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grand unified theory (or GUT)
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gravity [or gravitational force; accept equivalents]
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gravity waves [accept word forms as well as gravitational radiation]
...
harmonic oscillator (prompt on simple harmonic motion)
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harmonic oscillators [prompt on oscillators; accept quantum or simple harmonic oscillators]
...
harmonics
...
hyperfine structure (or splitting, etc.)
...
hyperfine structure or splitting
...
index of refraction (or refractive index; prompt on "n")
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index of refraction (prompt on n or eta)
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inductance
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infinity [accept word forms, prompt on divergence]
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interferometer
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kaon or K-meson (accept k-zero until the asterisk)
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liquid helium [prompt on helium; prompt on superfluid before it is mentioned]
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magnetic moment
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magnetic moment (accept anomalous magnetic moment until the phrase "current loop")
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magnetic monopole (prompt on monopole, do not accept electric monopole)
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magnetic vector potential (prompt on "A" or "potential")
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maser or microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
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mass
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mass [prompt on m; accept rest mass until “faster-than-lightâ€]
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mass moment of inertia [prompt on angular mass]
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measure the speed of light (accept reasonable equivalents)
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memristors
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molecular orbitals (prompt on "orbitals")
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moment of inertia
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nematic liquid crystal [prompt on "liquid crystal"]
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neutrino
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neutrinos
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nuclear fission [prompt on nuclear chain reaction; do not accept “nuclear fusion†or “fusionâ€]
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nuclear magnetic resonance
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nuclear shell model
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piezoelectricity or piezoelectric effect
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pion or pi meson
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plasma
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plasmons
...
polarization
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polarization [accept word forms like polarized]
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potential [accept incompressible irrotational before (*); do not accept or prompt on incompressible, but suit yourself]
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powder diffraction [accept X-ray powder diffraction, neutron powder diffraction, etc.; prompt on X-ray diffraction or neutron diffraction, etc.]
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power [do not accept “energy flux†or the like]
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precession
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pressure
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principle of superposition
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quadrupole (accept quadrupole moment)
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quantum chromodynamics or QCD
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quark-gluon plasma (accept QGP before it is mentioned)
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racemic mixtures or racemates
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radiation pressure
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red shift
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redshift
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spallation
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spark chamber
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spin-orbit coupling [or spin-orbit interaction]
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standing waves (accept voltage standing wave ratio in the first sentence)
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strain
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strangeness
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superconductors
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superconductors (accept superconductivity)
...
supercritical fluid or liquid (prompt on critical point or liquefaction before "in this state")
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superfluidity
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superfluidity [accept word forms]
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superstring theory
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supersymmetry
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supersymmetry (prompt on early "SUSY")
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the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica or Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and his System of the World
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the Seebeck Effect
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the Z boson (accept W before *)
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the general theory of relativity [prompt on relativity]
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the quantum Hall effect (do not accept or prompt on "Hall effect")
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the strong nuclear force [or strong interaction; accept color force before "colored;" prompt on quantum chromodynamics]
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the technique or method of images
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the vorticity [prompt on rot, omega, or circulation]
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the wavefunction [or state function; prompt on psi; grudgingly accept energy until "these entities"]
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thermal equilibrium
...
turbulence [or turbulent flow; prompt on "quasi-chaos" or word forms thereof]
...
ultraviolet catastrophe
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 NMR spectroscopy [accept nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]
...
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A close approximation to it was reported by the German scientists Paneth and Peters, who observed spontaneous catalysis in which hydrogen absorbed through palladium produced helium. The major obstacle to it is the electrostatic repulsion between nuclei, and the best current approach to overcome it is the meson-catalysed method. Great interest surrounded its supposed discovery by Pons and Fleischmann at the University of Utah, but the results proved to be unrepeatable. FTP, what is this elusive nuclear process that can be performed at room temperature?
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A constitutive version of this relation governs the D-field and buries the effects of bound charge. Inserting this equation into the definition of the electrostatic potential yields Poisson's equation, while combining it with the divergence of Faraday's law of induction results in charge conservation. Oliver Heaviside noted that its two forms can be converted between by the divergence theorem. This law of physics states that the net electric flux out of a closed surface is proportional to the total charge enclosed. FTP, name this Maxwell equation named for a German mathematician.
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A family of solutions to this equation scale with time to the two-thirds times one over the quantity "one plus w" power where w is equal to one-third for models involving optically thick conditions. One can derive an equation of state for a fluid pressure which can then be plugged into the first derivative of this equation to obtain a namesake acceleration equation. This equation typically includes four terms proportional to powers of redshift which represent matter, radiation, curvature and the cosmological constant and those terms are set equal to the square of the Hubble parameter. For 10 points, name this important equation in cosmology which describes the homogenous and isotropic expansion of space and can be derived using a quadruply-eponymous metric that takes its name from Lemaitre, Robertson, Walker and this equation's namesake.
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A generalization of this law to three dimensions due to Cauchy incorporates a 6 by 6 matrix known as the compliance matrix. Its constant differs for each material, and can be approximated by multiplying the mass of the atom by the bulk modulus and dividing by the density times the square of the atomic spacing of the material. It was originally stated as F equals k times x, but is also known in a generalization stating that stress is directly proportional to strain. FTP, what is this law of elasticity stating that the amount a spring deforms is proportional to the applied force?
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A laser is used in the type of spectroscopy that results from this effect because the scattering intensity is low. In this effect, Rayleigh radiation is the component of scattered radiation in the forward direction of a beam of light passing through a transparent medium with the same frequency as the incident beam. Stokes radiation results from lower-frequency scattering, and anti-Stokes radiation results from higher-frequency scattering. FTP, identify this effect which explains the scattering of light, elucidated in 1928 by an Indian physicist.
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A laser source is used in this effect's namesake spectroscopy, which is used for investigating the vibrational and rotational energy levels of molecules. While most scattered radiation is the same as the incident frequency, some will be above and below, known as anti-Stokes and Stokes radiation, respectively. Scattering results from the inelastic collision of photons and molecules after a beam of monochromatic light is passed through a transparent substance. FTP, identify this effect that describes the scattering of light and UV radiation named after an Indian physicist.
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A lemma due to this person claims that all mathematical propositions are either trivial or unproven. This thinker's namesake point is the seven hundred twenty-sixth digit of pi. Wheeler supervised this scientist's thesis, A New Approach to Quantum Theory, in which the novelty is application of Hamilton's principle; this led to an analogue of Lagrangian mechanics; this physicist's namesake formulation of QM. Leighton and Sands co-authored his namesake Lectures on Physics. He formulated QED, which employs his namesake diagrams, and defined a namesake path integral. FTP, name this idiosyncratic Caltech professor who served as youngest division head for the Manhattan Project, enjoyed strip clubs, and played the bongos.
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A novel version of this class of material was recently observed in a thin film of titanium nitride. The observed effect may be a particle-vortex dual of the BCS phenomenon, and was dubbed a "super-" this. Another variety exhibits the quantum spin Hall effect, when charges move only on the boundary of a material that is considered a "topological" one. A more well-known class of these materials has strong electron-electron interactions, and is named for Neville Mott. The most easily understood ones have a band gap, so that electrons cannot enter excited states. For 10 points, what is this class of materials that do not conduct electricity?
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A quantum version of this quantity for 2D-electron systems is equal to the fundamental charge squared times the density of states; graphene's band structure gives it two values of this quantity. Changes in this quantity are measured in deep level transient spectroscopy. It can be increased using an inverting voltage amplifier by 1 minus A sub v, an effect exploited in pole splitting named for Miller. Its inverse is known as elastance, and for an isolated sphere its equal to four pi epsilon a. In another configuration, it is equal to epsilon times epsilon sub naught times A over d. The SI unit for this quantity is measured in coulombs per volts and is called the farad. For 10 points, name this measure of the amount of electric charge stored in a namesake electronic component.
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A recent experiment at the Institut Laue-Langevin, Grenoble found that that of the neutron is no larger than 3 times 10 to the minus 26 e-centimeters. This and a similar bound for electrons are interesting probes of fundamental violation of parity and time reversal symmetries. For a dielectric sphere, it is proportional to the relative permittivity minus one, divided by the relative permittivity plus 2, a result known as the Clausius-Mossotti formula. For a general charge distribution, it is given by an integral of the position multiplied by the charge density. For the simple case of two equal and opposite point charges, it is simply the product of the distance between them and the charge. For 10 points, what is this quantity, related to the strength of the second term in a multipole expansion?
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A recent experiment that attempted to replicate its namesake's original set-up was done by Gianni Carugno and Roberto Onofrio, but its value only agreed to within 15% of the expected theoretical value, in part because of the technical difficulties involved in calculating it. Predicted while its namesake was working with colloidal solutions, it shows that the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius in the chiral bag model of the nucleon. It was measured in 1996 by Steven Lamoreaux, and its formula is pi-squared times c times h-bar times area, divided by 240 times distance to the fourth power. FTP, name this consequence of QED, a type of van der Waals force between two parallel plates in a vacuum, which is named for a Dutch scientist and which is not as related to zero-point energy as many like to think.
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A system of N interacting bosons can be regarded as a Bose-Einstein condensate if the single particle this has one eigenvalue of order N and all the others of order 1. Banks, Peskin, and Susskind showed that if it obeys an equation more general than Schrödinger's, as suggested by Hawking, locality or energy conservation would be violated. The von Neumann entropy is minus the trace of this matrix times its logarithm. If and only if it is equal to its own square, it represents a pure state and could be alternately represented simply as a wavefunction. For 10 points, what is this mathematical description of general mixed states in quantum mechanics, with a name that evokes its use as a measure of the amount of "weight" of wave function per "volume" of configuration space?
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A transformation naemd after this scientist takes harmonic function in Euclidean space to other harmonic functions and is used to transform sphere interiors to exteriors in potential theory. An instability in which shear overcomes the effects of stratification is named for this man and Helmholtz, and a viscoelastic material model is named for this man and Voigt. The statement that the line integral of a velocity field in a fluid around a contour is constant in time for isentropic flow with no external forces is known as his namesake circulation theorem. An effect in which gas flowing through a constricted passage is cooled at constant enthalpy is named for James Joule and this man, who claimed that heat taken from a reservoir cannot by itself be used to do work, thus providing a formulation of the second law of thermodynamics. For ten points, identify this British scientist who helped lay the transatlantic cable and names an absolute temperature scale.
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A type of magnetoresistive RAM uses a spin-polarized current to reorient the magnetization of a layer of a TMR element; that type is called spin this transfer. A stepper motor has different "pull-in" and "pull-out" values of this. In 1939 Richard Beth measured this exerted on a doubly-refracting plate by polarized light. The cogging type of this is minimized in motors and results from the interaction between rotor and stator magnets. Four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration are called a "load cell" or a this "transducer," which is one component of a quality-control device that measures this quantity. Precession is called "gyroscopic" if induced by this quantity. For 10 points, name this cross product of displacement with force, equal to the time derivative of angular momentum, the rotational analogue of force.
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A very similar phenomenon to this in optics is known as frustrated total internal reflection. A 2006 paper showed that enzymes make use of this process, which is also the basis of operation for the Esaki diode. Nuclear reactions depend upon this process to overcome the Coulomb repulsion between nuclei, and the resonant form of this phenomenon, which exponentially depends on energy and distance, occurs when electrons have energies in the conduction band. Cooper pairs undergo this process in a Josephson junction to allow a current to flow through an insulator. For 10 points, name this quantum effect in which a particle travels through a classically forbidden barrier.
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According to NMR relaxation experiments, its Hamiltonian consistently dominates the ZFS Hamiltonian, and it may on rare occasions be observed along with a diamagnetic shift. David Akers established that its occurrence in dyonium explains away what appeared to be a magnetic monopole. Its molecular form occurs in diatomic molecules at sunspot-like temperatures and results in antisymmetric Stokes profiles, while its incomplete form occurs when the eigenvalues of a certain matrix cross each other instead of spreading linearly. Only occurring when the orbital and spin contributions to angular momentum cannot be considered coupled because the spin-orbit interaction is dwarfed by the magnitude of the external magnetic field, for 10 points, identify this strong-field variant of the Zeeman effect.
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According to van Leeuwen's theorem, when this state occurs in a magnetic system, all eddies must dissipate. As a consequence of ergodicity, the phase density of a system in this state is given by an arbitrary function of the Hamiltonian. In quantum mechanical systems, the existence of this condition is equivalent to the requirement that the time-derivative of the density matrix vanish. In addition to CP violation and the existence of processes that violate baryon number, the non-existence of this state is necessary for baryogenesis, according to the Sakharov conditions. The transitivity of this state is expressed by the so-called zeroth law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, identify this steady state of a thermodynamic system in which the mean value of the system's temperature does not change with time.
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After studying philosophy and psychiatry at Bonn he turned to painting, and in 1918 in Cologne he founded the German Dada group. It is as a Surrealist that he made his real mark, though, with paintings like The Blessed Virgin Chastises the Infant Jesus Before Three Witnesses: Andre Breton, Paul Eluard, and the Artist, Breakfast on the Grass, and Homage to W.C. Fields and His Little Chickadee. In 1941 he opened the Art of This Century Gallery in New York with the third of his four wives, art patron Peggy Guggenheim. For 10 points, name this artist of Oedipus and Two Children Are Threatened By a Nightingale, a pioneer in the techniques of automatic writing, frottage, and collage.
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Allan Franklin reinterpreted this experiment's data in response to accusations of selective result reporting by Gerard Horton, and it was also questioned by Felix Ehrenhaft. One of its performers later verified Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect, and its results were low by about one percent due to an incorrect value for the viscosity of air. Parallel voltage plates created a uniform electric field and the voltage was adjusted to the level necessary to cause the particle to suspend in air. For 10 points, name this 1909 experiment which measured the charge of the electron, performed by Robert Millikan.
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Along with Gregory Breit, this man developed a formula which describes cross-sections for resonant nuclear reactions, and his namesake effect is a rapid rise in the temperature in a nuclear reactor pile when materials swell and release large amounts of energy when under particle bombardment. In the 1930's, he showed that the strong nuclear force has very short range, and Fermi used some of his calculations when building the first nuclear reactor in Chicago. FTP, identify this Hungarian-born American physicist who introduced the notion of parity into nuclear physics, and who won the Nobel Prize in 1963.
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Along with dielectric constant, this property is diminished in the pyrochlore phase of a material. Tiersten developed a system of energy balances as an IEEE model for their activity. This behavior can be explained by coupling the equation setting displacement equal to permittivity times electric field with Hooke's law, then looking at the tensor elements. Materials with a center of symmetry cannot undergo this effect, which can be explained by noting that a change in the dipole configuration or density in a bulk material is accompanied by a change in the surface charge. For 10 points, name this property discovered in Rochelle salts by Pierre and Jacques Curie, found in materials like quartz in which an electric response results from stress or strain on a material.
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Along with its lighter partner, it was predicted by Kobayashi and Maskawa, who deduced its existence from CP-violation in neutral kaons. Produced predominately in pairs after high-energy collisions between protons and antiprotons, this subatomic particle, which possesses a two-thirds charge, is sufficiently heavy that perturbative QCD could be used to give a theoretical estimate of its mass. It is unique among particles of its kind in that it does not hadronize, and therefore decays into a W boson and bottom quark, as seen in its discovery with the Tevatron accelerator in 1995 at Fermilab. With a mass of about 174 GeV, for ten points, name this heaviest and last-discovered quark, the partner of the bottom quark.
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Along with the scientific idea of "work," the name for this quantity was introduced with its present meaning by Coriolis in an 1829 book. If the reference frame is fixed with respect to the center of mass of the colliding bodies in an inelastic collision, this quantity appears to vanish totally. In momentum space, its "operator" in quantum mechanics is equal to momentum squared divided by mass, and rotation around an axis, vibration, or motion along a path all create this form of energy. FTP, name this quantity that is represented non-relativistically as _mv2.
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Although particle physicists and cosmologists are 120 orders of magnitude apart on what its value should be, a positive value would almost guarantee the eventual heat-death of the universe. Generally modeled as scale independent energy due to vacuum fluctuations in space-time, it was originally included in the field equations for general relativity in order to make the universe static. FTP, name this constant, recently back in vogue in cosmological circles and Einstein's greatest mistake.
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American physicist Ralph Kronig first conceived of this property, which is based on the exclusion principle, but was discouraged from publishing it by Pauli. Instead that honor went to Dutch physicists George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit in 1925, who suggested that this would satisfy the theoretical need for a fourth quantum number. First observed three years earlier in the Stern-Gerlach experiment, this property was later used to explain both the fine and hyperfine structure in spectral lines. FTP, name this property, the intrinsic angular momentum of a subatomic particle.
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Among the disadvantages to using this type of device is its bulky size and the need for a constant supply of gas. Its most basic version contains a compartment filled with a hot alkaline electrolyte, which separates porous sintered nickel electrodes. A supply of gaseous hydrogen is fed to a compartment containing the porous cathode, while oxygen is fed to a compartment containing the porous anode, and after the hydrogen reacts with the hydroxide ions in the electrolyte two electrons are released, which then flow to the anode through an external circuit. FTP, such is a description of what cell which is more efficient in converting electric energy than a heat engine?
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Among this man's inventions are the first percolator, a shadow photometer, and an oil lamp, and he introduced the concept of the standard candle. Born Benjamin Thompson, he founded the Royal Institution in London in 1799, and married Lavoisier's widow three years later. FTP, identify this inventor and scientist whose observation of the immense amount of heat created by the boring of cannon led to his theory that heat is a mode of vibratory motion.
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An LBL experiment found that lanthanum iron oxide, which exhibits this property, has corresponding domains matching the size and orientation of its crystals. Film which exhibits it is leveraged in exchange anisotropies to pin the states of readback heads of hard disks. Manganese oxide is an example of a material that exhibits it. In general this phenomenon occurs only at low temperatures, where the materials have no response to an applied magnetic field. They normally become paramagnetic at temperatures above the Neel point. FTP, name this phenomenon in which neighboring electron spins point in opposite directions.
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An early attempt at developign this technique came from Abraham and Lorenz's attempts to create a classical theory of the self-interacting electron. This technique exists in several varieties, including "bare," as well as a variety that employs Feynman diagrams with counterterms and is known as the perturbation varity, and one scheme for setting the counterterms is known as the minimal subtraction scheme. Ken Wilson applied this concept to statistical mechanics to develop his theory of second order phase transitions, and Gerard t'Hooft showed that gauge theories have this property by employing a related technique called regularization. For ten points, identify this operation which in quantum field theories is used to remove singularities.
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An early theory of the origin of these involved the breakup of relativistic "beebees" while Meszaros and Rees proposed the relativistic fireball shock model to explain their non-thermal broken power law spectrum. Woosely and Paczynski proposed that they are explicable by the collapsar model for Wolf-Rayet stars, which form black holes that feed an electron-positron-baryon jet. First detected by Vela military satellites, their afterglow was first observed by the BeppoSAX satellite using an x-ray detector and data from NASA's Compton Observatory showed they originate from far outside the Milky Way. FTP, identify these astronomical phenomena classified either as long- or short-duration depending if they last over two seconds and named for their intense output of high-energy photons.
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An electron bears the orbital version of this quantity, whose value is equal to the equivalent current times the orbital area. Measured in SI units of Ampere meters squared, it is measured by the maximum torque divided by the field strength in the Kennelly approach, while in the Sommerfeld approach it is measured by the maximum torque divided by the strength of the magnetic field. FTP, identify this quantity that is a measure of the strength of a magnet or a current-carrying coil.
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An explanation for one of the types of this non-classical effect hypothesizes that a high field forces an electron gas to condense into a quantum fluid by coupling with flux quanta, so that the superfluidity of the quantum fluid causes the disappearance of Ohmic properties at certain points. That explanation is due to Laughlin. The other version of this effect was discovered in certain electron systems at low temperatures and subject to strong magnetic fields when it was noted that the namesake resistance changes in discrete steps; this won von Klitzing the 1985 Nobel Prize for Physics. Coming in fractional and integer varieties, this is, FTP, what physical effect in which certain values of current flow perpendicular to an applied magnetic field?
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An important parameter of these objects can be measured with a four-point probe and slightly altered through planar weight disparity. One type is susceptible to a phenomenon known as stripes, and their behavior may be explained by particle undressing. Several "infinite layer" ones have recently been found to improve on YBCO, a prominent example of these materials whose behavior was modeled in Ginzburg-Landau theory. Copper oxides are ceramic examples of the "high temperature" kind, and their expulsion of magnetic fields is called the Meissner effect. For 10 points, name these materials which, below a critical temperature, have no electrical resistance.
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Analysis of this interaction may be facilitated by use of a Raleigh rejection holographic filter, which removes un-shifted monochromatic light. Its namesake microscopy is often coupled with infrared microscopy in the technique called chemical imaging. In this interaction, photonic excitation of an atomic vibrational mode results in an inelastic collision, so Fourier analysis of resulting frequency components can determine the polarizability and, hence, molecular structure of the scattering center. FTP, name this type of inelastic scattering of a photon by a molecule introduced in 1928's A New Type of Secondary Radiation, having Stokes and Anti-Stokes components, and named for an Indian physicist.
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Andre Geim demonstrated that the "anti" variety of this effect may be more common than the normal variety, and type II superconductors display a mixed variety of this effect. It was first observed by its namesake discoverer in 1933 while cooling tin crystals to 3.72 K. As the crystals approached the critical temperature, they began expelling the earth's magnetic field from the interior, indicating the material had become perfectly diamagnetic. FTP, identify this effect that demonstrates the falling off of the magnetic flux as a material becomes superconductive.
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Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis uses the minimum of this quantity to predict protein structures, and in the Henon-Heiles equation, this quantity is given by "one half r-squared plus one-third r-cubed times sine of 3-theta." The Jeans length gives the scale at which one form of this quantity will result in the stability of a gas cloud. For a dipole in an electric field, it is the negative dot product of the moment and the electric field. The derivative of this quantity with respect to a position gives the force field, and for a spring, it is given by one-half times the spring constant times the displacement squared. For ten points, identify this quantity, the energy a system has by virtue of its configuration.
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As described by Sakharov, the asymmetry due to this phenomenon in the first seconds of the big bang may explain the observed matter-antimatter ratio in the universe. Theoretical attempts to explain this phenomenon via the Kobayashi-Maskawa model and the super-weak model were motivated by the behavior of charged K mesons. The existence of the effect was proven in 1964 when James Cronin and Val Fitch demonstrated that the neutral K meson decayed a fraction of the time into only two pi mesons instead of three. FTP, name this phenomenon which occurs when certain conservation laws are violated.
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As the weak charge is not invariant under a reflection unless particles are replaced by their antiparticles as well, the fundamental laws of physics may well have this property. It can arise in spiranes and allenes due to their cumulated bonds and restricted rotation. Many familiar objects, such as the S and Z tetronimoes in Tetris, possess this property, with a pair being enantiomorphic. FTP, name this property that states that a molecule is not superimposible over its mirror image.
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At the quantum level a form of this law is maintained in Ehrenfest's theorem, fortunate for the correspondence principle. Taken with another law it implies the law of conservation of momentum, and along with the law of universal gravitation it yields Kepler's results on planetary motion. For ten points, name this law of classical mechanics which states that the time derivative of momentum is equal to the net force applied to the body.
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Atomic absorption spectroscopy uses this effect to correct background, and in EPR this effect creates a gap in the energies of a paramagnetic center, which is then matched by a microwave emission. The alpha and pi lines that this effect produces absorb plane polarized radiation in perpendicular directions and the anomalous form of this effect prompted Landé and Heisenberg to introduce half integer quantum numbers. Also used to explain the Lyman-alpha transition in hydrogen, it can be reversed when sufficiently large field strengths disrupt the coupling between orbital and spin angular momenta in the Paschen-Back effect. For 10 points, name this effect, which occurs due to the splitting of energy levels and associated spectral lines by an external magnetic field.
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Attenuation in these objects can be measured using either the cut-back method or a technique known as OTDR, in which sudden spectral peaks indicate a splice loss. The performance of these devices is theoretically limited by the Rayleigh scattering limit, which is why exotic materials like fluoride are being developed for their manufacture. Depending on whether a discontinuity in the index of refraction is present between the core and the cladding, these devices are classified as step-index or gradient-index types. Like waveguides in general, variants of these devices which allow for more than one bound solution for each polarization are known as the multimode type. For 10 points, identify these optical waveguides which allow light to propagate through a core, frequently made of glass, by means of total internal reflection.
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Bardeen, Hill, and Lindner proposed that these Standard Model particles may form condensates that break electroweak symmetry, generating a composite Higgs boson. In many contemporary models, they are viewed as composite objects with new strong interactions not felt by other known fermions. For instance, Sundrum and Agashe recently proposed that the right-handed one and the Higgs are composite. It has been suggested that their abnormally large mass comes from an infrared fixed point of renormalization group flow. They generally decay to a W boson and a bottom quark, and the left-handed one is in a doublet with the left-handed bottom quark. FTP, what is this heaviest of the six flavors of quarks?
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Bauer and Donnelly wrote about the interactions of one of this man's proposed particles, whose magnetic varieties are called magnons. He formulated an early theory of turbulence together with Hopf. Together with Lifshitz and Gilbert he lends his name to an equation describing the precession of magnetization, while his namesake quantized levels describes the cyclotron orbits of charged particles in magnetic fields. This man also proposed the existence of rotons to explain excitations in a certain type of material. The Coleman-Weinberg model is a four-dimensional generalization of one theory named for this man, which is based on this man's theory of second-order phase transitions and is also named for Ginzburg. FTP, name this Soviet physicist whose work on superfluidity earned him the 1962 Physics Nobel.
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Bruce Gurney did pioneering work towards developing a room-temperature version of this phenomenon, while Xiao and Berkowiez independently discovered a type of this phenomenon in granular Cobalt-Copper solids. One version of it can be understood in terms of RKKY coupling, while devices which exploit a namesake type of this effect come in CPP and CIP varieties, and are known as spin valves. One version of this phenomenon is a result of spin-dependent electron scattering, and was discovered in Iron-Chromium-Iron multilayers by Albert Fert and Peter Grunberg in 1988. For 10 points, identify this effect in which a metal's conductivity is altered in the presence of a magnetic field and whose "giant" variety led to the 2007 Nobel in Physics, and which is commonly used in read-out heads in hard drives.
identify this effect, discovered independently by Lise Meitner and the French physicist for whom it is named.
Commonly used for spectroscopy of surfaces, this probability of this effect occurring increases with atomic number; for atoms lighter than zinc X-ray emission is more likely. Occurring when there is a vacancy in the innermost K shell of electrons, an electron drops from a higher energy state to fill the vacancy, and the available energy also expels an electron from the atom. For 10 points
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Compounds studied by this technique may be mixed with mineral oil to form a nujol mull, and potassium bromide pellets can also be mixed with solid analytes in another variation. This technique is only useful with compounds that see a change in dipole moment, which is why homonuclear diatomics cannot be studied using this technique. The spectrum produced by this technique has a region unique to each molecule called the "fingerprint" region, and carbonyl containing groups have a characteristic response to it at around 1700 wavemumbers. For 10 points, name this spectroscopic technique that uses light shorter than microwaves but longer than red visible light.
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Computing the partition function in the three-dimensional case with a randomly chosen interaction was shown to be NP-hard by a 1982 result of Barahona. The free energy of a two-dimensional square lattice one at low temperature is related to another one at high temperature through Kramers-Wannier duality. Bruria Kaufman used spinor analysis to compute the free energy in the one-dimensional case in 1949, simplifying her advisor's argument. It is defined on a discrete collection of spins, which can be plus or minus one, and gives a simple example of a ferromagnetic phase transition breaking a Z2 symmetry. Invented by William Lenz and given to its namesake to solve, for 10 points, what is this mathematical model of interacting spins, solved exactly in the two-dimensional case by Lars Onsager?
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Consider an open barrel, full of an incompressible fluid. If you place a spigot in the barrel's side, the fluid will flow out of the hole with a velocity equal to the square root of 2*g*h, where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height between the spigot and the top of the liquid. Stating that the speed of the liquid is the same as that of an object in free fall through a height, this describes what theorem of fluid dynamics named, FTP, for an Italian mathematician who once assisted Galileo?
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Considering a point of far beyond the scattering interaction range in the zeroth of these approximations yields the asymptotic boundary condition used by the method of partial waves, an alternative to them. The incident and zeroth-order waves are defined as Laplacian eigenfunctions. The key to deriving these is regarding the integral of the unknown state function as an inhomogeneous term, as this yields a Friedholm integral equation of the second kind. That integral equation is equivalent to the Schrödinger equation for scattering in a two-particle system, for which these approximations iteratively determine the wavefunction. FTP, name this series of successive approximations from the quantum theory of scattering, named for a German physicist.
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Considering one of these particles as a particle-in-a-box allows you to derive the Geiger-Nuttall law, which relates lambda to the energy of these particles. In stars, three of them react to form carbon in a process that occurs at extreme temperatures and low hydrogen concentrations. The fact that some of these particles were deflected when Marsden and Geiger shot them at a metal sheet was evidence for the existence of the atomic nucleus. For 10 points, name these particles equivalent to helium nuclei, the largest particles produced during radioactive decay.
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Cowling proved that a fluid, self-sustaining one of these cannot have an axis of symmetry, though Braginsky's isothermal solution to the 3-D problem of this name is nearly symmetric. Steenbeck's alpha effect is the production of a time-averaged field of this type by disordered MHD convection. Parker proposed that rising flows in the Sun's atmosphere could give rise to a field of this type, but this model does not account for the properties of sunspots. The Gramme electromagnetic variety of this uses a ring armature to increase consistency while Pixii built the first electric one based on Faraday's law of induction. FTP, identify the shared name of the most prevalent model of planetary magnetism and an electrical generator that converts rotation to alternating current.
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Degrees of freedom on which this object is not explicitly dependent are known as cyclic coordinates and correspond to conservation of conjugate momenta. The Euler equations of systems are in general relations of derivatives of this mathematical object because they are derived by extremizing the time integral of this function. This quantity is dependent in general on a system's set of generalized coordinates and speeds, so it can be seen to be the momentum-to-speed Legendre transform of a similar function. This function is heuristically equal to the difference between the kinetic and potential energies of a system. For 10 points, name this function central to a formulation of mechanics complementary to the Newtonian and Hamiltonian formulations.
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Detectors for these particles are used to determine whether archaeological sites contain tombs. In the 1970's, physicists working at the European Center for Nuclear Research were surprised when they fired neutrinos at a proton and created two of these particles, one positive and one negative. They can be artificially produced by hitting a graphite target with a proton stream accelerated to 80% of the speed of light, which produces the pions that eventually decay to these particles. Originally thought to be mesons, they were first discovered by Carl Anderson while he was studying cosmic radiation. FTP, name these leptons with a lifetime of about 2.2 microseconds and a mass roughly 207 times that of an electron.
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Devices designed to exhibit this effect are often made of the same materials as capacitor dielectrics, such as lead zirconate titanate and lead magnesium niobate. Discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie, it has a magnetic analogue called magnetostriction. It is useful in micro positioning devices, and materials exhibiting its converse effect can act as transducers in SONAR and ultrasound. It occurs only in crystals without a center of symmetry, which allows small displacements in ions in the crystal lattice and redistribution of electric charge. Famously exhibited by quartz, FTP name this effect in which deformation of a crystal produces a voltage.
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Discrete spectra of them are produced by electron transitions between the normally-filled lower electron levels of atoms. Continuous spectra of them commonly result from bremsstrahlung, or "braking" radiation. In the work of Laue and Bragg, a beam of them were diffracted by a crystal lattice. Slightly less energetic than gamma rays, FTP, identify this form of electromagnetic radiation commonly used to provide images of internal body structures and first observed by Wilhelm Roentgen.
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Due to symmetry considerations, one of the nine possible transformations involving this concept is not allowed. First proposed by * Moo-Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu and independently by Oscar Greenberg, incidences of this concept are always confined within hadrons. Named for the way in which certain combinations give neutral particles, transformations involving it are mediated by the gluons. FTP, what is this property of quarks, the positive type of which comes in red, green, and blue types?
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Each one corresponds to the probability amplitude for the process within it. The set of all distinct ones with the same incoming and outgoing paths corresponds to the perturbation expansion of a matrix element of the scattering matrix in field theory. They were first designed to give a simpler understanding of Moller scattering and follow two basic rules. Space-time trajectories of noninteracting electrons are represented by straight lines, and wavy lines are used to show photons. FTP, identify these pictorial representations of elementary particles and their interactions, named for the American physicist who devised them.
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Effects that cause this device to deviate from ideal behavior include the Early effect, caused by the effective base width changing, and the Miller effect, which describes how its high frequency response is altered by a small input capacitance. The gain of one of these can be computed using the Ebers-Moll equation, and devices that one can build with these include a Darlington connection, a current mirror, an emitter follower, or a common-base amplifier. Coming in p-n-p and n-p-n varieties, FTP what is this ubiquitous integrated circuit element consisting of a base, collector, and emitter, which won Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics?
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Einstein formulated a statistical correction to this law that incorporates a coefficient to account for the probability of a solid oscillator having a certain frequency. Peter Debye later improved on Einstein's result by modeling the internal energy of a solid as residing in oscillations of the whole solid and not in individual atoms. Deviations from this law occur at low temperature because the spacing between energy levels is large compared to the product of the Boltzmann constant and the absolute temperature, so it is forbidden to possess energies above the zero-point energy. One can derive this result from classical physics by assuming that each atom in a solid has three translational and three vibrational degrees of freedom and then applying the equipartition theorem. For 10 points, identify this law which states that the specific heat capacity of every solid is three times the ideal gas constant.
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Experiments by Nimtz have confirmed a controversial result related to the formalism for this phenomenon developed by Hartman in response to the discovery that the duration of this phenomenon is independent of width, implying that it could occur faster than light, determined by Eisenbud and Wigner. Resulting in a region of negative differential resistance, this effect is exploited by Esaki diodes, and under certain conditions, it occurs with unity probability in the Ramsauer-Townsend effect. The Fowler-Nordheim type refers to when electrons do it in the presence of a strong electric field, also called cold emission, which is applied by a certain kind of microscope. This phenomenon was first applied to the process of alpha decay by Gamow. For 10 points, identify this phenomenon in which a particle trapped in a potential well with walls higher than its own kinetic energy manages to escape anyway.
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First noticed when decaying K mesons broke theory and became two pi mesons instead of three, physicists have not been able to agree on a satisfactory explanation for it yet. Some have postulated a new "superweak" force to explain it, others believe in the Kobayashi-Maskawa model, which attributes it to certain quantum effects in the weak force between quarks. First identified by James Cronin and Val Fitch, it is thought to have led to the current matter-antimatter ratio in the universe. FTP, identify this concept defined as the violation of the two namesake properties resulting in the abundance of X-rays in the universe.
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For a classical charged particle interacting with an electromagnetic field, this behavior can be derived from the Bargmann-Michel-Telegdi equation. Relativistic time dilation as a correction to spin-orbit coupling is the known as the Thomas variety, while the third Milankovitch cycle is a manifestation of this behavior on Earth. NMR is made possible by the Larmor variety, which concerns the behavior of dipoles in an applied magnetic field, and perturbations in this type of motion cause an up-and-down bobbing motion called nutation. FTP name this phenomenon, the change in direction of the axis of a rotating object.
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For a homogeneous, isotropic material, this quantity is given by three times quantity one minus two times Poisson's ratio, all over the compressibility. When a certain criterion holds, resilience can be defined as one over twice this quantity times the square of yield stress. Like pressure, it is measured in Pascals, and according to the generalized Hooke's law, this quantity is equivalent to the slope of a material's stress-strain curve. Named for the British physicist whose double-slit experiment showed that light is a wave, for 10 points, name this elastic modulus describing the ratio of stress to strain in a material.
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For a homogenous system, the ratio of the rate of this reaction to that of absorption is the thermal utilization f, which is one of the factors in the four-factor formula. Solid-state actinide detectors for very-high-energy photons use the gamma-induced variety of this reaction. Plotted against atomic number, its usual yield curve is normally hollow, double-humped and symmetric, but can shift right if the inducing particles are highly energetic. It is energetically favorable to the right of iron-56 so power generation methods utilizing it use heavy elements like thorium as fuel. FTP, name this nuclear reaction often accompanied by release of energy and neutrons; the break-up of large nuclei into smaller ones, discovered by Hahn and Meitner.
name this physicist whose "discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields," an electrical analogue of the Zeeman effect, won him a Nobel prize in 1919.
For a one-space logarithmic scalar potential, the result that this man is famous for deriving does not occur until the second order perturbation of an harmonic oscillator wavefunction. His 1897 doctoral dissertation was on Newton's electrochronic rings and his Nazi sympathies gained him enough favor with authorities that he replaced Paschen as the director of the German Physico-Technical Institute. Late in his life, he investigated the effect of light deflection in an inhomogeneous electric field at his private laboratory in Bavaria. For 10 points
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For a small body moving in an otherwise quiescent fluid, the inclination of the boundary between the zones of silence and action is the arcsine of one over this property of the flow. This parameter arises in the boundary layer equation from the natural scaling of the dependent variable and a necessary condition for potential flow is that this parameter be much smaller than unity. Since this dimensionless parameter is the ratio of the effects of inertial and elastic forces, flows are incompressible when it is small. FTP, identify the dimensionless number that is the ratio of the speed of an object in a fluid medium to the speed of sound in that medium.
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For a solid, it can be determined using the Knudsen method or thermogravimetry. One can use the Kelvin equation to calculate it for a single drop of liquid, and the Goff-Gratch equation is the meteorological standard for calculating it for water. If the value of this quantity is known at one temperature, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation can be used to find its value at any other temperature, and this value can be calculated as the product of its value for a pure solvent and the solvent's mole fraction in Raoult's Law. Adding solute molecules to a solution lowers this quantity but raises the boiling point, which is defined as the temperature at which this quantity equals the external pressure. FTP name this quantity defined as the pressure of a gas in equilibrium with a confined liquid or solid.
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For de Sitter space it is finite, as shown by Gibbons and Hawking, due to the presence of a cosmological horizon. The entanglement version of it measures the amount of correlation between two different subsystems. The conditional version of it incorporates known information and is bounded above by the absolute one. For a classical ideal gas, it scales as the number of particles times the log of the volume, the precise statement of which is known as the Sackur-Tetrode equation. Given the assumption of molecular chaos one can prove the H-theorem of Boltzmann, showing that it increases, as demanded by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For 10 points, what is this measure of the number of microstates in a system, which is usefully thought of as a measure of disorder?
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For electricity, it is calculated by taking the surface integral of electric displacement and for fluids, conservation of mass requires that it be equal and opposite to the rate of change of the density. The quantity is generally defined as the surface integral of the velocity field perpendicular to the container's surface times the fluid density. FTP, name this measure that calculates the amount of a fluid flowing through a surface per unit time, which also has luminous and magnetic varieties, the last of which is measured in webers.
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For pulses outside of a certain bandwidth range, a deviation from this phenomenon, known as self-steepening, occurs. The z-scan technique uses self-focusing of a beam of light to measure this effect's magnitude, while lensing effects arising from the AC type of this effect can be used in passive mode locking for a laser. Nitrobenzene is a common substance used in cells utilizing this effect for light modulation, though such cells require a higher voltage than those that leverage the linear Pockels effect. FTP, name this effect in which an electric field causes a quadratic change in a material's index of refraction, which is named for a Scottish physicist.
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For systems that execute it, a particle's displacement is defined as "amplitude times the cosine of angular frequency multiplied by time." The French mathematician Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier's discovery of its descriptive use is now used to explain such things as the movement of electrons in a wire carrying AC current. It occurs in the case in which a particle or mass oscillates about an equilibrium point subject to a linear force. Best exhibited by a basic pendulum, FTP, name this type of periodic motion often abbreviated as SHM.
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For two touching conducting spheres of radius R, it is equal to 2R log 2. For an isolated conducting sphere, it is simply equal to R. Both of these are expressed in Gaussian units and measured relative to infinity. More commonly, the geometry is such that two separated conductors carry opposite charges and it can be increased by a factor of the dielectric constant. Defined as charge stored per unit of potential difference, FTP, what is this physical quantity which measures the ability to store electrical energy, whose SI unit is farads?
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Forbush decrease refers to loss of cosmic ray intensity due to matter originating from this entity. The TRACE mission has utilized 171-angstrom radiation filters to study namesake loops extending into this region arising from fixed points of magnetic flux below it. Those loops, which reach megaKelvin temperatures, act as precursors to events originating here involving the violent expulsion of matter, this region's namesake mass ejections. The source of solar wind, this region surrounds the chromosphere. For 10 points, name this plasma region forming the outermost portion of the Sun's atmosphere, whose name comes from the Latin for “crownâ€.
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Formulations explaining the behaviour of objects moving at relativistic speeds reduce to the classical Newtonian relations for objects moving at low speeds. Likewise, a description of the structure of quantum sized objects should explain the behaviour of macroscopic objects as well. The term for this belief was coined when, while trying to describe the orbits of electrons about a nucleus, Niels Bohr postulated that any new physical law should match up with classical laws under the appropriate circumstances. FTP identify this term.
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Generally the development of this material property corresponds to a real-symmetric rank-2 dielectric tensor whose eigenvalues correspond to the three orthogonal principle axes of polarization. Characteristic of Nicol and Wallaston prisms, its paragon material is rhombohedral calcite and the Kerr Effect describes its development in an electric field. Referring to the division of light into ordinary and extraordinary components, FTP, name this physical property of materials that can be classified by two distinct anisotropic indices of refraction.
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Gerald Holton discovered that seven observations in this experiment had been discarded despite giving a result within two-percent of the correct one, and Ehrenhaft performed it earlier, obtaining the quantity 2.9 times 10 to the minus 11 esu as a result. This experiment used a modified form of Stokes' law to calculate drag, and its results were likely undervalued by one-percent due to air viscosity. The setup used parallel plates to produce an electric field balancing gravity, while an atomizer to produce the namesake material similar to a perfume spray. For 10 points, name this 1909 experiment conducted by Millikan that calculated the charge of an electron.
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He designed both the Montague House and Bethlehem Hospital in London, but is known primarily as a scientist. He analyzed the nature of combustion, used the balance spring for the regulation of watches, and pioneered microscopic research, discovering plant cells in his observations. FTP, name this English scientist, best known for his work in elasticity and namesake law relating the elongation of a spring to the force applied.
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He found that the scattering of electrons was the primary source of the opacity of stars, and the divisor of the inequality for finding a star's maximum luminosity bears his name. He interpreted Einstein's theory of relativity for the English-speaking public in his Space, Time, and Gravitation, but tarnished his reputation with incessant, misguided critiques of the work of Chandrasekar. FTP, name this man who organized the 1919 expedition that confirmed the prediction of the relativistic bending of light in a strong gravitational field.
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He is the namesake of the criterion that ions in a plasma must enter the Debye sheath at or above the sound speed.He expanded on de Broglie's pilot-wave theory to give a namesake theory that avoids the measurement problem. Plasma microinstabilities produce a scaling of one over the magnetic field strength in his eponymous anomalously rapid plasma diffusion process. With one of his students, he predicted a geometric phase observed in double-slit experiments due to the influence of the vector potential, even in regions with zero magnetic field. For 10 points, identify this proponent of a non-local hidden variables interpretation of quantum mechanics, the namesake of an effect with Aharonov.
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He succeeded Roentgen as professor of Physics at Wurzburg and published his Textbook of Hydrodynamics there. He was more famous, however, for his high temperature work with Holborn and other thermodynamic research, becoming most famous for discovering that the wavelength of maximum intensity emitted by an object is inversely proportional to its temperature. FTP, name the 1911 Nobel Laureate in Physics who received the prize for his namesake Displacement Law.
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His best-known work was actually the solution to a thesis problem presented by his fellow student Paul Ewald. At the University of Berlin he served as the research adviser to Leo Szilard and Friedrich and Knipping, who experimentally verified his namesake pattern. This man's experiment using a copper sulfate compound showed dark spots on a photographic plate behind the crystal, which confirmed his prediction that X-rays could be diffracted by a crystal acting as a natural diffraction grating. FTP, identify this German physicist whose work led to the discovery of X-ray crystallography and won him the 1914 Nobel in physics.
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His books have been translated as Matter and Light and Revolution in Physics. He was so impressed by his brother Maurice's work on the nature of radiation that he changed his career from history to physics. His doctoral thesis, ignored due to lack of light-wavelength-comparable instrumentation, was recognized by Einstein, and later confirmed by electron diffraction studies. His relation equates Planck's constant over momentum to the wavelength of a matter wave. First noting that wave-particle nature of radiation applies to matter, FTP, name this Frenchman who won the 1929 Nobel Prize.
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His calculations of the movement of a cycloid appear in his Geometric Works, and he was the first man to create a sustained vacuum. He calculated the value of the gravitational constant by observing two weights connected by a string passing over a fixed pulley, and his namesake equation relates the velocity of a fluid in a tank to the square root of its height. But he may be best known for his friendship with Galileo and his experiments with tubes containing various heights of mercury. FTP, name this Italian scientist, the namesake of a unit of pressure and the inventor of the barometer.
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His father, Melville, proclaimed before his birth in 1918 that, "if it's a boy, he's going to be a scientist." Studying under John Wheeler at Princeton, he used the principle of least action to develop the path integral formulation for quantum mechanics and Oppenheimer described him as "the most brilliant young physicist" at Los Alamos. FTP, identify this man whose 1947 papers "The Theory of Positrons" and "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics" set the stage for the work which gained him a share the Nobel Prize in 1965.
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His major work was criticized by Joseph Petzval on flimsy mathematical grounds. His assumptions were also criticized by a Dutch metereologist who created the first experiment to provide verification of this man's work. One of the conclusions drawn by this man seemed to be supported by an astronomical Catalogue published by Benedict Sestini, but it wasn't until William Huggins introduced more advanced spectroscopic methods that research could proceed. He was under the impression that all stars were white and only emitted light in the visible spectrum, which led him to draw dubious conclusions about double stars. One version of this man's best-known observation was famously taken up by Fizeau, while he didn't believe that his principle could be applied to transverse vibrations of light. FTP, name this Austrian scientist who in an 1842 paper showed that the observed frequency of light and sound waves changes with the relative motion of the source or observer of those waves, an "effect" named for him.
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His name describes a relation between the polarizability of a molecule and the dialectric constant of a gas when it is paired with Mossotti. The developer of the virial equation, his name also describes an equation that explains the fact that the relationship between the temperature of a liquid and its vapor pressure is not a straight line when paired with Clapeyron. The creator of the concept of entropy, FTP, identify this German scientist who, independently of Lord Kelvin, arrived at the second law of thermodynamics.
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His name is given to both the "A coefficient of spontaneous emission" and the "B coefficient" used in the quantum theory of radiation, while in astronomy his name is used with that of de Sitter's to designate a type of universe in which the mean density of matter is precisely matched to the critical density. One of his equations holds that the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted in the photoemissive effect is hf minus W, while in chemistry his name is given to the element with atomic number 99. With Bose the namesake of the fifth state of matter, FTP, who is this scientist probably best known for his equation E equals mc squared?
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If it is expressed as a complex number, the imaginary part of this value is an indicator of absorptive properties. Recent experiments have shown that it can be negative for some materials, which can lead to bizarre effects like reverse Doppler shifts. Its dependence on wavelength gives rise to chromatic aberration and explains why a prism works. It is often defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium. With a value of 1.33 for water, FTP, what is this index that measures the change of direction in a wavefront when passing from one medium to another?
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If supersymmetry were unbroken, fermionic photinos would cancel the effect from photons, resulting in no net force. Instead, an attraction is seen when two parallel uncharged conductors are brought close together. First theorized by a Dutch physicist in 1948, for ten points, name this phenomenon arising from quantum vacuum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field.
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If the film is coated with a metal along a few micrometers of its length, it is known as a Notarys-Mercereau microbridge or proximity-effect type of this device. A drop of lead-tin solder around a niobium wire creates the SLUG type, while the simplest type is called the Anderson-Dayem bridge. They are useful in determining absolute voltages and absolute temperatures by measuring emitted radiation frequencies, and at a minimum of six picoseconds, they are the fastest known switching devices. FTP, identify these connections between superconductors through which their namesake effects are observed.
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In 1975, Vujanovic extended Noether's theorem to this type of system, and the presence of a term proportional to the quantity "x-squared minus one" results in the Van der Pol oscillator not being this type of system. These systems have Hamiltonians that do not explicitly depend on time, and Helmholtz decomposition shows that one negative term can represent this type of field. Fields of this type have no curl, and can be described as the gradient of a scalar potential. For 10 points, identify this adjective which refers to systems in which the amount of work done is independent of the path, and describes fields such as the gravitational and electric fields in which no energy is lost.
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In 2005 Alu and Engheta proposed using gold loops to construct a sort of invisibility cloak based on these. The polariton type of these are attractive candidate carriers for proposed photonic circuits. The typical energy scale for these is tens of electronvolts as can be found by measuring the energy lost by electrons fired through thin films. Their characteristic frequencies define the transmission bandwidth of metals. A variety of these localized to surfaces was predicted in 1957 by Rufus Ritchie; the sensitivity of that type to variations in the dielectric constant is the basis of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. For 10 points, name these quasiparticles, quanta of collective vibrations of the electron gas in metals.
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In 2007, researchers at the International Space Station used this property to grow crystals in ways that counteract Earth's gravity. Haberditzl's ABIS system and Pascal's constants describe a material's tendency toward this property, which MO theory predicts should occur in molecules with paired electrons. One of its best known consequences was initially thought to violate Earnshaw's Theorem, and it is described as a molecular version of Lenz's law. Exhibited strongly in pyrolitic graphite and bismuth, its perfect form is found in superconductors, and materials exhibiting it can be levitated. For 10 points, name this induced form of magnetism that opposes an applied magnetic field.
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In Carbon 13 NMR, it is responsible for the splitting of resonance peaks, causing magnetic interactions between hydrogen atoms and carbon-13 isotopes. Electrons can have a magnitude of it equal only to plus or minus Planck's constant divided by 4 times pi. Electrons with the same kind of it are forbidden to share the same orbital, as defined by the Pauli exclusion principle. FTP, name this concept, the angular momentum associated with microscopic particles, and synonymous with the motion you would associate with a top.
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In DNA, these are speculated to open a transcription bubble for RNA polymerase, and, in alpha-helix proteins, a variety results from self-trapping of quanta of the amide-I vibration via interaction with soft longitudinal phonons. These Davydov quasiparticles were thought to be responsible for transport of energy from ATP, but W. C. Kerr showed that the original model cannot work at biologically relevant temperatures, while the Kerr effect allows these to appear in optical materials. In the Sine-Gordon equation, these are "kink" and "anti-kink" solutions, and Adam Cohen showed in 2003 how they can describe DNA hairpins in high AC fields. For 10 points, name these nondispersive wave solutions to nonlinear equations, first observed as "waves of translation" in a Scottish canal.
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In a 1969 paper, Petersen and Pendleton created a quantity called "modular momentum" to help explain the theory of this effect. Experimental confirmation of this effect was achieved by Tonomura and Osakabe while in 1999 Bachtold made measurements of how this effect could cause oscillations of resistance in carbon nanotubes. This effect was first predicted by Ehrenberg and Siday, whose names are occasionally attached to it. The textbook example of this effect is a beam of electrons being split and passing around either side of a solenoid, and then recombining with a phase difference equal to Berry's phase. FTP, name this quantum effect where charged particles are affected by the magnetic vector potential even in regions where the magnetic field is zero.
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In a Fermi gas, this quantity is proportional to h-bar over 2 m times the number of particles raised to the five-thirds power, over the volume raised to the two-thirds power. For a system that obeys the van der Waals equation of state, this quantity contains an additive factor of the particle number squared times the a constant over volume. For an arbitrary system, this quantity is given by the derivative with respect to the thermodynamic beta of the partition function, and the Helmholtz free energy is obtained by subtracting temperature times entropy from the average value of this quantity. For a closed system the change in this quantity is given by the work done by the system plus the heat, and for an ideal gas it is given by the three-halves times the number of particles times Boltzmann's constant times temperature. For 10 points, identify this quantity which represents the total amount of kinetic and potential energy in a gas.
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In a color glass condensate, this phenomenon would prevent the rapid movement of gluons. This phenomenon was first predicted for electrons by Joseph Larmor, and the Voigt transformation was the first general expression involving this value, though that value was too large. The red shift experiments of Pound and Rebka demonstrated the existence of its (*) gravitational variety. It has been confirmed in the Hafele-Keating experiment, where cesium decay was measured in a moving high-speed jet, and in Rossi and Hall's measurements of the decay of muons ejected from the sun's atmosphere. FTP, name this phenomenon that creates a relative slowing of time as one approaches the speed of light.
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In a hypothetical universe where quark masses are made very large but the QCD scale unchanged, this would become the lightest meson, because the masses of the mesons we know would scale like quark masses. Attempts to calculate its properties have made use of the AdS/CFT duality, or of lattice QCD. Experimentally it has remained elusive, perhaps because it is a broad resonance and mixed with other mesonic states. A theoretical proof of its existence in Yang-Mills would demonstrate a mass gap and win a million-dollar Clay Institute prize. FTP, what is this theoretical color-singlet state made up of the force carriers of QCD, a bound state of gluons?
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In a material with this property, the remanence refers to its magnitude in the absence of a driving force, while coercivity measures how strong a field is needed to remove this property. Its lack of retraceability is noted by a hysteresis loop, and this phenomenon can be attributed to the unfilled energy levels in the 3d level of certain elements. The susceptibility of materials possessing this property can be determined by the Curie-Weiss law beyond a specific point. It is a result of permanent unpaired dipoles within domains that line up with an imposed magnetic field due to long range ordering. Once materials exhibiting this property surpass the Curie temperature, they tend to behave as paramagnets. FTP, name this form of magnetism common to particular metals, most notably observed in nickel, cobalt, and iron.
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In a theory of Dirac and Brans, it decreases due to cosmological expansion. With Planck's constant and the speed of light it forms the Planck length, the fundamental scale of string theory. First measured in 1798 with a torsion balance by Cavendish, FTP, identify this constant with value 6.67 times 10 to the minus eighth centimeters cubed per gram second squared.
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In anthropology the term is used to refer to the process of making stone tools via pressure flaking and in mining it refers to the breaking of a rock face due to internal stresses. The laser form of this phenomenon is used to experimentally determine the adhesion of thin films with substrates. The more common nuclear form of this phenomenon was first named by Glenn Seaborg in his doctoral thesis on inelastic scattering of subatomic particles. The modern nuclear process slams a high energy proton beam into heavy metal targets to produce neutral subatomic particles. FTP name this process, the namesake of a new experimental facility in Tennessee, that can be used to produce an intense neutron beam.
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In cgs units, for an isolated spherical conductor, this quantity is equal to the radius. A low-pass filter may be created by placing an element with this property in series with a shunt resistor and parallel with the load, since the reactance associated with this property varies as the signal period. A circuit with an element with this property in series with a resistance has an associated time constant given by this quantity times the resistance. An element with this property stores energy equal to half its value times the square of the potential difference across the element. FTP, name this quantity, defined as the ratio of potential difference to charge stored, and measured in MKS units of farads.
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In classical mechanics, the conservation of this quantity can be derived from the invariance of the Lagrangian under spatial transformations. More directly, the canonically conjugate form of this quantity can be calculated by taking the partial derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to velocity. Quantum mechanically, this quantity is equal to the ratio of the Planck constant and an object's equivalent wavelength. FTP, name this physical quantity, more commonly given as the product of mass and velocity.
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In deriving this, it is crucial to assume that the amplitude function varies slowly, so its spatial derivatives vanish. Used in the Gamow theory of alpha decay, this method assumes a form of Aei? ["A times e to the i phi"] for the wave function, and results in the quantization condition, which comes from integrating the classical momentum over the potential well, that the well endpoint phase difference divided by pi is equal to one minus one-half times the number of "soft" boundaries. FTP, name this method that is used to find approximate bound state wave functions and named for the initials of three or four European physicists.
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In dispersive media, this man's namesake theorem involves a term proportional to the imaginary part of permittivity times the square of electric field, accounting for absorptive dissipation. Without dissipation, his theorem states that the partial time derivative of energy density, plus J dot E, equals minus the divergence of his vector. This expresses conservation of energy in electrodynamics. The Abraham-Minkowski debate is the question of how to generalize his vector to fields in materials. For a plane wave, his vector points in the direction of propagation and has a magnitude of epsilon-nought times the electric field squared. For 10 points, who is this English physicist whose namesake vector gives the energy flux transported by an electromagnetic field, proportional to E cross B?
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In electrodynamics, this quantity is given by the cross product of a magnetic dipole with the external magnetic field. In classical mechanics, it can be expressed as the cross product of an object's angular velocity of precession and angular momentum but is more commonly given as the lever arm crossed with an applied force. FTP, identify this quantity, the time derivative of angular momentum and the twisting equivalent of force.
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In fiber optics light rays beamed into a fiber can propagate within the core for great distances with remarkably little reduction in intensity due to this condition. It can only occur when going from a medium of greater index of refraction to one of lesser index of refraction and only results for any angle of incidence greater than "theta sub C." Evidenced in halos and rainbows, FTP, name this phenomenon where all the light incident on a boundary is reflected back into the original material.
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In his early work, he derived the relativistic two-body Bethe-Salpeter equation from field theory, and with Keith Brueckner, he published an exact formula for the correlation energy of an electron gas at high density. His work on cosmic rays led to a formula relating charge to isospin, baryon number, and strangeness, which is named for Nishijima and this man. He predicted the omega minus particle as a result of his work with Yuval Ne'eman to organize particles based on their symmetric association, known as the eightfold way. For 10 points, name this long-time Caltech physicist who first postulated the existence of quarks.
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In its compressible form, it can simulate the nonlinear interaction between hydrodynamic air flow and acoustic waves that produces the sound of wind instruments. In the special case of incompressible flow with very low acceleration, it yields creeping flow. Derived by applying balance of linear momentum to the constitutive equation for a Newtonian fluid, FTP, what is this equation of fluid dynamics named for a French engineer and a British mathematician?
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In light of this theorem, the probability current density arises naturally from similarity solutions of the Schrödinger equation because probability current density is conserved due to this theorem and the existence of such solutions. Conservation of linear momentum by systems of solitons can easily be realized using this theorem as the Korteweg-de Vries equation is invariant under a point group of translations. Derivable as the vanishing of the variational derivative of a relevant quantity, it implies that time invariance of a system corresponds to energy conservation. FTP, identify this cornerstone of modern physics which states that for each symmetry of a physical system, there corresponds a conserved current, and which is named for a female German mathematician.
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In many instances where this has been hypothesized, such as the experiments of Shkedi, it can be explained by reduction in the Faraday efficiency. A "local" type of it can be created by using muons as a catalyst, an effect first described by Sakharov, though there is no net energy gain. Most theories of it concern the absorption of hydrogen by either palladium or titanium, and this process first gained popular attention with results released by Stephen Jones, Martin Fleischmann, and Stanley Pons in March 1989 suggesting that it could be achieved with relatively simple laboratory apparatuses. FTP, name this currently-discredited, room temperature, a version of a nuclear phenomenon whose standard variety occurs in locations such as the center of the sun.
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In mercury telluride, the strength of this interaction leads to an inverted band structure. Because this effect is strong in heavy-fermion superconductors, a Cooper pair's spin is no longer a good quantum number in such materials. Aside from the namesake quantities, its Hamiltonian is proportional to Z alpha, and it is of second order in the electron velocity over the speed of light. When it is weak, Landé's interval rule states that the interval between successive levels that it splits is proportional to the total angular momentum of the higher level. It leaves a 2 J + 1 degeneracy and can be thought of as an internal Zeeman effect. For 10 points, what is this quantum-mechanical interaction responsible for fine structure, which is linear in the spin of the electron and written as S dot L?
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In one of these processes, a neutron is formed and a neutrino emitted when an electron and proton collide, a process known as K-capture. In another type, a proton decays, becoming a neutron, and a positron is emitted. In the most common type, an electron and neutrino are emitted, and a new proton is formed in the nucleus from a neutron. FTP, name this type of radioactive decay characterized by a unit increase in atomic number but no corresponding increase in atomic mass, whose rays are more penetrating than those of alpha decay.
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In organic materials, they are of the Frenkel type, whereas the Wannier-Mott type dominates in semiconductors. While accounting for the effective mass and the host matrix polarizability, the Bohr model can often be used to calculate their energy. In the low-density approximation, they are bosonic, and when strongly interacting with light, their namesake polaritons can show Bose-Einstein condensation through the coherence properties of the emitted light. Although chargeless, they can be bound by quantum wells and dots, interface fluctuations or host matrix impurities. In the latter case, their optical recombination can be used to make indirect bandgap materials optically active, as in nitrogen-doped gallium-arsenide-phosphide LEDs. FTP, what are these composite quasiparticles, consisting of a loosely bound electron and hole?
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In polytropic equations, the pressure is given as proportional to this quantity raised to some power, while the virial expansion writes the pressure over the temperature in terms of powers of this quantity. In cosmology, the quantity "3 times the square of the Hubble constant over quantity 8 pi times the gravitational constant," is known as the "critical" type of this quantity. The time-derivative of this quantity balances the divergence of its flux in fluid continuity equations. This quantity appears multiplied by both the square of the velocity and the gravitational acceleration times the height as a counterbalance to the pressure in Bernoulli's equation. Multiplying the volume and gravitational acceleration in the expression for buoyant force, for 10 points, identify this term which denotes how much of something there is per unit volume.
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In quantum mechanics, this may be used to obtain first order corrections for relativistic effects using h-bar-to-the-fourth p-hat-to-the-fourth over eight m-cubed c-squared as the namesake type of operator. This theory arises from consideration of an analytically unsolvable problem as the superposition of a spectral problem with known solution and a power series in an "order of approximation" parameter, which is generally symbolized lambda. Fermi's Golden Rules are statements of the asymptotic transition rates that the time-dependent variety of this gives in the sudden approximation. FTP name the theory whose non-degenerate form states that the first order correction to the energy of an eigenstate is simply the expectation of P-hat, a namesake operator introduced to alter the Hamiltonian slightly.
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In static fluids, it forms the diagonal components of the stress tensor. For black-body radiation it is one-third of the energy density. In ideal gases, it is the product of Boltzman's constant, the number density, and the temperature. For ten points, name this physical quantity, measured in units of Pascals and pounds per square inch.
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In the 1940s barium titanate was discovered to exhibit this effect strongly when exposed to high temperatures. Originally a laboratory curiosity, it was first exploited in WWI when its converse version was used in an early form of sonar. Seen in crystals lacking a center of structural symmetry, such as tourmaline, it has come to be used in phonograph pickups and microphones after its 1880 discovery by Paul-Jacques and Pierre Curie. Seen especially in Rochelle salts and quartz, FTP, what is this effect in which certain non-conducting crystals exhibit a potential difference across opposite faces when exposed to mechanical stress?
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In the A-model of topological string theory, this type of submanifold can be wrapped by a brane. For a symplectic manifold of dimension 2n, a dimension n submanifold on which the symplectic form restricts to zero is said to be this. The submanifold of positions inside a phase space of positions and momenta is of this type, and is related to the object of the same name that is a function of positions and velocities. The one that characterizes general relativity is proportional to the Ricci scalar times a volume form. Equations of motion can be derived by the variational principle from one. The action is the integral of this quantity over time. It is a Legendre transform of the Hamiltonian. For 10 points, what is this difference of kinetic and potential energy, named for an Italian-born mathematician?
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In the AVLIS separation process, this phenomenon can be used to determine the differences between uranium 235 and uranium 238 and then separate them, and in ion-trap quantum computing an atom that has undergone this is used to store qubits. Schiiler and Schmidt have successfully explained the existence of a nuclear quadrapole to explain anomalies in it. Using a Ramsey maser, it has been measured in muonium to a greater degree than any other quantity in physics, a fact that Carl Sagan used when using this as a standard of time and length on the Voyager Gold Record. FTP, identify this splitting of the spectral lines of an atom that is caused by the spin of non-neutral nuclei, rather than the spin-orbit coupling that creates fine structure.
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In the inertial confinement type, high-powered lasers overcome the Coulomb barrier between deuterium and tritium nuclei. Magnetic confinement of a high-temperature plasma is used in other devices such as reversed-field pinch machines, stellerators, and tokamaks. For ten points, what nuclear process provides the energy source of the Sun?
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In the isentropic response of an isotropic material, the fractional change in this quantity is typically less than one percent. In solids, the square of this quantity plus four thirds eta over the density gives the speed of sound in that medium, while in liquids the addition of eta is omitted. The difference between heat capacity at constant pressure and heat capacity at constant volume is inversely proportional to its isothermal form, while for a gas, its adiabatic form is given by the adiabatic index times the pressure. Derivable from the trace of the strain tensor, for ten points, identify this elastic constant which is proportional to the change in pressure over the change in volume and is the inverse of compressibility.
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In the nonlinear hyper version of this effect, otherwise forbidden silent modes are seen, and in another variant, its strength is increased by the excitation of plasmons in small metal particles. The stimulated form of it can be used in silicon chips or fiber optics to create an eponymous kind of laser, and in biological applications of it, a 785 nanometer source is often used to minimize the competing effect of fluorescence. Three lasers are used to gather information about the vibrational modes of chemical bonds susceptible to changes in polarizability in the coherent anti-Stokes variety of it. For 10 points, identify this type of inelastic scattering named for its Indian discoverer.
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In the one-dimensional equation for the radial wave function, the term for this quantity is equivalent to a repulsive potential. None of the individual components of its operator commute with each other, but its operator does commute with the Hamiltonian of it. A consequence of the conservation of this quantity is that a radius vector drawn from the sun to any planet seeps out equal areas in equal time intervals, and Bohr proposed the quantization of it in units of Planck's constant divided by 2 pi. In classical mechanics, the derivative of this quantity with respect to time is the net torque. FTP name this conserved rotational quantity defined as the cross product of position and its corresponding linear quantity, symbolized L.
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In the phase spaces of continuum Newtonian systems, transitions to this behavior occur at Hopf bifurcations. Important length and time scales for this phenomenon vary as the negative one-forth and negative one-half of the specific power dissipation; those scales and a one-thirds power law governing it in the mean are named for Kolmogorov. The Reynolds time-averaging theorem was created to allow valid physical laws in the presence of this behavior, in spite of its chaotic nature. FTP, name this type of flow which occurs in general at high values of the Reynolds number.
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In the s-domain, an inductor with no initial conditions can be characterized as having this quantity of s times the inductance. In an RLC circuit, this quantity is at a minimum at the resonance frequency. In an RC circuit, it is inversely related to frequency. In Thevenin's theorem for AC circuits, a circuit can be replaced by a single voltage source and a single value of this quantity. In a purely capacitive circuit it is equal to the total capacitive reactance. One may combine values of this in series by adding the two complex forms. Reactance is the imaginary part of this. For 10 points, name this quantity that for a pure resistor is resistance, the opposition of a circuit to AC, written as Z.
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In the surface enhanced variety of this effect, the magnitude can be increased by the presence of small metal particles near a substance to be studied, probably due to plasmon resonance. Creating ultraviolet resonance is another technique to improve the magnitude of this effect, which is typically much weaker than the competing processes of diffuse reflectance and fluorescence. It results when an electron enters a virtual excited state, then relaxes via the emission of a photon to either a higher or lower vibrational energy level, creating the Stokes or anti-Stokes variety, respectively. FTP name this type of inelastic scattering first observed by its Indian namesake.
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In three dimensions, one type of this phenomenon can be derived from applying two Lorentz transformations whose velocities point in opposite directions. In general, that phenomenon accounts for the difference between a naive estimate and the true spin-orbit Hamiltonian. Another type is utilized by NMR. In classical mechanics, its period is defined as 4 pi-squared times an object's moment of inertia, all divided by its torque times the period about a certain axis, while planetary orbits may undergo apsidal or perihelion types. Geometric, Thomas, and gyroscopic are also different types of, FTP, what phenomenon, the change in direction of an object's axis of gyration?
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In two spacetime dimensions, this effect never truly happens, being prohibited by strong quantum fluctuations as shown by Coleman, Mermin, and Wagner. Antiferromagnets exhibit this phenomenon for both time reversal and translations. Magnetization of the Ising model below a critical temperature is another example, as is superfluidity. Elitzur showed that for gauge theories it does not happen, although the Higgs mechanism provides a close analogue. This phenomenon is the basis of Landau's theory of second-order phase transitions. It leads to a gapless excitation, or Nambu-Goldstone boson. For 10 points, what is this phenomenon in which microscopic physics is invariant under a given symmetry but the ground state is not?
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It allows the renormalized Higgs mass to be finite and also improves the unification of the coupling constants at the Grand Unification scale. Since R-parity must be conserved, then all of its particles must be produced in pairs, and its lightest particle cannot decay. It is the basis for such postulated particles as selectrons, neutralinos, photinos, and gluinos. Relating gravitational forces to subatomic forces, FTP, name this hypothetical equivalence between fermions and bosons, often abbreviated SUSY.
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It arises when n equals two in the formula "inverse wavelength equals Rydberg's constant times the quantity 1 over n squared minus 1 over m squared". The first, or alpha, member is at 6563 Angstroms and all other entries are also in the visible spectrum. It was not explained, though, until Bohr's quantum theory of the hydrogen atom. For ten points, name this spectral line series.
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It can be derived by treating Jacobians as fractions and reducing them by one fewer variable, and in symplectic geometry it can be written by saying that the d-form of the structure has zero Lie derivative. Its quantum analogue is given by either the Lindblad or the Ehrenfest equations, and its generalization to collisional systems yield the Boltzmann equation. It also shares its name with a theorem from complex analysis which states that every bounded entire function must be constant. For ten points, identify this theorem of classical mechanics, which states that the volume of phase space does not change for a system with a time-independent Hamiltonian.
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It can be derived from Fermat's Principle by differentiation. In a special case, it can describe pure reflection, and it also explains the action of a prism on white light. It can be stated as a direct proportion, in which case the constant of proportionality is calculated by dividing the indices of refraction of the two media. FTP, name this physical law, which describes the relationship between angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
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It can be described by a traceless tensor, whose components are equal to a weighted integral of "three x sub i x sub j" minus r squared times the Kronecker delta function. Because there is no such thing as negative mass, the lowest order gravitational waves should be of this type. The potential energy of an electrostatic one of them is proportional to the gradient of the external electric field, while the total power radiated by an oscillating one of these is proportional to the frequency to the sixth power. In particle accelerators, magnets of this type are used to focus beams, while electric fields of this type fall off like one over distance to the fourth power. FTP, identify this term which can describe a distribution of two positive and two negative charges.
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It is a natural consequence of postrelativity for the Fock space. Following the evolution of the initial Minkowski vacuum, when the Unruh state coincides with the Hartle state, it can be seen by observers at rest with respect to the body that produces it. It results from the creation of a particle pair near a black hole. One particle falls into the black hole and the other, FTP, moves away as what type of radiation named for the British physicist who proposed it?
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It is a number without dimensions and can be expressed as "epsilon over epsilon sub zero." For this reason it can also be referred to as relative permittivity and in the cgs system it is equal to permittivity. It is measured as the ratio between the capacitance of two capacitors, in which one possesses a given material and the other does not. The most commonly known values of it are 78.2 for water and approximately one for air. FTP, name this constant that measures the ability of a material to resist the formation of an electrical field within it.
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It is an example of linear response theory, analogous to Fourier's law of heat transport, and thus there is a Kubo formula relating the proportionality constant in it to a two-point correlation function of electric currents. Diodes are prominent examples of materials that do not satisfy it, because they permit a flow of current in only one direction. This law can be derived from the Lorentz force with the assumption that there is a drag on charge carriers that is proportional to their velocity. Kirchoff formulated a continuum version of it equating current density to electric field times conductivity of a material. Its most familiar form states that the current through a conductor is proportional to the voltage across it and inversely proportional to resistance. For 10 points, name this law that shares its name with the SI unit of electrical impedance.
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It is the acting principle behind the function of an ultra-microscope, and it is also used to identify a specific path of light that is known as its namesake cone. Only occurring when the objects present are between 10 to 2000 angstroms across, the affected light is polarized at right angles. It offers an explanation for why car headlight beams can be seen in fog but are invisible in clear air, and its discoverer formulated it to explain the sky's blue color. FTP, give the name for this scattering of light by colloidal particles, an effect named for the Englishman who discovered it.
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It is unlikely that a workable theory in which these particles have non-zero charge is possible, since the Cherenkov effect would likely lead them to release arbitrarily large amounts of energy. Maiorino and Rodrigues showed that their existence would invalidate special relativity through the creation of an unavoidable time paradox. First proposed by Arthur Sommerfeld and named by Gerald Feinberg, their existence remains hypothetical, despite a 1973 claim by Philip Crough and Roger Clay to have observed them in a cosmic ray shower. Particles that gain speed as they lose energy, FTP, what are these hypothetical particles that travel faster than the speed of light?
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It was discovered that the ground state of a material is unstable with respect to these groups in 1956. Quite resistant to vibrations within the lattice, they move about relatively unaffected by thermal vibrations below the critical temperature. Since it takes a non-zero amount of energy to break them, and imperfections in superconducting solids, which would normally lead to resistance, are incapable of breaking them, no dissipation and no resistance exist. FTP, name these units formed by superconducting or superfluid state electrons in which two electrons act as a single unit.
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It was first attempted because of an observance that the period of Io varied slightly, depending on the relative motion of Earth and Jupiter. A better known attempt resulted with the placement of stationary and eight-sided rotating mirrors approximately 35 kilometers apart on the peaks of Mt. Baldy and Mt. Wilson. In 1850 Jean Foucault attempted to do it in water, but the earliest success came to Ole Roemer, who first noticed the variance in Io's period. The first accurate determination came from Albert Michelson who, FTP, performed what task involving the constant c?
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It was first proposed in Traite de la Lumiere and is only valid for an odd number of spatial dimensions; however, the case of one spatial dimension is degenerate. Gustav Kirchoff demonstrated how it could be obtained from Maxwell's equations and the unresolved issue of backward propagation was expounded upon in Feynman-Wheeler theory. For an isotropic medium, it states that the three dimensional envelope of a point source can be either spherical or ellipsoidal, and to account for diffraction, it was modified to describe the amplitude at a point as the superposition of all secondary amplitudes by Fresnel. FTP, give this theory which states that spherical wavelets emanating from points on a wavefront conform to the next wavefront of a propagating wave.
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It was incorrectly proposed by William Crookes as the operational principle behind his namesake tube. Svante Arrhenius believed that life on earth arose from organisms transported through the cosmos by this effect. It scales as the fourth power of the temperature according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, and helps balance gravity in a star. For a uniform source, it is given by one third times the total energy per unit volume within the appropriate space. The operating principle behind the "solar sail" concept, FTP, identify this force per unit area exerted by photons.
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It was postulated after the discovery of several heavy particles thought to be formed by strong nuclear reactions but did not interact with matter via that force. Having only integer values, it is always conserved in strong nuclear reactions that created the heavy particles but not in the weak interactions that cause their decay. Since it must be conserved, heavy particles can only be produced in pairs where the net value is zero, a process called associated production. FTP, identify this quantum property, first proposed by Nishijima and Gell-Mann.
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It was proposed by Ginsburg as a way to generate microwaves, and is relied on in a variation of liquid scintillation counting. It can result from the Askaryan effect, and an unusual type of it can exist near a periodic structure with Bragg scattering, which was confirmed by Smith and Purcell. Its energy is measured by calculating its cone angle, and its cause was explained by Tamm and Frank. Sometimes found surrounding the fuel elements of a nuclear reactor, for 10 points, name this blue glowing light that is emitted when a charged particle travels at a speed greater than the speed of light in a medium.
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It was proposed in a letter to Peter Tait. Leo Szilard offered the first major refutation of the theory behind it, and it was Norbert Weiner who gave it the name by which we know it. Examples of this construct in living systems include ion channels and pumps in the nervous system of it, but the theoretical one can not function as initially proposed. FTP, identify this thought experiment that would violate the second law of thermodynamics, a creature proposed by its namesake.
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It was proposed independently by its two co-discoverers to account for the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Generally regarded as negligible in real world systems, the original hypothesis proposing it regarded it as a real one accompanying the absolute motion of the body. It states that the length of a moving body in an alternate frame of reference equals the square root of one minus the velocity squared divided by the speed of light squared. FTP, identify this aspect of special relativity that suggests the contraction of a moving body in the direction of its motion.
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It was studied for certain high-Tc superconductors by Mesot et. al., who used angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy to conclude there is a single large one in the materials studied. Another probe sometimes used to study it is the de Haas-van Alphen effect. For free electrons, it is just a sphere, but in crystal lattices it acquires directional dependence. At absolute zero it separates filled from unfilled orbitals. It is a surface in momentum space with constant energy. FTP, what is this concept in solid-state physics named for an Italian-American physicist?
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Its discoverer and namesake initially published this law as a Latin anagram and two centuries later, Cauchy generalized it to three-dimensional bodies. The two quantities involved are related by the first Lame constant, a constant represented by mu and known as the shear modulus, though in simpler terms this law can be expressed as "F equals negative k x." FTP, name this law of mechanics that states that stress is directly proportional to strain, and was first used to describe the spring in springs.
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Its discovery was made possible by a technology known as "beam cooling" described in a 1972 paper on "stochastic damping of betatron oscillations" by one of its discoverers. Because it does not participate in quark flavor changes*, its interactions are harder to detect than those of its two companions. It is its own anti-particle, and its signature decay is an electron-positron pair or a muon pair. Along with two other particles, it is predicted by the Weinberg-Glashow-Salaam theory, and its discovery helped earn Rubbia and Van der Meer the 1984 Nobel Prize in physics. With a mass of about 91.2 GeV, FTP name this particle which mediates the electroweak force, the neutral partner of the charged W-bosons.
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Its existence was first confirmed by neutron diffraction experiments conducted by Clifford Shull on a sample of manganese oxide. In a sample exhibiting this characteristic, the magnetic moments align in a regular pattern with neighboring moments pointing in opposite directions, resulting in a net magnetization of zero. At certain temperatures, these materials become disordered and begin to exhibit paramagnetic properties, a point which is known as the Néel point, and which is similar to the Curie point. FTP, identify this type of magnetism which is the opposite of ferromagnetism.
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Its intermediate case is known as the Paschen-Back effect, and if the associated interaction is larger than the hyperfine interaction, it is known as the Back-Goudsmit effect. The Hanle effect can be used in conjunction with it to study level lifetimes, while for certain field values, level crossing occurs, despite the fact that it mostly breaks degeneracy rather than creating it. Known in the weak-field case as "anomalous," FTP, identify this effect, in which atomic levels are split by the magnetic quantum number upon application of an external magnetic field.
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Its inventor actually copied two earlier designs, a 1785 one by Rouland and a more effective 1893 one by Von Busch. It was originally referred to as the "tin can" because the collecting terminal was in fact a tin can. The original one employed a pure silk ribbon driven by a small motor, though rubber is now used in place of silk and sometimes two pulleys are employed to keep the belt moving. Particles can be accelerated to as much as ten million volts in this structure characterized by the large spherical electrode. Named for its American discoverer, FTP, identify this type of electrostatic generator.
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Its namesake publicly enunciated it two months after he heard a lecture by Francois Arago reporting the work of another scientist. Maxwell's resolution of a dilemma within it resulted in his formulation of displacement current. It can be formally stated as the line integral of the magnetic field around an arbitrarily chosen path is proportional to the net electric current enclosed by the path. It is an alternate expression of the more general Biot-Savart law. FTP, identify this relationship named for its French discoverer.
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Its solution involved an illustration explaining the problems inherent in a simple harmonic oscillator that had dominant high frequencies even at low temperatures and low wavelengths. The man who solved it postulated the function f of nu over t equals the inverse of the quantity the exponential of energy divided by kT minus one, allowing a much more accurate fit than Wien's function. Resulting from the v2 divergence at high frequencies of the Rayleigh-Jeans law for an idealized blackbody, FTP, what is this problem whose solution is the equation E = n-h-nu, whose resolution by Planck launched quantum mechanics?
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Its trace is the divergence of the dilatation current, and thus zero in a conformal theory. In Yang-Mills theory it corresponds to an interpolating operator for spin 2 glueballs. For an ideal fluid, knowing it is equivalent to knowing the pressure and density, and it is diagonal in a comoving frame. The Noether procedure finds it as a set of conserved currents associated to translation invariance, but this may not produce a symmetric answer. The usual symmetric definition is a variation of the nongravitational part of the action with respect to the metric. FTP, what is this quantity that the Einstein equations relate to the curvature of space?
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Its use in perpetual motion machines was undermined around 1950, when physicist Leon Brillouin [bree-ou-AN] showed that the increased change resulting from its actions would exceed, in magnitude, the decrease in change brought about by its actions. This unit chooses between fast and slow molecules, and even though the fast molecules, once sectioned off into their own chamber, would have excess energy to do work, it would still create entropy. Hypothesized in 1871 it allows for the violation of the second law of thermodynamics. FTP, name this device, imagined by its Scottish creator as an intelligent gatekeeper between two vessels of gas who willfully separated fast and slow molecules into different vessels.
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Its value can be derived by applying the Bragg-Williams approximation to a 2-dimensional Ising model, resulting in a mean-field theory. It is given by the coupling constant times the number of nearest neighbors divided by Boltzmann's constant, and Onsager's solutions imply that near it the spontaneous magnetization scales as the one-eighth power of the temperature. TRM occurs when a substance is cooled in the presence of a magnetic field below this point, which has an antiferromagnetic counterpart in the Neel temperature. Associated with a second-order critical transition, for ten points, identify this temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic, discovered by the father-in-law of Frédéric Joliot.
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Its value for various substances include 2.25 for paraffin, 78.2 for water, and about 2,000 for barium titanate. Air has a value of 1.00059, which is slightly higher than the value for a vacuum, whose value of 1 is the smallest possible. Identical to permittivity in the cgs system, it is symbolized by the Greek letter kappa, and is usually calculated by taking C over C naught. FTP, what is this constant, the measure of the increase in effectiveness of a capacitor when filled with an insulating material?
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One can study this chemical process by using a Kurie plot. It fundamentally involves the emission of a W boson and the conversion of either a down quark to an up quark, or vice versa. In nature, one sees it in the gradual metamorphosis of cesium to barium with no change in atomic number. Specifically, the minus type of this reaction converts neutrons into protons with the release of a negatively charged lepton. FTP, name this radioactive decay in which either a positron or an electron is emitted.
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One candidate for it is trinification, which predict magnetic monopoles, while some technicolor models, may also fall into this category. Other candidates include preon models, such as the Harari-Rishon model, while SO10 suffers from the doublet-triplet splitting problem. The flipped SU5 and SU10 models get their name from the flipping of the left-handed fermions relative to the Georgi-Glashow model, which predicts proton decay. The Pati-Salam one predicts spontaneous symmetry breaking, but the most famous might be string theory. For ten points, identify these extensions of the Standard Model which seek to incorporate electroweak and strong interactions into a single force.
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One consequence of this expression in the limit of large masses is the satisfaction of the weak Haag-Narnhofer-Stein prescription for all finite Kubo-Martin-Schwinger states, nullifying temperature inferences associated with the type of structure it models. The center of its namesake geometry is described by a convergent definition of the variational integral from which the Dirac equation is derived. That geometry also contains a space-time role reversal shell with nonzero thickness as regulated by the cosmic censorship hypothesis. The lower boundary of its predicted shell is known as the Cauchy Horizon, and surrounds a singularity. FTP, name this relativity equation solution given by coupling the Einstein Equation to the Maxwell Field, which governs the behavior of a charged, non-rotating black hole.
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One describes the relation between electric flux and charge on an enclosed surface. One describes the relation between magnetic flux through an area enclosed by a closed and the electric field induced along the loop. Another relates the circulating magnetic field to the electric current in a closed loop. And the last describes the structure of a magnetic field. Including Gauss' Law, Faraday's Law of Induction, and Ampere's Law, FTP, identify this set of formulas named for the Scottish scientist who grouped them together.
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One device named for this man is used in optical isolators and is governed in part by the Verdet constant. That device, known as his rotator, makes use of his eponymous effect, whereby ferromagnetic resonance leads to circular birefringence to change the polarization angle of light upon application of a magnetic field. One law named for him makes use of his eponymous constant, which has a value of about 96,000 Coulombs per mole. Another law named for him concerns the relationship between the time derivative of magnetic flux and the electromotive force it generates. For 10 points, identify this namesake of a law of induction and of the SI unit for capacitance.
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One equation named for this man, another physicist, and Gilbert gives the precessional motion of magnetization in a solid, while with Zener ( ) he names an equation that gives the transition dynamics of a two-state quantum system. With Pomeranchuk and Migdal, he names an effect that results in the reduction of the pair production cross section at high matter density. He names the value at which the coupling constant of a field theory becomes infinity, his namesake pole. In addition to that equation named for him and Lifshitz, he's probably most famous for his theory, generalized by Coleman and Weinberg, which describes second order phase transitions. FTP, name this physicist who names a phenomenological theory of superconductivity with Ginzburg, a 1962 Nobel prizewinner.
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One equation used to describe this process states that m a is equal to F x minus beta times the velocity vector plus eta of t. Levy stated that a process X is one of these if it is its own natural filtration and if X sub I times X sub J minus Kronecker sub ij times t for all I and J is a martingale. This physical process is the classical example of a Wiener process, and Feynman developed a thought experiment that uses a ratchet to derive work from this process. This process is described by the Langevin equation, while it is used to predict the size of molecules based on one of Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers. It was first observed by its namesake via pollen grains in water. For 10 points, name this random movement of particles in a fluid.
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One example for which it has been proven is for geodesic motion on compact hyperbolic spaces. Its failure for bodies interacting gravitationally is important, as if this property were present the Earth's orbit would be highly disturbed by the other bodies in the solar system. Birkhoff proved it holds in certain conditions. The hypothesis that statistical mechanical systems have this property was made by Boltzmann, and now it is a branch of mathematics that studies group actions on measure spaces. Essentially it allows one to relate space and time averages. FTP, what is this hypothesis that phase space trajectories eventually pass arbitrarily close to any given point?
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One example of this phenomenon is chiral autocatalysis from apparently racemic solutions, while in another context, this term applies to asynchronous protein cascades involved in coagulation. This concept was defined by Krasnoselski using the theory nonlinear dynamics and nonlinear operators, and the energy lost through this phenomenon is given by the Steinmetz equation. A model of this phenomenon based on monocrystals was devised by Weiss, while a model of it whose building blocks are relay nonlinearities is named after Preisach. A form of this phenomenon results in an example of self-organized criticality known as the Barkhausen effect, and the characteristic loop produced by this phenomenon appears on the graph of magnetization versus magnetic field strength. For ten points, identify this phenomenon in which a material exhibits a "memory," or a time-lagging dependence on applied stress.
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One form of this interaction is governed by the CKM matrix. Because they decay by this interaction, charged pions have long lifetimes. Having charged- and neutral-current interactions, this force allows flavor change and, as discovered by Yang and Lee and Cronin and Fitch, breaks both P and CP symmetry. Research about this force garnered the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg, who unified it with the electromagnetic force. It is mediated by heavy gauge bosons named W and Z. FTP, name this short-ranged interaction with a very small coupling constant.
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One form of this phenomenon can be modeled with a hierarchical model developed by Haldane and Haperin. When plotted against the chemical potential and another value, the integer version of it colors Hofstadter's Butterfly. Dan Tsui and Horst Stromer won a Nobel Prize for analyzing a variant of this where multiple particles are in motion. The fractional form produces narrower plateaus than the integer form, the latter of which involves Chern numbers. As a result of this effect, discovered in the inversion layer of a MOSFET by Klaus von Klitzing, the elementary charge, filling factor and Planck's constant determine its namesake's conductivity. For 10 points, name this effect from physics, whose classical analog describes the perpendicular voltage generated by applying an electric current perpendicular to a magnetic field.
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One form of this quantity is modified by the principle of least coupling to include the product of charge and vector potential, and its operator can be defined in simple cases as the negative product of i, h bar, and the gradient. In the relativistic four-vector of it, the first term is energy divided by the speed of light, and that form is also included in a generalization of the classical stress tensor. Noether's theorem relates the conservation of this quantity to translational invariance, and its time rate of change is related to force via Newton's Second Law. For 10 points, name this quantity that is conserved in collisions and calculated as the product of mass and velocity, symbolized p.
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One implementation of this device relies on dual-slope integration, which eliminates the need for a precision capacitor, but is slow. Another technique for implementing one of these is successive-approximation, in which the output is fed back into a comparator to determine whether it needs to be increased, decreased, or is accurate. For signals with Laplacian distributions, a logarithmic one is often used. All of them suffer from the quantization error, which lies between zero and half of one least-significant-byte, and their sampling rate is determined by the Shannon-Nyquist theorem. For ten points, identify this electronic component, used to translate continuous signals into discrete ones.
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One instance of this phenomenon, discovered by Lee, Osheroff, and Richardson, is distinguished by either an "A phase" or "B phase", and is valuable in theoretical studies due to its anisotropic nature. Laszlo Tisza proposed the "two fluid" model to help explain the first known instance of it, while Lev Landau offered a partial explanation in which quantum soundwaves remove internal resistance to movement when the medium reaches the "lambda point", which was about 2.2 Kelvin when Pytor Kapitza discovered it in Helium-4. FTP, what is this phenomenon in which all viscosity is removed from helium at very low temperatures?
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One method developed to approximate this entity is inversion of the Roothan equation, a method that is itself an generalization of a technique to approximate this mathematical entity in which an N-linear function of N of these entities evaluated at N different sets of coordinates is minimized via a variational principle. The second aforementioned technique uses Slater determinants and is known as the self-consistent field method or Hartree-Fock method. More generally, this mathematical object can often be understood as an eigenvector of a Hamiltonian operator or as a superposition thereof. For 10 points, name this mathematical object central to quantum mechanics, the dependent variable in the Schrödinger equation whose square modulus gives the probability density for finding particles.
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One modification to this equation involves adding an embedded magnetic dipole. Kihara generalized it to account for non-spherical bodies. Barker and Henderson used a temperature-dependent diameter term in a perturbation theory used with this equation. In addition to the Stockmayer modification of it, another method decomposes the model into two piecewise terms, both with a change at two to the 1/6 sigma. A truncated version sets it to zero at 2.5 times sigma, and it is the basis of the Weeks-Chandler-Andersen perturbation theory. This equation has a coefficient equal to four times the well depth. One of its terms is based on the Pauli exclusion principle. For 10 points, name this potential used to model molecules, that has a 6th power attractive and 12th power repulsive term.
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One of these due to Babinet notes that a target removes twice its cross section from a beam in the physical limit. Dicke's one notes that the density of the universe is very close to the critical density. Ones in fluid mechanics include Stokes', which relates to the boundary conditions on creeping flow about an infinite cylinder, and one regarding the drag on an object in an inviscid fluid due to D'Alambert's. Bell's inequality resolves one of the most subtle of these quandaries, the quantum relativistic Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen or EPR one. FTP, name these seemingly self-contradictory statements used to poke holes in theoretical science.
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One of these particles exchanges a virtual photon with an electron in Bhabha scattering, and along with a neutrino, one of these is a side product of the creation of deuterium in the proton-proton chain. A pion and one of these particles should result from proton decay, and their appearance under normal circumstances will immediately result in the creation of a photon with 511 keV of energy. They were first postulated as negative energy solutions to a namesake wave equation by Paul Dirac, and they were discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson. For 10 points, name this spin-1/2 particle with positive charge, the antiparticle of the electron.
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One of this man's eponymous laws states that the first, second, and third components of the 4-gradient of the dual tensor vanish. His namesake effect describes the rotation of polarized light by a magnetic field, and he also lends his name to the SI unit of a property which, for a sphere, is given by 4 pi times the permittivity of free space times the sphere's radius. His eponymous law relating the curl of the electric field and the time derivative of the magnetic field was inspired by his experiments with a loop of wire and an electromagnet which showed that any change in the magnetic flux produces an emf. FTP identify this namesake of the SI unit of capacitance who enunciated his eponymous law of induction.
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One paradox concerning this quantity, in which one calculation places it in the numerator but a formula for an identical quantity places it in the denominator, was raised by Peierls. A complex version of this quantity adds i plus the extinction coefficient, while one formula sets its square equal to a rational equation in terms of the coefficients B1 through 3 and C1 through 3. This quantity can be negative in artificial metamaterials. The arctangent of the ratio of this quantity for two materials gives Brewster's angle. Along with the sines of the angle of incidence and this quantity's namesake angle, it is used in Snell's Law. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the speed of light in a medium, the namesake of a certain light-bending effect.
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One program for analyzing data from this technique is DBW, which implements the Rietveld method of using least-squares to match a theoretical line profile to the experimental profile. When theoretical spectra are missing, programs such as TOPAS, GSAS, and Fox can be used for de novo structure determination. The Hall-Williamson method, based on the Scherrer equation and the Stokes-Wilson approximation, can be used to separate peak broadening caused by strain and by size. During analysis, intensity is plotted as a function of "2 theta" or of "q", and a correction for "texture" may be applied if plates or rods align along the axis of the sample holder. For 10 points, name this non-destructive analytic technique also used to study expansion tensors, lattice parameters, phase transitions, and crystallinity, which, for ten points, involves measuring the intensity of neutrons or X-rays as a function of scattering angle.
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One result of these objects is the Tonks-Girardeau gas. In 2003 teams led by Rudolf Grimm and Deborah Jin showed that they could be formed from molecules. Two useful methods for creating them are laser cooling and magnetic evaporative cooling. Often created from (*) rubidium, they are very similar to lasers, where all the photons are identical, since each compound in it is identical. First created in 1995 by Cornell and Wieman, this is, FTP, what fifth state of matter in which individual atoms combine into one superatom?
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One result of this effect was explained by the creation of quasiparticles in a quantum fluid by Laughlin, and Dyakonov and Perel predicted a version of it dependent on spin. It can be used to find hole density in a semiconductor, and von Klitzing showed that under certain situations this effect is quantized. This effect distinguishes between a negative current and a positive current flowing in the opposite direction, and it creates a Lorentz force, resulting in the deflection of charge carriers by a magnetic field. For 10 points, name this effect in which a potential difference is created across a conductor by a perpendicular magnetic field.
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One result of this theory was tested in the 2004 GP-B experiment, which tentatively confirmed the geodetic effect. The equations that govern this theory equate curvature with energy and momentum, represented by the stress-energy tensor. This theory predicts that objects close to a rotating mass undergo precession, a phenomenon known as frame-dragging. It also predicts a phenomenon whereby light is bent by massive objects, called gravitational lensing. For 10 points, name this theory, which is governed by Einstein's field equations, and has a “special†counterpart.
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One set of polynomials used to describe these phenomena are the basis for the ENZ theory and are orthogonal on the unit disk. In addition to the Zernike polynomials, one of these phenomena is called the Petzval curvature. The sine theorem can be used to characterize another one of these in which point sources appear to have a long tail. Seidel decomposed them into five different types, and the Schmidt plate is used to correct one that occurs due to varying focal length across a spherical lens. Also coming in a chromatic variety, FTP, name these effects which include tilt, astigmatism, and distortion, which leads to blurring of images in imperfect lenses.
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One speaker in this work claims that Aeschylus has misinterpreted the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus. At the end of this work, Socrates argues that tragedy and comedy are of the same nature. One of its characters distinguishes between a heavenly, motherless goddess and a more vulgar one, the daughter of Zeus and Dione. Aristophanes says that man was originally androgynous in this work. Phaedrus comments on Alcestis dying for her husband, and Socrates relays Diotima's argument that Love is an intermediary and a philosopher. For 10 points, name this Platonic dialogue on the nature of love that takes place at a drinking party.
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One term in the mathematical expression of this law includes a partial derivative with respect to time of a polarization, but in a vacuum, that term simplifies to the product of permittivity and the partial time derivative of the electric field. The integral and differential forms of it can be related with the Kelvin-Stokes theorem. It would not be affected by the existence of magnetic monopoles, unlike some other equations named for the man who also added that displacement current term to this law, James Maxwell. For 10 points, name this law which states that the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is equal to the permeability times the enclosed current.
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One theorem named for this man can be used to derive the Wannier functions by applying it to a single band, then summing over the u sub k. One construct named for him is used to model two-level quantum systems, usually qubits. In addition to his namesake sphere, another set of equations named for this man sets the derivative of each component of M t equal to a term proportional to the gyromagnetic ratio plus a term containing T1 and T2. The previous formula decomposes a wavefunction into an exponential term and a periodic term, and applies to particles in a periodic potential. He also lends his name to the transition regions between magnetic domains, his namesake “walls.†For 10 points, name this physicist, who with Purcell, developed NMR.
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One type of energy important in this theory is directly proportional to the mean of the fourth power of a certain radius and inversely proportional to the fifth power of another radius, and a normalized version of it is found on the x-axis in a Tanabe-Sugano diagram; that energy is its namesake stabilization energy. This theory, which unlike a similar theory does not attempt to describe bonding, states that nonbonding electrons on negative ligands cause the d-orbitals in a cation to split into e-sub-g and t-sub-2g orbitals, which explains the colors exhibited by coordination complexes. It is combined with molecular orbital theory to form ligand field theory. For 10 points, name this model of chemistry, developed by Hans Bethe, which explains the electronic structure of d-block metals.
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One type of it is the Minnaert. Johann Lambert first used this term in 1760, while the original definition was proposed by Bond, whose variety is also known as the spherical type. Water is unusual in that its value for this quantity is dependent on the angle of the incident light. Its value can range from one to zero, snow having a value of 0.9, while a perfect mirror would have a value of 1. FTP, name this term from the Latin for "whiteness" which is a measure that is the ratio of the energy reflected from a body to the energy incident upon it.
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One type of this property is characterized by the presence of a parabaloidal surface known as the Petzval surface, while another type is typified by a phenomenon known as the circle of least confusion. Yet another variety has barrel and pincushion arrays, which are alternate forms of a square grid of lines. Of the six types, the least common is coma, which results in a comet-shaped picture. Curvature of field, spherical, and chromatic are just some of the types of, FTP, what optical property defined as the deviation of light rays through lenses causing a blurred image?
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Particles of dielectric materials may be separated in a fractionation method that uses a nonuniform one of these. Band-bending occurs because it varies linearly in a depletion layer. Symmetric top molecules undergo line-splitting in their microwave spectrum due to the application of one of these. Modulators for active Q-switching lasers rely on an effect in which crystals lacking inversion symmetry become birefringent in linear proportion to the magnitude of one of these. Its flux through a surface is proportional to enclosed charge, and its curl is equal to the negative time partial of the magnetic field. Its magnitude is proportional to one-over-r for a line charge, and it is proportional to one over r squared for a point charge. For 10 points, name this vector field given in units of volts per meter.
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Particularly useful when expressed in action-angle variables, it is the operator for which eigenvalues are sought in the Schrodinger equation. A function of the canonical positions and momenta, under certain conditions it is equal to the energy of the system. For ten points, what function of classical mechanics, named for an Irish mathematician, is closely related to the Lagrangian?
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Recent evidence for a strongly coupled version of it includes anomalous J/psi suppression in lead-lead collisions at CERN and jet-quenching and monojet production in collisions between gold atoms and bulk collective elliptical flow at Brookhaven National Laboratory's heavy ion collider. The standard model predicts its existence through lattice calculations showing a rapid rise in entropy at around 160 mega-electron volts, after which the number of degrees of freedom saturate. Predicted to exist in the cores of dense neutron stars as well as during the first 1 to 10 microseconds of the universe's existence, FTP identify this state of matter in which hadrons decompose into their constituent components, which is abbreviated QGP.
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Rossi and Testa noticed an inconsistency between it and the canonical commutation relations, and a pure-glue form of it was implemented to apply to both gluons and quarks by Chen and Belloni. In theories of quantum gravity, this law implies that the total energy-momentum density at every point in space vanishes, and it is non-linear in QCD, while in QED it can be implemented by choosing wave functions that are dependent only on the transverse parts of the vector potential. In its gravitational form, it can be re-written as the Poisson equation by replacing the gravitational field with the gravitational potential. It can be used to demonstrate the safety of a Faraday cage, and in the case of stationary charges it is equivalent to Coulomb's law. The first of Maxwell's equations, for 10 points, name this physical law that states the total electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge divided by the permittivity.
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Sapiro, Zhang, and Raithel used a one-dimensional optical lattice to demonstrate the transition of this substance from a superfluid to a Mott-insulator. Ramsey fringes appear in these substances when one applies a series of pulses from the excitation field. When confined to one dimension, the equivalent of this substance is called a Tonks-Girardeau gas, while Ketterle was able to create it in dilute gases. Modelled by the Gross-Pitaevskii equation, this substance is typically created by cooling rubidium atoms, after which they collapse into the same quantum state as discovered by Cornell and Weimann. FTP, name this state of matter in which bosons are brought near absolute zero, named after two scientists.
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Several methods to detect this particle rely on its interactions with isotopes, including its conversion of gallium-71 to germanium-71 and chlorine-37 to radioactive argon, the latter of which is used at the Homestake gold mine observatory in South Dakota. Postulated in 1931 to account for the missing energy in beta decay, it was tenitively identified in 1953 and more definitely in 1956, has no charge, and is thought to travel at the speed of light and have zero rest mass, although in some grand unified theories it is predicted to have nonzero mass. FTP, what are these leptons associated with the tau particle, muons, and electrons?
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Similar to the Stark effect, calculations in the weak-field limit yield Lande's formula for the energy shift. The strong field, or Paschen-Back limit, gives an energy shift proportional to the Bohr magneton and the spin quantum numbers. For ten points, what effect describes the splitting of spectral lines under the influence of a magnetic field.
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Sodium iodide scintillators are often used to counter the appearance of false peaks in gamma ray spectra , which is called this phenomenon's namesake edge. At higher frequency, its differential cross section is calculable by the Klein-Nishina formula. Planck's constant divided by rest mass times speed of light gives the wavelength named for this effect. That wavelength is multiplied by 1 minus cosine of the angle of scattered photons to give the shift in wavelength following this type of scattering. For 10 points, name this phenomenon, a photon's decrease in wavelength and increase in energy when it collides with an electron, named after an American physicist.
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Some of the first evidence for this phenomenon was seen in an observed excitation of the cyanogen radical. It experiences a diffusion damping named for Silk. Using the Kompaneets equation, it can be shown how electrons scatter this in an inverse Compton Effect. The effect of gravitational potential perturbation on this phenomenon is known as the Sachs-Wolfe effect, and this anisotropy shows fluctuations in density from the time of recombination. It was discovered at Bell Labs by Penzias and Wilson and it has a temperature of about 2.7 Kelvin. For 10 points, name this blackbody radiation left over from the time around the big bang that permeates the universe.
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Spectral lines generated by this effect are moved when one nuclear isomer is replaced by another, and in order for this effect to occur E sub R must be less than one-half of the linewidth for the corresponding transition. Spectral lines of molecules undergoing this effect display a characteristic namesake "wing". One quantity important in this effect is equal to the exponential of a polynomial involving the absolute value of the scattering vector q, and gives a ratio of transitions via this effect to purely resonant transitions, known as the Debye-Waller factor. Originally discovered in a block of Iridium, this effect was used via a pair of samples of iron attached to loudspeakers in order to prove the existence of gravitational redshift by Pound and Rebka. For 10 points, name this effect in which solid atoms absorb and emit gamma rays in a recoil-free manner, named for a German.
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The Abbe number is defined in terms of this quantity, which can be found using Cauchy's or Sellmeier's equation. It is equal to the square root of the product of the relative permeability and the relative permittivity of the material, and metamaterials could have a negative value for this quantity. The arctangent of the ratio between two materials' values for this gives Brewster's Angle. It also appears in an equation that follows from Fermat's Principle, Snell's Law, and it is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to in a medium. For 10 points, name this property which governs a namesake effect in which a beam of light is bent as it passes between mediums.
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The Askaryan effect can generate this phenomenon, whose alteration by a periodic grating is the Smith-Purcell effect. Hankel functions were utilized by Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm to develop a formula calculating the intensity of this effect. It occurs when an electromagnetic field in a local medium is disrupted, releasing photons that constructively interfere and is often considered an analogue of a sonic boom. For 10 points, name this effect named for its Russian discoverer which occurs when particles propagate faster than the local speed of light through a medium, generating an oft-seen blue color.
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The BBC recently introduced a codec for video transmission named for this man, who noted that several size ratios in the universe were of the same magnitude in his large numbers hypothesis. A representation of the Clifford algebra is expressed in his eponymous 4 by 4 matrices, and he expanded on the work of Poisson to account for second-class constraints in his eponymous brackets. His comb is a series of another function that he names, and his eponymous sea led to the prediction of a certain particle and grew from his relativistic version of the wave equation. For 10 points, name this man who predicted the positron and names a unit impulse delta function.
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The Barkhausen Effect is a series of minute jumps in this property. It is believed to be caused by fields generated by electron spins in combination with a mechanism known as exchange coupling. Substances exhibit this property below the Curie temperature, and most substances that exhibit it are divided into regions known as domains. FTP, identify this retention of a magnetic moment even when the external magnetic field is reduced to zero, so-named because of its presence in iron.
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The Debye-Sears effect concerns materials exhibiting this effect that are placed in a liquid and vibrated at a fixed frequency, in which they set up acoustic waves. Trigonal crystals exhibiting it are especially useful in the eponymous oscillator. The reverse version of the effect is also useful, and occurs when a potential difference is applied to materials that exhibit it, such as barium titanate, Rochelle salts, and quartz. FTP, what is this effect, the generation of a potential difference in certain non-conducting crystals that are subjected to stress?
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The Duane-Hunt law can be used to calculate the maximum frequencies observed from an inverse form of this effect. It was first seen in an experiment performed in a dark box, where the area between two brass conductors formed a spark gap, but the same could not be said for glass or quartz when UV light was shone on them. This effect is only observed in materials whose work function is less than the energy of incident particles, and the difference in those quantities gives the kinetic energy of particles emitted. Sometimes named for its discoverer Heinrich Hertz, for 10 points, name this effect in which photons striking a metal result in an emission of electrons.
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The Eötvös-Ramsey law expresses this property as proportional to the temperature of the liquid, while the Gibbs-Thompson law links pressure to mean curvature for a liquid subject to it. LaPlace's law governs the minimization of this property and is seen directly in the use of agents known as surfactants. Usually symbolized by the Greek letter gamma, this property explains the ability of a liquid to engage in capillary action. FTP, identify this property that is the tendency for a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic membrane.
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The Feynman disk paradox can be resolved by noting that the electromagnetic field is allowed to carry this property. For light, multi-electron atoms, spectral details are correctly reproduced by Russell-Saunders coupling of this property of the electrons. The Kerr metric is appropriate for describing black holes with a nonzero value for this quantity and zero charge. The Bohr model of the atom proposes that this quantity is quantized in units of h-bar. FTP name this quantity whose time derivative is the torque, given by the moment of inertia times the rotational velocity, which comes in orbital and spin subtypes.
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The Glan-Foucault polarizer and the Wollaston prism employ both birefringence and this property in order to separate the two beams of light in a crystalline material. The critical angle necessary for the use of such an event is 48.6 degrees for a water-air boundary, which can be calculated by setting the angle of refraction equal to 90 degrees and using Snell's law. FTP, identify this optical phenomenon in which an incident angle of a light beam greater than such a critical angle will lead to a successful strategy for engineering fiber optic cables.
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The Gross-Pitaevskii equation is used to model it, and in a 2002 Science paper, semiconductor quantum wells were used to study it in exciton-polaritons. Observing the second-order coherence properties can give optical evidence of it, and when placed in an optical lattice, it can show a superfluid to Mott-insulator phase transition. Electro-magnetically induced transparency, atom lasing, and ultra-slow light have been observed in it, and in the first demonstration of it, rubidium atoms were loaded in a magneto-optical trap and laser cooled to just above absolute zero. For 10 points, identify this distinct form of matter, named for an Indian and a German physicist.
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The Hamiltonian in the Heisenberg model of ferromagnetism is a sum of the product of a coupling constant and operators of this property. For one type of particle, the operator for this property can be found by multiplying h bar over two by the Pauli matrix. A g-factor of approximately two is used in the expression for an electron's magnetic moment resulting from this property. This property must differ for two electrons in the same orbital. Evidence for it came from the Stern-Gerlach Experiment. An electron can have plus or minus one half as values of this property's quantum number. For 10 points, name this intrinsic angular momentum of a particle.
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The Hughes-Drever experiment ruled out a second light tensor field in general relativity by noting that if not proportional to the metric, it would induce this. A spectrophotometric method named for this property evaluates the polarization of fluorescent probes to generate a binding curve; in this method, the G-factor relates differently oriented light sources. The magnetocrystalline form of this property represents the energy needed to deflect the magnetic moment of a single crystal based on the spin-orbit coupling that occurs within the crystal lattice. An object that possesses this property can undergo birefringence due to orientation-dependent differences in its index of refraction. For 10 points, name this characteristic of substances like graphite with direction-dependent properties.
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The Kayser-Runge formulas were an early empirical derivation of this, and the theoretical decrement of this was studied by Plaskett and Cillie. Schmidt found a severely red-shifted version of this in 3C273, thereby elucidating the nature of quasars. Its analog in helium is found in Wolf-Rayet stars and is named for Pickering. Corresponding to the Fraunhofer lines C, F, G-prime, and h, their usefulness results from a broadening caused by the Stark effect, and they can be seen when electrons drop to the n = 2 energy level, thus placing them between the Paschen and Lyman groups. Derivable from the Rydberg formula, for 10 points, identify this set of four spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom, located in the visible light spectrum.
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The Knox-Thompson method computes the Fourier Transform of images associated with these objects. The simplest type of these is utilized in hyperfine structure analysis and utilizes a single component known as a Lummer-Gehrcke plate. In some varieties, the Martin-Puplett equation is employed in the calculation of input powers associated with them. A more common variety utilizes a gyroscope and laser, and uses the Sagnac Effect to determine angular velocity. An external modulator is typically used to vary the position of waveguides in the Mach-Zehnder type. FTP, name this common device useful for measuring phase altering media by producing its namesake figures, the most famous of which was used to disprove the existence of the ether by Michelson and Morley.
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The Lax-Wendroff and Leapfrog schemes modify the general equation for this process. For a cylinder in cross flow, the Churchill-Bernstein equation estimates the Nusselt number for this process. One type of this process is named for Boussinesq, and Benard cells take on a hexagonal shape when undergoing this process. The Richardson number determines whether it is free or forced, and when the Rayleigh number is above the critical value for a fluid, heat transfer occurs through this process. FTP, identify this process, the flow of heat through the movement of matter from a hot region to a cold region, which is opposite from conduction.
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The MSW effect accounts for this particle's oscillations in matter as opposed to a vacuum, and its “sterile†variety is a strong candidate for dark matter composition. The Homestake experiment attempted to count these particles emitted due to fusion in the Sun, while Cowan and Reines reacted its antiparticles with protons to yield neutrons and beta plus particles to verify this particle's existence. Studied at the Super-Kamiokande facility, this particle was postulated to allow conservation of energy and momentum in beta decay, which involves its electron type. Also coming in muon and tauon varieties, for 10 points name this chargeless lepton whose name means “small neutral one.â€
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The Meitner-Hupfeld effect is a deviation from this formula in heavy elements. The first experimental confirmations of this were made by Louis Gray, and studies of it by Chung-yao Chao led to the discovery of the positron. Mathematically, one side of it can be expressed as the product of the fine structure constant, Compton radius, and several terms containing the ratio of the photon energy before and after collisions, and, for low energies, it reduces to the classical Thomson equation. For 10 points, identify this formula that was the first experimental proof for Dirac's relativistic electron theory, which gives the differential cross section of a photon scattered by an unbound electron.
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The Palierne equation models a suspension of two types of these. The Herschel-Bulkley model describes these when there is a non-linear stress/strain relation, and, when initial flow of these requires a finite yield stress, they are called Bingham plastics. The combined study of these and of plastics is known as rheology. When the properties of these are time-dependent, they are classified as rheopectic or thixotropic, and when they are dependent on the shear stress they are called pseudoplastics or dilatants. When considering these, the numerator in the Prandtl number and the denominator in the Grashof number are no longer constants. For 10 points, identify these types of fluids, the most famous example being a suspension of starch in water that can be walked across, that are defined by their lack of a consistent viscosity.
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The Rodrigues formula and Hermite polynomials figure into the analytic method for finding the wavefunctions of these systems. The allowed energies for these systems can be calculated using the ladder operators. A quantity determining peakedness for energy graphs of these systems is the dimensionless quality factor. Their behavior can be split into transient and steady-state motions when they are subjected to a sinusoidal driving force and a simple damping force, and they exhibit resonance at certain frequencies. For 10 points, name this kind of system whose periodic, sinusoidal motion is described by Hooke's law, examples of which include a mass on a spring and a simple pendulum.
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The Sagnac effect was discovered in an experiment which built upon this experiment and disproved the "ballistic theory." One experiment very similar to it used varying lengths of an object to show that the time difference is constant, thus falsifying the Fitzgerald-Lorentz hypothesis. The apparatus used in it was placed on a marble slab which was rotated in mercury to allow for all orientations of a certain "wind" to equally affect the outcome, and one of its namesakes developed the interferometer used in this experiment. For 10 points, identify this experiment, which showed no change in the velocity of light due to ether drift, and thus debunked the theory of the luminiferous ether.
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The Seiberg-Witten invariants arise in the analysis of symmetry breaking in N=2 supersymetric variety of this theory, and Wilson's discrete gauge reformulation on an hypercubic space-time lattice is often used to give approximations to this theory, as perturbative calculations using it are only accurate on very small space-time scales due to the asymptotic freedom of the particles that it governs. The symmetry of the equations of this theory corresponds to SU(3) and its gauge bosons, which possess the property for which it is named, were postulated independently by both Oscar Greenberg and Yoichiro Nambu in 1964. FTP, name the theory, derived by analogy to quantum electrodynamics, which describes strong force interactions in terms of a "strong charge," or color.
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The Sivers mechanism is used to model one type of asymmetry of this property, and this property gives its name to a type of disordered material modeled by the Sherrington-Kirpatrick model. The relaxation and transport of it is the basis for Giant Magnetoresistance sandwich structures used in hard disks, and the three canonical operators for this quantity are obtained by multiplying h-bar over 2 times the Pauli matrices. Heisenberg proposed these kinds of chains as a model for magnetism, and the experiment that led to its discovery as a quantum phenomenon used a furnace to fire silver atoms through an inhomogeneous magnetic field with the results consistent with only two possible values of this property. For 10 points, identify this quantity investigated by the Stern-Gerlach experiment which has integer values for bosons and half-integer values for fermions.
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The Soave equation modifies it with the addition of an acentric factor, which is also included in another modification, the Peng-Robinson equation. Another modification was proposed by the scientist who proposed an explanation for the critical point as well as stating the law of corresponding states. At higher densities, corrections to it are given by the virial expansion. Another correction is the Redlich-Kwong equation, which includes a term proportional to the inverse one half power of the temperature. High temperature, low pressure situations give the best agreements with the predictions of this equation, which implicitly contains Avogadro's law. Derived from Charles' law and Boyle's law, FTP name this simple equation of state, typically given as PV equals RT.
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The Sommerfeld number is important in the study of decreasing this phenomenon, and the Frenkel-Kontorova-Tomlinson model describes it. Its coefficient is related to the Stribeck number by the Stribeck curve. It causes the formation of tribofilms. It is described by a pair of laws named for Amonton, and the point where one form of it is overcome is the angle of repose. This force is independent of sliding velocity and proportional to the normal force. When its strength alternates with motion, the stick-slip phenomenon occurs. For 10 points, name this phenomenon, which represents the force resisting any sliding motion, and which comes in static and kinetic varieties.
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The Weber number is inversely proportional to this quantity, while one must correct for deviations in this quantity in circular matter using Tolman's delta. One method of measuring this quantity is the Wilhelmy plate method, and this quantity is zero at the critical point according to the Eotvos rule. Mass transfer due to this property is called the Marangoni effect, and one equation states that this is equal to the pressure difference divided by the sum of the inverses of the radii of curvature; that equation is named for Young and Laplace. Surfactants lower this value, which is responsible for tears of wine. FTP, name this property of liquids that allows bugs to walk across a lake.
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The Yukawa interaction for a fermion is proportional to the square of this property of the particle. This property of a black hole whose Compton wavelength and Schwarzschild radius are equal is named for Planck. Using units where space and time are equal, the square of this property is equal to e squared minus p squared. Particles are believed to gain this property through the Higgs boson. The gravitational force between two objects is proportional to the product of the objects' this. For 10 points, name this quantity that is multiplied by acceleration to obtain force in Newton's Second Law of Motion, a measure of the amount of matter in an object often measured in grams.
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The austausch coefficient gives the proportionality between the rate of transport of a component in this process and that component's gradient's rate of transport. Its Lagrangian form involves solving the biharmonic equation, and Kolmogorov proposed that during this process, the velocity difference between two points scales as the distance between them to the one-third power. This term characterizes the behaviour in an area known as the "corner region." A "wake" form of it, also known as jetwash, is responsible for wingtip vortices, and the Froude number helps determine its onset in open channels. Typically ocurring at Reynolds numbers of over 4000, for ten points, identify this chaotic flow regime, the opposite of laminar flow.
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The barotropic equation describing this quantity is used for forecasting the movement of Rossby waves in the atmosphere. In aerodynamics, the total amount of this quantity is used in the Kutta-Joukowski theorem to calculate the lift on an airfoil. The Biot-Savart law gives the velocity induced by it and the lack of this quantity, along with incompressibility, leads to d'Alembert's paradox. For a fluid with rigid rotation, its value is twice the angular velocity of the fluid. FTP, identify this quantity, often given as the curl of the velocity field, that is related to the amount of circulation in a fluid.
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The basis for the Venturl effect, this law can be used to explain the principle of flight. In it , compressibility and viscosity are assumed to be negligible. Equivalent to a statement of the law of conservation of energy, it states that the total mechanical energy of a fluid is the sum of the energy resulting from the fluid pressure and the potential and kinetic energies of the fluid. FTP, what is this law formulated in 1738 by its namesake Swiss scientist?
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The calculation of this quantity for various substances was the original driving force for Nicholas Metropolis and Stanislaw Ulam to develop Monte Carlo models, as the relevant dimensions encountered limit the usefulness of a continuum approach. It can be reduced with the use of a beryllium reflector, while mean free path and radiative capture effects make it inversely proportional to density. Although some applications require the "prompt" version of this quantity, others use moderation to ensure that delayed neutrons are also needed to reach it. For 10 points, name this smallest amount of material needed to sustain a fissile nuclear reaction.
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The charged versions of these particles have a mass of 139.6 mega electron-volts, which is 3.6 higher than the neutral type. The strong interaction can be represented as the exchange of virtual ones between particles. The lightest of the strongly-interacting particles, they were discovered using the then-novel "photographic emulsion" technique, using plates that had been exposed on an RAF airplane and a mountain of the Pyrennes, allowing Cecil Powell to first identify them in 1947. FTP, what is this type of meson, the first to be discovered?
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The common factor in rotational kinetic energy and angular momentum, it can be found using the parallel axis and perpendicular axis theorems by accounting for the mass distribution. When multiplied by the angular acceleration, it yields the net torque in a system and forms an integral part in rotational motion. FTP, identify this concept in physics that is considered the rotational analog of mass and is generally designated I.
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The conservation law for this quantity depends on whether the context is special or general relativity, as in the former situation the divergence is 0, and by Noether's theorem, the translation symmetries imply this conserved current. While it is generally symmetric, this is not true if the spin tensor is nonzero. In general relativity, where the conservation law is more complicated, there is a relation between it and another quantity which is a nonlinear function of the metric and which satisfies the Bianchi identity. It has an electromagnetic portion which can be expressed as a function of the electromagnetic field tensor. It is a relativistic generalization of a quantity from mechanics that is graphically represented as Mohr's circle, expresses the internal force per area of surface on which the force acts, and whose eigenvalues are called principle stresses. For 10 points, name this quantity which appears in the Einstein field equations as proportional to the Einstein tensor, is defined as the flux of generalized momenta through spacetime, and which causes and determines the way spacetime curves.
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The derivation of this expression from the Darcy-Weisbach equation combines the formula for the energy head loss factor with the equation for the kinematic viscosity. Wilberforce's variation is a modification of Hagenbach's equation, which contained a coefficient of kinetic friction that allowed it to be extended to turbulent flow. One of its uses is to calculation of the number of capillaries in the body. Stated delta-P equals 8-Q-mu-L divided by pi-R to the fourth power, FTP, name this equation, analogous to Ohm's Law for hydraulics, which predicts laminar flow through a uniform pipe.
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The detector employed, called a Faraday box, was mounted on arc so that it could be rotated to observe particles at different angles. Those particles were accelerated from a heated filament with voltage, and the surprising result was interpreted with the Bragg law to give values for the lattice spacing in the nickel crystal. As a result of it de Broglie's hypothesis was confirmed. FTP, name this experiment that confirmed the wave nature of the electron.
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The diagonal elements of the coupling matrix in an orthonormal n-energy-state system are fully perturbed matrix elements of this object. Adding first-order relativistic corrections to the momentum naturally creates the fine-structure version of this operator, since it is equal to one over the twice the system mass times the inner product of the momentum operator with itself, plus the potential operator. FTP, identify this operator, the operation of which on the wave function is equal to operation of the energy operator on the wave function according to the Schrödinger equation, that is symbolized "h-hat" and that is named for a 19th Century Irish mathematician.
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The discoverer of piperine, his works include Physical Laws of Chemistry Deduced from the New Phenomena, as well as 1844's Manual of Mechanical Physics, which he wrote after his most famous discovery. The first scientist to isolate aluminum, he became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806. Namesake of the first Danish satellite, his namesake unit is equal to a force of one dyne acting upon a unit magnetic pole in a vacuum and is the unit for magnetic field strength. FTP, name this physicist who noticed that a magnetic needle was deflected by an electric current.
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The earliest extensive studies of this particle were done with the Mark I, II, and III experiments. Its hadronic decays proceed primarily through a three-gluon intermediate state, suppressing their rate dramatically and making it a very narrow resonance. It can decay through a M1 transition to the eta sub c. At 3.1 giga-electron volts, it is the lightest member of its family with the same quantum numbers as the photon. It is often easiest to observe in its dimuon and dielectron decay modes. Its simultaneous discovery in 1974 by groups at Stanford and Brookhaven led to its uniquely double-barreled name. FTP, identify this particle, the lightest vector bound state of a charm and anticharm quark.
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The edge named for this phenomenon describes the feature of a spectograph caused by it, and its namesake suppression counteracts that edge. Dense galactic clusters perturb the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation through an inverse form of this, the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect. Plank's constant divided by a particle's rest mass times the speed of light gives its namesake wavelength, and the derivative of its cross-section is given by the Klein-Nishina formula. For 10 points, name this effect which describes a decrease in the wavelength of a photon when it collides with an electron, an American physicist's namesake scattering.
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The effect of lateral confinement on this quantity on the holes in gallium arsenide semiconductors was reported in 2006. In 1925, it was while working as an assistant to its German-American namesake that Ralph Kronig hypothesized spin. For a given amount of total angular momentum, it may be quantified as the energy change divided by the product of magnetic quantum number, nuclear magneton, and nuclear magnetic field. It is equal to approximately 2, 2/3, and 4/3 for the D-lines of sodium. For the electron, it is approximately 2 and is one of the most precisely-measured quantities in physics. FTP, what is this dimensionless unit, the ratio of the magnetic dipole moment to the angular momentum, which is a quantification of the interactions that generate the Zeeman Effect?
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The effective potential in this theory includes a term known as the "vector correction", which is logarithmic in in the ratio of the frequency to the Debye frequency. This theory uses three Green's correlation functions whose poles give the excitation energy, and much of the experimental corroboration for this theory came from electron tunneling experiments conducted by Ivar Giaever. In this theory, an attractive potential exists within a Debye energy of the Fermi surface and this theory's successes include the explanation of the isotope effect and the prediction of the energy gap in the excitation spectrum after transition. For 10 points, identify this theory in which the interaction of phonons with electron pairs results in superconductivity, named for its three formulators.
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The electrons at the center of this experiment are accelerated in its namesake apparatus and the collected current rises with accelerated voltage. When the accelerating voltage reaches 4.9 volts, the current sharply drops, which is attributed to inelastic collisions between the accelerated electrons and atomic electrons in the mercury atoms. This suggests that mercury electrons cannot accept energy until they reach the threshold for elevating them into an excited state. FTP, identity this experiment named after its two conductors which proved the Bohr hypothesis of energy quantization.
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The energy of a Hopfield neural network is calculated by noting that the network is equivalent to it. Formulated in matrix terms, the log of its largest eigenvalue is proportional to the free energy. Using a Metropolis algorithm with staying probability e to the negative beta times delta E can be used to solve these models. Istrail found that the three-dimensional versions of them are unsolvable. The energy in this system is equal to the sum of S sub I times S sub J times an interaction term J sub ij. A 2-dimensional version of it was solved by Onsager. Sherrington and Kirkpatrick added frustration terms to it in order to model spin glasses. Its critical fluctuations correctly model the behavior at the critical point. For 10 points, name this model which is used to model magnetic materials as a collection of spins.
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The equation governing these systems sets the minor-radius laplacian of psi equal to the sum of terms containing the derivative of pressure in terms of psi minus a term containing the poloidal current times its derivative; that equation is the Grad-Shafranov equation. One effect in these objects is a shift of the center of density away from the geometric center, a shift likewise named for Shafranov. Confinement in these devices occurs due to a driven torodial plasma current; these devices are thus similar to stellerators, which have additional helical coils. The largest of them currently in operation is JET, which will be replaced by ITER when the latter is complete. For 10 points, name these toroidal magnetic confinement devices for hot plasmas which are candidates as nuclear fusion reactors.
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The equilibrium state for these devices is found by balancing the coronal discharge loss flux and triboelectric current. Pelletrons are essentially a refined versions of these devices, two of which operated in tandem can produce a potential difference of about 25 megavolts. Leakage of stored charge is sometimes prevented by insulating them with sulfur hexafluoride. Simple versions involve a belt of insulating material running over two pulleys and transferring charge to a metal spherical shell. FTP, identify this type of electrostatic machine, often used to generate electrical sparks.
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The evidence for it first came from a study of the isotope effect on critical temperature which created a band gap. Developed by the use of an earlier approach meant for explaining polarons, it has been used to explain glitches or jumps in pulsar rotational periods and the superfluidity of helium. Basically stating that coupled electrons can act like bosons, this theory requires the interaction of a crystal lattice by means of a phonon interaction to pair electrons close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs. FTP, name this theory dealing with Type I superconductors developed and named for men named John, Leon and Robert who shared the 1972 nobel prize.
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The experiment called TWIST studies the decays of polarized versions of these particles. Resistive plate chambers are often used in the detection system for these, and one of the two main LHC detectors is named for its ability to detect these particles. These unstable particles have an anomalous magnetic moment that is very sensitive to supersymmetric effects, while scientists have also investigated their ability to catalyze nuclear fusion. Seth Neddermeyer and Carl Anderson discovered them, and intially confused them for Yukawa's meson. For 10 points, identify these leptons which are 207 times more massive than electrons.
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The fact that it does not affect the ground state can be derived heuristically from symmetry considerations or explicitly from the Wigner-Eckart theorem. In semiconductor heterostructures, a quantum-confined version of this effect occurs, which results from the enhancement of this effect by excitons. For higher quantum numbers, the energy levels induced by this effect are degenerate, and leading to the commonly observed quadratic form, whose components are proportional to the polarizability tensor. Particularly useful for analyzing molecular rotational spectra, for ten points, identify this effect from atomic physics, which consists of the splitting and shift of a spectral line into several components in the presence of an electric field.
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The factor e, or emissivity, figures into this equation along with another constant, signified by sigma. It can be stated as "delta Q" over "delta t" is equal to "e times sigma times A, or area, times T, or temperature, to the fourth." Applying only to blackbodies, its simple statement is that the total radiant heat energy emitted by a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. FTP, identify this equation named for its two Austrian discoverers.
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The factor of one-half resulting from this effect cancels with the factor of two error in the naive gyromagnetic ratio, so that a semi-classical calculation of spin-orbit coupling coincidentally yields the same results as the full relativistic one. It occurs in general because, over an accelerating path, the orientation of the velocity varies harmonically relative to that in an inertial frame. Because Lorentz boosts do not commute with rotations, there exists a time dilation between the frame of an orbiting charge and that of a nucleus, so the electron undergoes this motion as it orbits. FTP, name this type of purely relativistic precession most notably undergone by atomic electrons and named for an English physicist.
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The final section of this work includes such observations as "The motion of the sea may be retarded by obstructions in the bed" and claims that the moon is about six times denser than the sun. The third book opens with four "rules of reasoning in philosophy," in which the author insists that the light of our fire and that of the sun are similar natural effects which should be assigned to the same causes. Roger Cotes's preface to the second edition insists that stones must behave the same way in Europe as in America, and attacks the theory of vortices propounded by Descartes. The second book adds a consideration of "resisting mediums" to the discussion of the "motion of bodies" introduced in the first book, while the third offers a treatment of the "system of the world." FTP, name this book first published in 1686 which offers a notable theory of gravity, a work by Isaac Newton.
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The first commercial version of this was the Cambridge Scientific Instruments Mark I. An environmental version of this apparatus uses the principle of induction for operation. Common components include an Everhart-Thornley detector and a lithium-doped silicon energy dispersive spectrometer. Examination of non-conductive samples requires sputtering of carbon or gold, because charging causes image degradation. FTP, name this device that obtains images using a beam of electrons.
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The first is always on the inward side of the secondary, and the second is on the outward side of the secondary. A third such position remains hidden behind the Sun at all times, and the idea of a hidden "Planet-X" there has been a staple of science fiction. Four and five, the so-called Trojan points, lie along the orbit of the secondary around the primary. FTP, name these positions where the gravitational pull of the two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required to rotate with them, five points in the vicinity of two massive bodies--like the Earth and the Moon---where each others' respective gravities balance.
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The first of them can be proved exactly within the Hartree-Fock approximation. All of them presume L-S or Russel-Saunders coupling but do not apply for heavier substances in which j-j coupling predominates. Employed in conjunction with the Aufbau principle, they are a result of spin-spin interaction, orbit-orbit interaction, and spin-orbit coupling respectively. The first states that the term with the maximum multiplicity lies lowest in energy and the others follow in that vein. FTP, identify this set of guidelines that allows one to determine the quantum numbers for the ground states of atoms, a set of guidelines named for their German discoverer.
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The first principle with this name was stated by Brandon Carter in the 1970s, and other versions of his include the participatory, which holds that a quantum event is not actualized until it is observed and applied to the universe. Carter's version states that conditions for the development of intelligent life exist only in regions that are limited in spacetime. With weak and strong versions, FTP, name this principle paraphrased by Stephen Hawking as "We see the universe the way it is because we exist."
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The first to liquefy chlorine, this scientist's namesake rotator is useful in optical isolators. He discovered and named "diamagnetism" prior to his work in electrochemistry, where his namesake constant gives the number of coulombs in a mole of electrons. He had to take five years off in the early 1840s due to headaches that may have been caused by mercury poisoning, but he came roaring back and gave an 1846 lecture on "Ray Vibrations" that became the basis for Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. The discoverer of benzene, he argued that equal currents gave rise to equal amounts of decomposition, which summarizes his first law of electrolysis. FTP, name this British scientist, best known for his work in physics indicating that a change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force.
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The flux of protons crossing a square centimeter of their surface can be as large as 20,000 per second, a massive amount. The first was initially discovered by accident, as it was done so by a Geiger counter designed to measure the flux of cosmic rays. Some reports indicate that they are separated by as much as 10,000 kilometers, but most scientists agree that they gradually merge. First detected by the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, they are shaped by the Earth's magnetic field. Consisting of two concentric doughnut shaped regions centered roughly on the equator, FTP, identify these sections of the magnetosphere named for the Iowa scientist who discovered them.
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The flux-flow coefficient for this effect in type II superconductors is directly proportional to the Hall effect coefficient. The basic equations involving it were formulated by Lord Kelvin and are now considered a special case of the generalized Onsager relations. One source of it is phonon-electron collision, or drag, in the material, which can be estimated from the lattice heat capacity, and the other source, charge carrier diffusion, from Mott theory. When its coefficient is multiplied by the Thomson coefficient, the Peltier coefficient is produced. FTP, name this effect where a potential difference is created by a temperature gradient, utilized in thermocouples.
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The formula for this is derived by truncating to two terms a Taylor expansion of the exponential of minus q phi over k T, so the most important dependence of this property is on the square root of the ratio of temperature to particle number density. The total version of this to the minus two is equal to the version for electrons to the minus two plus the version for cations to the minus two, and the lower bound in the integral for total Rutherford scattering cross section is equal to the sine of the arctangent of the ratio of the scattering length to this. FTP name this measure of self-shielding in; and, hence, fundamental characterization of; a plasma; a distance symbolized lambda-d.
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The formula underlying this phenomenon gives the wave number of H alpha. That formula may be derived rigorously by considering a transition to the second excited state with the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, or by invoking the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, and involves the Rydberg constant. H alpha corresponds to a wavelength of about 655 nm so, like most of the lines in this series, it is visible. For ten points, name this set of hydrogen emission lines named for a Swiss mathematician, which correspond to transitions to the n = 2 state.
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The key step in the derivation of this statement is to realize that the forward and reverse partial current densities are equal in the relevant case and, therefore, that the term proportional to the logarithm of their ratio vanishes. Its formulation leads to the idea of a concentration cell, since it indicates one can create both sides of a battery from the same materials, provided different concentrations are used in each side. Probably most useful in determining unknown concentrations from a measured voltage, it states that the standard reference potential of an electrochemical cell is equal to the kinetic temperature divided by the total charge times the logarithm of the reaction quotient. FTP, name this equation of electrochemistry, which is named for a German scientist who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1920.
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The log of this value is the x axis of a Bode plot. In Shannon's theorem, a log term is multiplied by a number that has the same units as these and represents a width of these. For a cyclotron, this value is q b over two pi m. The set of these associated with a string under tension are multiples of a quantity that is the square root of the ratio of the product of length and tension to mass all divided by twice the length. For a pendulum, it is equal to the square root of the ratio of g to length divided by two pi. This value is inversely proportional to the wavelength. For 10 points, name this number of times a cyclical occurrence happens in a period of time which is measured in hertz.
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The lower-case version of this symbol can denote the ratio of heat capacity at constant pressure to that at constant temperature, the adiabatic index, while its upper-case version can denote a Christofel symbol or a namesake probability distribution governed by the parameters k and theta. It represents a photon in a Feynman diagram, as well as the quotient of measured time over proper time in relativity equations, the Lorentz factor, and the nuclear emission that results from an annihilation. For 10 points, name this Greek letter that names a function which is a generalization of the factorial and a ray that has a wavelength shorter than x-rays.
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The mechanical, or stress, form of it is often used in thin-film strain gauges, and the Pockels effect, which can be used for voltage-controlled wave-plates that can quickly open and close shutters, is based on it. In the Pockels effect it is linearly proportional to an externally applied electric field. In other isotropic materials, it is proportional to the square of the applied electric field, which induces anisotropies in the dielectric tensor, and this is known as the Kerr effect. The Nicol, Glan-Foucault, and Wollaston prisms all make use of it, and tetragonal, hexagonal, and trigonal crystals all exhibit this property because they are uniaxial. Resulting when a beam of light breaks up into an ordinary and extraordinary component, FTP, identify this physical effect, which occurs when a material like calcite has different indices of refraction in different directions.
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The namesake parameter of one model of this phenomenon has a critical value of root 2 over 2, above which the transition to it is second-order. A deviation from this behavior is an effect named for Kondo. The aforementioned model of this behavior, derived by extremizing an order parameter, is due to Ginzberg and Landau. A better-known model for this behavior predicts bosonic bound states between conduction electrons; these are the Cooper pairs of the BCS theory. FTP, name this physical phenomenon first observed by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in which a material's electrical resistance vanishes when it is cooled.
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The namesake suppression of this effect is designed to counteract the namesake edge, which is the highest energy at which false spectra are obtained due to incomplete detection. A related effect can be broken down to include the Ostriker-Vishniac effect and has been used to observe dense galaxy clusters through perturbations of the CMB. That effect, the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich, is the inverse of this process, which has its differential cross section described by the Klein-Nishina formula and includes a constant known as its wavelength. For 10 points, name this effect in which the namesake shift describes the change in wavelength of a photon colliding with an electron.
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The occurrence of this effect in atmospheric molecular oxygen is the dominant cause of polarized atmospheric emissions around 60 GHz. The Lyman-alpha transition is a manifestation of this effect, and the energies associated with one form of it can be written as being proportional to the Lande g-factor. This effect obeys selection rules which permit a change in orbital quantum number by plus or minus one, and a change in the magnetic quantum number by either zero or plus or minus one. Its strong-field form is known as the Paschen-Back effect, and its weak-field, or anomalous form was the first to be discovered by its namesake. FTP, identify this effect in which degenerate energy levels of an atom are split by a magnetic field.
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The operator of this quantity is negative Planck's constant squared over two times the mass del squared. In the case of a stable gravitational system, its average value over time according to the virial theorem is equal to negative one half times another quantity. This quantity is represented by a capital T in the formula for the Hamiltonian. The average value of this quantity per molecule in an ideal gas is three halves kt. It is not conserved in inelastic collisions due to heat dissipation. For 10 points, name this quantity, whose rotational form is given by one half times moment of inertia times angular velocity squared, often called energy of motion.
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The operator problem of this name can be solved by the so-called "algebraic method" using the raising and lowering operators and was solved by Dirac to model photons. The utility of this model arises because of the nature of the first-order expansion of a potential energy about an equilibrium. The equation by this name arises from a quadratic-potential Lagrangian or from combining Newton's second law and Hooke's law. This is therefore a good model for a perturbed atom, AC circuit, first-order pendulum, or mass on a spring. FTP, name these physical systems that, if unforced, have sinusoidal motion.
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The pointlike type, in the presence of an external four-form field, puffs up into a fuzzy two-sphere, in an instance of the Myers effect exhibiting their dielectric properties with respect to Ramond-Ramond forms. The BFSS matrix theory is based on quantum mechanics of the type with zero spatial dimensions. The NS5 variety of these carry a magnetic charge, while the F-string variety carry an electric charge. The D(-1) variety are instantonic. In heterotic M-theory, one dimension is an interval with "end-of-the-world" ones at the boundaries. As one moves through spacetime, it sweeps out a worldvolume. The "0" type is pointlike while the "1" type is a string. For 10 points, identify these entities from string theory that occupy a certain number of dimensions, and whose "2" variety are usually just called membranes.
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The potential energy between two heavy ones is Coulombic at short distances, but becomes linear, representing a constant attractive force, for a range of distances around a femtometer. The effect of pair creation of these particles allows chromoelectric flux tubes to break, with the pieces becoming independent jets. The heaviest known one weighs about 175 GeV and was discovered at Fermilab's Tevatron collider, and unlike lighter ones, it decays before it can form hadrons. They were called "aces" by George Zweig, who proposed them independently of Murray Gell-Mann. For 10 points, what is this type of subatomic particle, 3 of which make up a proton or neutron?
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The potential energy function associated with this model can be approximated by solving Schrödinger's equation for particle in a square well with rounded corners. This model postulates that it is necessary to incorporate spin-orbit interactions which split energy levels into sublevels that are farther separated than atomic energy levels. LS coupling is assumed to hold for light nuclei while heavy nuclei exhibit jj coupling. This model is successful in predicting nuclear angular momenta and can account for other phenomena, such as the existence of magic numbers, and the tendency of nuclear abundances to favor even values of atomic number and mass number. Developed by Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J.H.D. Jensen, for 10 points, name this model of the nucleus which, unlike the liquid drop model, assumes that nucleons are subject to a general force field and can only occupy certain quantum states.
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The process in which two objects scatter by radiating virtual photons that combine into an electron-positron pair is named for Walter Heitler and this physicist. The one-dimensional Heisenberg spin chain can be solved by factorizing general n-body scattering processes into two-body scattering processes, as described by his namesake ansatz. His name, along with that of Felix Bloch, is attached to a formula for energy loss of charged particles in matter. Bound states in relativistic quantum field theory can be studied using an integral equation developed by Edwin Salpeter and him. He postulated that stars are driven by nuclear reactions converting hydrogen to helium. For 10 points, name this Cornell physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and calculated the Lamb shift.
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The radiation emitted during orbital-electron capture is a consequence of the disappearance of the charge and of this quantity. Taking the cross product of this quantity with the position vector and dividing it by the absolute value of the position vector cubed yields a quantity proportional to the dipole vector potential. The quantum of this quantity is given by the fundamental charge times h-bar over the quantity two times electron mass times the speed of light. As an adiabatic invariant, the conservation of this quantity results in the creation of a namesake bottle used in plasma confinement. One of these will precess about an applied field with the Larmor frequency, and the torque on a current loop is given by the cross product of this quantity with the magnetic field. Quantized in units of the Bohr magneton, for 10 points, identify this vector quantity which gives the magnitude and direction of an object's magnetic field.
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The range of problems capable of being addressed using this theory was expanded by Lighthill's and Langer's methods. The Lindstedt-Poincaré method yields approximate solutions to nonlinear differential equations using this theory. Møller and Plesset applied it to obtain the correlation error produced by Hartree-Fock theory. Prandtl applied this theory to solve boundary layer problems dealing with the flow of low velocity fluids over solid objects. Like Rayleigh-Ritz and WKB, it can be used to approximate eigenenergies. For 10 points, name this theory that, when applied to quantum mechanical systems, starts from solutions to the Schrödinger's equation and approximates the effect of small additional forces on the eigenenergies and wavefunction.
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The rate of emissions involved is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the mass of the particles, but does not depend on temperature, with relatively cool objects often responsible for substantial emissions. The emissions appear in a characteristically continuous spectrum extending over a wide range of wavelengths, and is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature of the orbit involved, with examples of sources include supernova remnants, radio galaxies, and quasars. FTP, what is this type of radiation often emitted from the eponymous accelerators?
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The requirement that this state be achieved has been circumvented by using quantum interference in rubidium and on the D1 line of cesium by Marlan Scully. This process can be enhanced by using heterojunctions composed of gallium arsenide between layers of aluminum arsenide, and this state can be created in hydrogen by applying an inhomogeneous magnetic field to a gas undergoing the 21-cm transition. It is usually explained through a four-level system, which is characteristic of rare earth ions like neodymium, or the simpler three-level system with the top layer known as the "pump band", as seen in ruby. For 10 points, identify this situation where a majority of particles are in a more excited state, which is necessary for the operation of most lasers.
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The sensitivity of this assay drops off with probe frequency due to state saturation, a condition in which the population imbalance becomes negligible; that drop-off occurs because the absorption probability is proportional to the state imbalance. The transverse and longitudinal relaxation times affect this technique because it hinges on detecting the results of the flip of high-energy spin states; the frequency of the radiation thus produced is proportional to the chemical shift, which is output of this form of spectroscopy. For 10 points, name this chemical spectroscopic technique in which radiation from magnetized molecules is detected via frequency overlap with an applied radio field.
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The square of this quantity appears in the denominator of the Prandtl-Glauert equation, which breaks down when this quantity is around point seven or above, and it is related to pressure by the Rayleigh Pitot formula. For ideal gases it is equal to the square root of the Cauchy number, and when it exceeds one, decreasing the cross section of a tube will reduce the flow speed. For small values of this quantity, flow is incompressible, and it can be defined as the fluid velocity times the square root of density over the bulk modulus. This quantity reaches a critical value when speed equals 331 meters per second. For 10 points, name this ratio of an object's speed to the speed of sound.
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The theory utitizing and sharing its namesake with this object is a version of the Reynolds energy transport theory for The Aether, but it is valid nonetheless. Given electric and magnetic field strength phasors, the time-averaged value of this vector at a point is equal to half the real part of the vector product of the electric field phasor with the complex conjugate of the magnetic field strength phasor, and the absorptive radiation pressure at a point is the magnitude of this vector divided by the speed of light. FTP name the vector with a normal surface integral equal to the power due to electromagnetic radiation crossing the surface of integration and which is defined by the familiar formula E cross B over mu.
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The transition temperature of these systems is proportional to the particle density divided by the Riemann zeta function, all to the two-thirds power. Vortices in them are allowed via the psi-squared term in the equation describing the wavefunction of these systems. Sweeping a magnetic field through one of these causes spin-flip collisions and the Feschbach resonance, while further increasing the field causes an implosion followed by an explosion in a namesake type of nova. Their wavefunction is described by the Gross-Pitaevskii equation. They were first created by Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle by laser-cooling a bunch of rubidium atoms. For 10 points, name this system consisting of a bunch of degenerate ultracold bosons.
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The treatment of these substances with a naturally occurring base, such as cinchonine, can result in resolution, which is the process by which they are separated into two equal parts. An ideal example of them is their namesake, also known as tartaric acid, which can be divided into dextro- and leveorotatory components. For every molecule that light encounters, there is a second molecule, which cancels the effects of the first, rendering them optically inactive. FTP, name these mixtures of equal parts of enantiomers that do not rotate the plane of incident polarized light.
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The tunneling of electrons between objects displaying this property separated by an insulator is described in the Josephson effect. When metals with this property are placed in a magnetic field they repel the field demonstrating perfect diamagnetism, which can be seen in the levitation of a magnet above them. That effect postulated by Ochsenfeld and Meissner is described in a theory of it stating that this arises from the condensation of electron pairs. That BCS theory states this phenomenon is linked with the formation of Cooper pairs, allowing for increased electric flow. For 10 points, name this property characterized by zero resistance in very cold metals.
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The underpinning of this phenomenon hinges on considering the ensemble average of expectation values of the intrinsic angular momentum resulting from using the S-O Hamiltonian, as these expectation values vary harmonically in a strong field. Its namesake spectrum corresponds to a proper limit of the Larmor equation. It is of especial utility in studying ring flipping in cyclic hydrocarbons and, in 1985, it was used to determine the structure of fullerene. Proteins are frequently studied using its namesake spectroscopy, which produces a graph of chemical shift as a function of applied frequency. FTP, identify this phenomenon in which atoms have large responses to certain frequencies of applied fields; the basis for MRI's.
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The version of this process known as the "cumuliform" type acts vertically in the atmosphere to produce dramatic weather effects. Its two major versions are governed by the dimensionless Grashof and Peclet numbers, and both major types also depend on the Prandtl number. The natural version depends on the tendency of fluids to expand when heated, in contrast to the forced version. FTP, what is this process in which heat is transferred by the movement of a fluid, the counterpart of radiation and conduction?
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The wavefunction of a two-particle system in a bound state that interacts through this fundamental force is given by the Bethe-Saltpeter equation. The gauge boson controlling this interaction obeys a form of the Klein-Gordon equation in which the energy is given by the product of the momentum and the speed of light. This interaction is described by the U(1) symmetry group. Powers of its coupling constant appear in derivations of fine and hyperfine structure. The only interaction mediated by a massless particle, the Glashow-Weinberg-Salaam theory unifies this force with the weak force. Its quantized form is graphically described by Feynman diagrams. For 10 points, name this fundamental force, which is described by the Maxwell equations and which is mediated by photons.
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The “optical†or “refractive†type of this quantity is measured in diopters and measures the ability of a device to focus light. A non-standard unit for this quantity is the ton of refrigeration, and in systems with flow, it is equal to the product of flow rate and pressure. Radiative intensity or energy flux is defined as luminosity or this quantity per unit area. In rotational systems, it can be calculated as the dot product of torque and angular velocity, while in kinematics it is simply given by force times velocity. For 10 points, name this physical quantity equal to the work done per unit time, often measured in Watts.
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Their existence for neutral atoms and molecules was demonstrated in 1930 by Stern and Estermann, and the first method for detecting them was proposed in 1925 by Walter Elsasser. Two scientists at Bell Labs were the first to detect them, which happened accidentally while studying electron reflection from a nickel target that had been oxidized. Those two, Davisson and Germer, were unaware of Elsasser's suggestion, Schrodinger's complete theory of them, or the inspiration of the graduate student who proposed their existence and claimed that their frequency was equal to their total energy divided by Planck's constant. FTP name these manifestations of wave-particle duality, matter waves named for the French physicist who proposed them and their eponymous wavelength.
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Their occurrence is partially explained by the Frohlich model, and Matthias noticed that none of them are lanthanides or actinides and related a high transition temperature in them to an odd number of valence electrons. Tuyn's law relates their threshold temperature to the critical strength of their external magnetic field, and a type one material's transition into one of these includes an exclusion of magnetic fields known as the Meissner effect. In one prominent theory, their existence is explained by electrons condensing near the Fermi level into boson-like Cooper pairs. FTP name this class of materials described by the BCS theory, characterized by zero electrical resistance.
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Thermodynamically this effect's namesake coefficient is the partial derivative of temperature with respect to pressure at constant enthalpy. Though not true for hydrogen and helium, its coefficient is generally positive at room temperature. Due to this effect, liquefaction is possible in the Linde refrigerator. Describing the temperature change associated with the throttling process, FTP, name this effect, which describes the adiabatic expansion of real gases and is named for two 19th century British scientists.
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These particles were fired at nickel during the Davisson-Germer experiment. They interact with each other during hyperconjugation. Feynman diagrams use a solid arrow pointing towards an interaction vertex to represent this particle, which is emitted with a corresponding antineutrino in beta-minus decay. This particle's charge is negative 1.602 times ten to the negative nineteenth coulombs, a value approached within one percent in Millikan's oil-drop experiment. For 10 points, name these negatively charged subatomic particles.
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These particles were theorized while searching for a generalization that encompassed both the Jones and Conway polynomials. While they are known to be superconducting, it has been shown that these particles are not solely responsible for superconductivity. Known to be present in the fractional variety of the quantum Hall effect, these particles are generally indigenous to two-space dimensions and are neither bosons nor fermions. FTP, identify these particles thought to possess fractional quantum statistics and named for the fact that their spin could be anything.
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These phenomena are believed to be responsible for the predicted polarization anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background. One possible path to detection of these phenomena is the observation of growing perturbations of spinning neutron stars, an effect known as the Chandrasekhar-Friedman-Schutz instability. The amplitude of these tensor phenomena is given by the second time derivative of the quadrupole source term in the post-Newtonian method of analyzing them. Evidence for these phenomena includes the orbital shrinking of binary systems such as the Hulse-Taylor pulsar, and these objects are being sought by both the Large Interferometric Space Antenna and the LIGO project. For 10 points, identify these tensor perturbations predicted by general relativity which represent emissions of energy from massive systems.
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These posses large circumfrential currents, which differentiates them from stellerators, and are closed, which differentiates them from mirrors or pinches. They were developed at Kurchatov Institute by Artsimovich and there are roughly 25 of these in operation in the world, the Alcator C-Mod and JET being the most powerful. None can operate without significant energy input, but ITER, scheduled to go operational in 2016, is an international collaboration to build one of these machines which may be able to sustain its own temperature. The Lorentz effect is used to confine plasma using a toroidal magnetic field in, FTP, what machines important to research on nuclear fusion?
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These systems are isochronous and always have one resonant frequency when modeled using the small-angle approximation. The “double†variant of these systems exhibits chaotic motion. The precession of a large one of these systems due to the Coriolis force proves that the Earth rotates. A basic way to model these systems considers them as simple harmonic oscillators. For 10 points, name these physical systems consisting of oscillating hanging weights, an example of which is named for Léon Foucault.
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They are admitted as topological defects, a special case of dyons, and are generally supermassive. One-dimensional analogues of cosmic strings, they were posited by Dirac to explain conservation of angular momentum and charge. Most grand unified theories predict their existence at a density such that a small loop of superconducting wire should be able to detect one per year, but none have been detected yet, even in searches of lunar rocks. They are classically forbidden, since the field they ostensibly generate must be divergence-free by Gauss' law for it. FTP, name these hypothetical charges; theoretical sources for the magnetic field.
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They are divided into two classes based on the ratio of the penetration depth to the coherence length, a quantity known as the Ginsburg-Landau parameter. Alexei Abrikosov discovered his namesake vortex lattice in one type, and the London equation describes a characteristic behavior of these materials similar to perfect diamagnetism. A complete theory of the type I variety of these substances, including the concept of the pairing of opposite-spin electrons over long distances, is known as the BCS theory. Discovered by Heike Kammerlingh-Onnes, FTP, identify these substances which exhibit zero electrical resistivity.
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They are emitted in the positive beta decay of proton-rich radioactive nuclei and though they are stable in a vacuum they will react rapidly with matter to form gamma radiation. First postulated by P.A.M. Dirac in 1930, they were discovered two years later by Carl Anderson, for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1936. For 10 points identify these positively charged subatomic particles having the same mass and magnitude of charge as their counterpart, the electron.
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They are employed in vector coupling for the three dimensional rotation group SO(3) where they have a high degree of symmetry since SO(3) is a simply reducible group. In representation theory, they can be defined as the elements of the matrix reducing the direct product of two irreducible representations of compact Lie groups. Generalizations include Racah coefficients or Wigner 6j and 9j symbols, for cases in which the integral product of greater than three spherical harmonics are desired. They can be computed by expressing a product of two spherical harmonics as a sum of individual spherical harmonics. For 10 points, name these numbers that are commonly employed to obtain the coupling amplitude between uncoupled and coupled representations of angular momenta in quantum mechanics.
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They are not barometers but they do have an aneroid type, in which the covering is a hollow, cylindrical block of metal with a top and bottom. All of them contain this covering, or jacket, that can be used to control thermal exchange between them and the environment. Nonisothermal ones yield evaluations based on the temperature changes they produce, though isothermal ones are easier to use and include the well-known bomb variety. FTP, name these devices that are used to measure the quantity of heat involved in various chemical processes.
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They can be used to catalyze room temperature fusion, but their instability causes the process to fall far short of the break-even energy. Soon after their discovery, they were shown not to be Yukawa's pion, as negative ones were captured in "atomic-like" orbits around nuclei and were not quickly absorbed into these nuclei. Though they have a rest-frame lifetime of about 2.2 microseconds, the effects of special relativity increase this time greatly in Earth's frame, and they are the most numerous energetic charged particles at sea level. Discovered by Neddermeyer and Anderson, this is, FTP, what lepton with a mass roughly 207 times that of an electron?
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They have been used as detectors in the SIMPLE and PICASSO experiments, and are now being used by the COUP in their attempts to detect WIMPs. A major drawback of them was an inability to measure energy directly, but they could infer momentum based on the radii of magnetically induced helical paths. A piston is moved to expand the volume of a fluid with low surface tension, causing it to become superheated, so that a tiny amount of additional energy will cause the desired phenomenon, the density of which is proportional to the ionization of a particle. For 10 points, name this device that tracks the paths of particles via the formation of small air pockets.
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They were discovered in 1947 by an experiment, in which special photographic plates called nuclear emulsions were placed on top of a mountain, conducted by Brazilian physicist Cesar Lattes. The lightest of the quark-antiquark pairs, this particle's positive version is more stable and more common than its neutral version. They usually decay into a muon and a muon neutrino and are considerably lighter than the kaon. FTP, name this meson which usually consists of an up and an anti-down quark.
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This approach accounts for Fermi correlation but fails to account for dynamic correlation, which can be dealt with using the configuration interaction approach. The one-particle Hamiltonian plus the sum over particles of the difference of the Coulomb and exchange operators gives an operator whose eigenfunctions and eigenvalues are the quantities of interest. The relevant Coulomb operator uses the mean field to approximate the electron-electron interactions in this method, which applies the variational principle in solving the time-independent Schrödinger equation under the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. Wavefunctions described by Slater determinants are used in, for 10 points, what self-consistent field method for approximating the ground-state wavefunction and energy of multi-electron systems?
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This assay was popularized when Ehrenberg proposed that it contained an acceleration component that permitted its extension to periodicity anomaly surficial analysis, and Fadley has modified it to enable in situ sample preparation and molecular beam epitaxial growth. Its greatest implications, which were verified by the Thomson-Reid experiment, were realized following heat neutralization of an oxidized vacuum flask, which generated results similar to Young's experiment. Its arc-mounted Faraday Box detected a peak at 54 Volts with an angle of 50 degrees, resulting in the detection of ten facets in the target, a crystal of nickel, via the Bragg condition. FTP, name this electron diffraction experiment that demonstrated de Broglie's theory of the wave nature of particles.
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This can be calculated with the Gibbs-Thompson or Young-Laplace equation, given the mean curvature of an interface. This quantity is related to the density change between liquid and vapor phases by the MacLeod Equation and it can be measured with a stalagmometer by the drop-weight method. Decreasing with increasing temperature, it is high in molecules exhibiting hydrogen bonding. Represented by gamma, FTP, identify this chemical concept, the cohesive force that must be overcome for a liquid drop to spread.
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This device was first developed to measure the wavelength of light, and is used today to measure the diameter of nearby stars, test flat surfaces, determine the indices of refraction of materials, and measure small distances. The echelon version consists of a stack of glass plates, while the Fabry-Perot type uses a pair of half-silvered mirrors to produce circular fringes. FTP, name this device most famously used by Michelson and Morley to disprove the existence of ether?
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This dimensionless quantity is raised to the two-thirds power in one equation for the Chilton-Colburn j-factor, and in a case where this quantity is high, one relation concerning relative boundary layer thicknesses are given by the relation 0.975 times this quantity raised to the one-third power. The mass transfer variety of this dimensionless quantity is known as the Schmidt number, and replaces a factor in its formulation with the mass transfer coefficient D. The Rayleigh number is given as the product of this quantity and the Grashof factor, while the Peclet number is the product of this term and the Reynolds number. For 10 points, name this dimensionless quantity defined as the ratio of the kinematic viscosity of a fluid to its thermal diffusivity.
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This effect can be used to fit the observed Stokes profiles of CaH transitions in sunspots while Schadee's theory of its molecular form was used to explain Stokes profiles. The Mueller matrix for intermediate Hund's cases can be used to calculate the impact of this effect which occurs when Russell-Saunders decoupling causes projections of orbital angular momentum to behave as if spin approaches zero. The net effect is that the number of spectral lines is reduced to three closely spaced doublets in the anomalous Zeeman Effect. FTP, what is this physical phenomenon in which atomic energy levels split in a strong magnetic field, which is named for its two German discoverers?
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This effect is associated with an impedance that grows at high frequencies. One way to deal with this is to use bundles of conductors woven together with insulation between them, which is known as a Litz bundle. It arises from exponentially decaying solutions to Maxwell's equations. The associated length scale goes like the square root of the resistivity and the inverse square root of the signal frequency. It can be thought of as an explanation for why a person is safe inside a metal car if lightning strikes. FTP, what is this effect, in which an alternating electric current tends to flow near the surface of a conductor?
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This effect is responsible for the hydrogen line at 21 centimeters or 1420 Megahertz observed in radio astronomy. It can also be used in studying coordination complexes to determine delocalization of electrons from the central ion onto ligands. It occurs because a magnetic nucleus with nonzero spin I can adopt different orientations, giving rise to 2I+1 contributions to the local magnetic field. Occurring on a much smaller order than a similarly named effect, this is, FTP, what type of splitting structure created by nucleon-electron spin interaction?
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This effect, along with the Doppler effect, is utilized in telescopes such as NARVAL to map the magnetic fields of stars. In a Fabry-Perot interferometer, this effect can be used to measure the electron charge-mass ratio. In the weak field case, spin-orbit coupling occurs in conjunction with this, causing the angular momentum and spin to precess around the total angular momentum. In this case, the resulting energy is the product of the Bohr magneton, the Lande g-factor, the external field, and the z-component of the angular momentum. In the strong field, this is also known as the Paschen-Back effect, and its analogue for electric fields is the Stark effect. FTP, name this splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field.
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This effect, when anisotropic behavior is present, but cubic symmetry is not, is known as the Goldanskii-Karyagin effect. An effect analogous to it can occur in "phonon wings," and the fraction of events that experience it is given by the Debye-Waller factor. Applications of it include studying chemical shift and quadrupole splitting. Walter Kündig used it to quantitatively verify the transverse Doppler effect, and it was also applied to measure the gravitational redshift at Harvard by Pound and Rebka. Utilized in a similarly named type of spectroscopy, for 10 points, name this effect, the recoil-less absorption of gamma rays.
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This equation applies approximately for small perturbations of any system in stable equilibrium, as can be seen by a second order Taylor expansion of the energies involved. Cauchy expanded its anisotropic form to three dimensional bodies, making use of a compliance matrix and its inverse. It asserts that locally, stress and strain have the same linear relationship as they would have in a perfect simple harmonic oscillator, but it breaks down beyond the elastic limit. With a minus sign showing how the system tends to return to equilibrium, FTP what is this law commonly applied to springs that relates force to displacement?
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This equation obtains its leading coefficient of the negative of the streamwise pressure gradient by application of the no-slip boundary condition at the outer radius. Easily giving rise to a D'Arcy friction of 64 divided by the Reynolds number, it is not strictly applicable to the situation for which it was originally developed, since it applies only to steady, fully developed, purely axial laminar flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid in circular pipes. FTP, identify this exact solution of the Navier-Stokes equation stating that the flow velocity is parabolic with centerline velocity equal to the pressure gradient divided by four times the dynamic viscosity, which is named for a Frenchman and designed to model flow in blood vessels.
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This equation's modern form was first published by Lagrange in his Analytical Mechanics, and it provides one possible explanation of the Kutta-Joukowski Theorem. The derivation of the general form relies on a conservative body force and zero volumetric energy supply, while the more limiting version can be derived by directly integrating Euler's equation. It has notably been used to study the Venturi effect, whose limiting case is called choked flow, and Pitot tubes use it to calculate velocity. Under steady flow with incompressible fluids, the conservation of energy leads to its formulation that the sum of kinetic energy density, potential energy density, and pressure is a constant along a streamline. FTP identify this equation named for a member of a prominent Swiss scientific family, invoked to explain the lift on airplanes.
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This experiment was used to derive a value of the parameter epsilon equal to approximately .0023, which was later more accurately measured by the Fermilab KTeV and CERN NA48 experiments. The detectors in this experiment were a set of spark chambers with magnets angled at 22 degrees, while the apparatus itself consisted of a 57-foot tube with a particle beam pointed at one side. The experiment made use of the Brookhaven Alternating Gradient synchrotron, and about one in five hundred of the detected particles were the product of the faster decay process, many more than expected. Winning its namesakes the 1980 Nobel, for 10 points, name this experiment, which used the decay of kaons into pions to show direct CP violation.
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This force is represented by a first derivative with respect to position in the harmonic oscillator equation. In one model, this force stems from tiny electrostatic repulsions. It can be understood as the parallel shear component of the contact force, whose other component is typically calculated as mg cosine theta. It is calculated from a coefficient, symbolized mu, multiplied by the normal force. Rolling motion is affected by the “kinetic†type of this force, which is known as “drag†in fluids. For 10 points, name this force that resists the motion of objects against one another.
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This instrument is the basis for the "pair telescope" used on Cosmic Ray Satellite B and the Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment. It produces an image based on the activity of the thyratron circuit, which activates based on the signal sent through the discriminator and coincidence circuit by the photomultiplier tube. Later versions used gaps of up to forty centimeters and gathered additional data with audio transducers. FTP, name this type of detector consisting of several parallel plates of metal within an inert gas, which responds to an electric field by discharging energy along a particle's track.
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This law accounts for why sunglasses work so well at the beach. Equal to 53 degrees for an air-water interface, it is given by the inverse tangent of the ratio of the refractive indices. Eponymously named for a Scottish physicist is, for ten points, what angle of incidence at which all light reflected from a surface is polarized?
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This law applies whenever the reciprocal lattice points of a grid touch the surface of Ewald's sphere, since the radius of the sphere is the frequency. It may be used to model its namesake type of Brillouin scattering, which applies to acoustic vibrations that provide the surfaces upon which it depends. It reduces to its simplest form when the path length difference for two initially parallel wave vectors is an integer multiple of the incident wavelength. FTP, name this equation that predicts the interference extrema for photon scattering from a periodic lattice, and that may be stated "n lambda equals 2d sine theta".
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This law is governed by the same equations which govern Fick's Law of diffusion and Fourier's Law of heat transfer. Not holding for semiconductors, it is true for magnets under adiabatic conditions, and has as constant the ratio of the magnet's force to its flux. It was first shown experimentally in 1827, but since it was not expected in the German scientific community, its namesake was forced to resign from his high-school teaching position and lived in poverty for 25 years. FTP name this law which states that the voltage of a circuit is equal to the product of its current and impedance.
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This law is often used in astronomy to determine the temperature of stars. Its namesake constant, usually signified by a lower-case beta or sigma, is equal to 0.0029 Kelvin meters. Derived directly from the inverse of the Planck equation, this law can be stated as the result of changing the Planck curve with respect to temperature. Also related to the Stefan-Boltzmann equation, FTP, identify this law of physics that states that the temperature of a blackbody is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the emitted energy and is not the Rayleigh-Jeans law.
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This man asked his former professor August Foppl if he could marry one of Foppl's daughters, and since he failed to specify which daughter he wanted Foppl's wife decided that this man would get the older one. Along with Glaubert, he created a rule for subsonic flow of air under compression which now shares his name, and he also worked with Lanchester to develop a theory of airflow over wings. He also discovered the boundary layer for bodies moving through a fluid and introduced the soap-film analogy for torsion force. Although he is responsible for popularizing the use of the Reynolds number, he also created his own value which can be used to predict anything from rolls at a low value, to cell-free turbulent convection at a high value. FTP, name this scientist whose dimensionless parameter is defined by kinematic viscosity over thermal diffusivity.
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This man corrected the Clausius-Mossotti equation to account for permanent dipoles in a gas, and he confirmed the existence of the acusto-optic diffraction with Sears. With Lorenz and Mie, he lends his name to a model of light scattering by a spherical particle. His temperature is defined as his frequency multiplied by Planck's quantum constant, divided by Boltzmann's constant. That frequency is the highest-frequency normal mode of vibration in a crystalline lattice, and with Ivar Waller he lends his name to a factor that describes the disorder in a crystal. Together with Hückel, he developed a model of the behavior of electrolyte solutions. For ten points, identify this Dutch scientist who developed a model of heat capacity employing phonons, and who gives his name to the unit for electric dipole.
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This man gives his name, along with that of Francis Sears, to a process in ultrasonic imaging for which the acoustic wavefronts act as optical gratings to diffract the light on either side of the central spot. The distance over which charge carriers in plasmas exclude electric fields via his namesake shielding is also known as his namesake length. With an assistant later famous in his own right for his rule for determining whether ring molecules would show aromatic properties, he developed a mathematical expression to explain characteristics of electrolytic solutions, the famous equation named for him and Erich Hückel. FTP name this man who also gives his name to the SI unit defined as about 3.3 x 10-30 Coulomb meters, which measures the molecular dipole moment.
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This man lends his name to an integration method which finds optimal points described by roots of the orthogonal polynomial, his namesake quadrature. One unit named for him is equal to ten to the negative fourth Weber per meter squared. A statement named for him implies the non-existence of magnetic monopoles. Another statement developed by him yields the universal gravitational law when applied to the gravitational field and reduces to Coulomb's law for point charges. For 10 points, identify this scientist whose most famous law states that the net flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed by the surface.
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This man names an equation whose lattice method can be used to solve the Navier-Stokes equation and which is used to find the distribution function of a fluid. The fraction of particles at a specific temperature is given as inversely proportional to the partition function by a distribution named for this man, and with Maxwell he names a distribution of molecular velocities in a gas. He discovered that a system's entropy can be given by the natural logarithm of the number of microstates times his namesake constant, equal to the gas constant over Avogadro's number. For 10 points, identify this physicist who names a law governing blackbody radiation with Stefan.
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This man's namesake instability describes how electrostatic repulsion can overcome surface tension to deform a spherical droplet of charged liquid, and his namesake dimensionless number, the product of the Prandtl number and Grashof number, determines whether heat flows primarily through convection or conduction. An instability named for him and Taylor describes a heavy fluid floating on a light one, and several parameters are known as his namesake criteria, one referring to combustion and the other to the angular resolution of an optical system. The creator of an incorrect blackbody energy density formula along with James Jeans, for ten points, name this physicist best known for his eponymous scattering which explains why the sky is blue.
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This man's namesake reflections and regular reflections are possible between the von Neumann angle and the detachment angle, and with Zehnder his name denotes a type of interferometer. The critical point of a de Laval nozzle coincides with a value of 1 for this man's namesake quantity; that quantity's upstream value appears in the jump conditions of the Rankine-Hugoniot relations. His namesake cone is surrounded by the zone of silence, and incompressible flow occurs for low values of his namesake number. In The Science of Mechanics he responded to Newton's arguments for an absolute reference frame and stated that inertia should be defined relative to the distant stars, a statement that Einstein called his principle. FTP, identify this man whose namesake dimensionless number is the ratio of speed to the local speed of sound.
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This person is the second namesake of a condition that, when combined with the Schrödinger equation in a periodic potential, results in Bloch's theorem. That condition states that the wavefunction must be unchanged by translation by a lattice translation vector. This thinker determined that the ratio between mean and roughness velocities in a boundary layer flow is equal to about 0.41. In addition to the aforementioned constant and boundary condition also named for Born, this scientist discovered a quasi-periodic shedding pattern caused by locally turbulent separated flow past blunt bodies. This physicist's aforementioned namesake streets of vortices are shed by fast flows past cylinders. For 10 points, name this physicist whose namesake line marks the edge of the Earth's atmosphere, a Hungarian-American.
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This person's namesake gas consists of a fixed array of spherical scatterers, with a single particle elastically scattering between them. When the effect of radiative reaction force is included, the equation of motion for a nonrelativistic charged particle is named for him and Abraham. Along with a Danish mathematician, he lends his name to an equation relating index of refraction to density, also known as the Clausius-Mossotti equation. His namesake factor equals one over the square root of one minus beta squared, and is symbolized by a lowercase gamma. FTP, name this co-discoverer of the Zeeman effect, whose namesake transformation shows how to transform spacetime coordinates to a moving reference frame in special relativity.
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This person's namesake gauge gives rise to transverse current by imposing the condition that the vector potential is solenoidal. This scientist's Researches on the Force of Torsion and Elasticity of Metal Wires outlines his theory of dry friction, which can be used with Amontons' law. That work also contains designs for a torsion balance, which he would use to prove his most famous result, published in his 1785 Memoirs on Electricity and Magnetism. FTP name this Frenchman whose eponymous inverse square law defines the electrostatic force between two charged particles, who is also the namesake of the SI unit of charge.
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This person's namesake principle demonstrates that a thermodynamic cycle run in reverse acts as a refrigerator. The inventor of the AND gate, this scientist names the putative resonant frequency of the Earth and his namesake effect is the wireless transmission of power. He claimed to have worked out a unified field theory, but it was never published. The winner of the so-called "War of the Currents," he was obsessed late in life with the design of a "death ray." FTP, name this physicist who lends his name to the SI unit of magnetism and a coil of his own invention; a pioneer of alternating current from Croatia.
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This phenomenon in leptons may be observed using the Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein effect. The NA48 experiment at CERN is currently studying this phenomenon in hyperons, and the BaBar experiment at SLAC and the Belle experiment at KEK have determined it to be true for b-mesons. Its underpinnings came in an experiment by Chieng-Shiung Wu involving cobalt-60, and studies of this in kaon decay won a Nobel prize for James Cronin and Val Fitch. A possible explanation of the dominance of matter over antimatter, FTP, name this phenomenon, present under the weak force, in which symmetry between particles and antiparticles, as well as between a system and its mirror, are infringed.
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This phenomenon is the cause of Plateau-Rayleigh instability and the Marangoni effect. The Bond number indicates the relative strength in a system of gravity and forces due to this, while the Weber number relates it to inertia. The Young-Laplace equation states that capillary pressure is directly proportional to the wetting angle and this quantity, and it can be computed for an arbitrary pure liquid using the Eotvos rule. Measured in units of ergs per centimeter squared, or newtons per meter, it is causes the formation of 'tears of wine' and the spherical shape of water droplets. For 10 points, identify this phenomenon, the storage of energy at the surface of a liquid.
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This physical law may be used to modify the Freedman-Clauser experiments, and can be extended from its usual application to quantum spin systems. One form results in an equation with a term proportional to one-half times the speed of light times the permittivity of free space times the magnitude of electric field squared. Alternately, this equation may be set equal to the cosine-squared of the angle between the polarization direction of light and the transmission axis of the polarizer. FTP, name this law of optics which gives the intensity of light transmitted when a polarizer is placed in front of an incident beam.
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This physical law was first derived from experiments resulting in the structures of sodium chloride and zinc sulfide. This law was derived from Ewald's theory of atomic distance and greatly simplifies the von Laue description of wave interference. It is governed by a simple equation that relates the diffraction of X-rays in crystals at certain angles of incidence, stating that n lambda equals two d times the sine of theta. FTP, identify this law named after a father and son pair who won a Nobel Prize for their work in 1915.
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This principle is invoked in a term in the Weizsaecker Formula for determining the binding energy of nuclei, and the related liquid drop model utilizes a consequence of this that favors nuclei with even numbers of protons and neutrons. It explains the formation of neutron stars through degeneracy, and it leads to the formation of a "Fermi sea" at absolute zero. Symmetric wave functions are not governed by this principle, but the anti-symmetric wave functions of spin one-half particles are. FTP name this principle that says no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously.
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This problem assumes a pair of protons in close proximity with a total spin angular momentum equal to zero. If the protons move in opposite directions, their spin angular momentum must remain equal and opposite. Thus, if you measure one proton's spin angular momentum, you know the other's as well. It concludes that this knowledge of more than one mutually noncommuting observable of either proton is a violation of quantum mechanics. An attempt to solve it resulted in Bell's Inequality Theorem, which proved unsuccessful. FTP, name this paradox, devised in 1935 and named for Albert Einstein and two of his colleagues.
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This process resembles the resistive ballooning mode of magnetized plasmas except the plasma pressure replaces rho. In this process, penetration distance is proportional to the Atwood number and gravitational acceleration, and the sonoluminescent bubbles created by snapping shrimp are destroyed via this process. It can be seen in delamination of lithosphere layers and in carbon detonation within a type 1a supernova, in which it displays its characteristic "fingers". For 10 points, identify this configuration where a more dense fluid lies on top of a less dense one, resulting in instability.
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This process was first observed by Jan Ingenhousz in 1785. It corresponds to a Fokker-Planck Equation with no deterministic term and constant stochastic term, and it is generally modeled as a Wiener Process, while the Langevin formula can govern the average displacement. It is formally equivalent to the macro-scale diffusion equation with constant diffusion coefficient, and its namesake first observed it occurring for a pollen particle in water. Described by Einstein using the kinetic theory of gas, FTP name this seemingly random motion of a particle in a fluid, the namesake of a Scottish biologist.
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This property is used in a namesake form of spectroscopy where a pumping process creates unequal saturation and non-uniform m sublevels. Ellipticity and intensity are among a four component vector representation of this concept. Muller matrices allow manipulation of the aforementioned Stokes vectors. Nicol prisms cause this, partly because they are made of a birefringent material. Waves can have elliptical, circular, vertical or horizontal types of this. LCDs and sunglasses use material to alter this property of light. For 10 points, name this term given to electromagnetic radiation where the distribution of the electric field components of the waves is constrained.
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This quantity is equal to L plus one plus the number of radial nodes of the wavefunction. In one model, the square of this quantity is inversely proportional to energy with a constant of thirteen point six. Transitioning between two different values of it gives a frequency proportional to the difference between the reciprocals of the square of two different values of it, via the Rydberg formula. The azimuthal number is bounded by one minus this value, for which different values also generate the Pfund, Balmer, and Lyman series. This number determines the energy level of an orbital, and along with spin, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers completely describe an electron in an orbital. For 10 points, name this quantum number symbolized n.
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This quantity is multiplied by the speed of light in the denominator of the Compton wavelength. The difference of this quantity's unbound and measured quantities is its “defect.†The implied asymptotic increase of this property with speed makes faster-than-light travel impossible. In general relativity, the presence of this property causes spacetime to curve. The Higgs boson might impart this property to matter. Einstein equated it with energy and the speed of light squared. For 10 points, name this quantity which, when multiplied by acceleration, gives force.
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This relation is generally reducible to a high-order linear PDE in a scalar called the streamfunction in the incompressible approximation and, because the streamfunction is analogous to a potential function, the flow governed by this equation is sometimes called potential flow. In the steady flow case, it reduces to the hydrostatic condition, while is may be generally stated by equating the substantial time derivative of the product of fluid density and volume with the density times the gravitational field, minus the pressure gradient. FTP, identify this equation describing the motion of an inviscid continuum fluid, which is named for an 18th century mathematician.
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This relation may be most directly derived by noting the commutation of the time derivative and bra-ket operators, then assuming harmonic time dependence for the solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. It is not as intuitive for perturbed observables, since its familiar form assumes that the operator corresponding to the observable in question is not explicitly time dependent. A demonstration of the Bohr correspondence principle, it is most often cited for the case of the momentum observable in the coordinate representation, in which case it reduced to a highly familiar statement about the total time derivative of the momentum's expectation. FTP, name this theorem, often cited as a quantum analog of Newton's 2nd law.
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This relation's namesake constant must generally be computed for each streamline because it is derived by line-integrating the momentum equation along a streamline with the proper assumptions, the most restrictive of which is the absence of friction. Dividing through by the acceleration of gravity reformulates this equation in terms of head, which is how it's commonly used in civil engineering, and it can be used to derive the Venturi principle. It can be quickly obtained by dividing the energy equation for an ideal fluid element by its volume. FTP, name the equation that states that the sum of static and dynamic pressures and specific gravitational potential is constant and is named after a Swiss physicist.
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This scientist developed a law of efflux for liquids, and the point on the plane of a triangle for which the sum of the distances from the vertices is a minimum is named for him. A master of Cavalieri's method of indivisibles, Galileo was so impressed by his 1641 De motu gravium that he asked this man to be his personal secretary, but is was his experiments after Galileo's death for which he is known today. FTP, identify this physicist who established the existence of atmospheric pressure and invented the mercury barometer.
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This scientist initiated the theory of proton and electron showers in cosmic rays and helped to resolve contradictions in the nuclear mass scale. With Marshak, he predicted the discovery of the pi meson and later worked on that meson's production by electromagnetic radiation. With Peirels, he developed a theory of the deuteron and also worked with Heitler to calculate the bremsstrahlung emitted by relativistic electrons . The first to explain the hydrogen spectrum's Lamb shift, he applied group theory and quantum mechanics to electrostatic theory to develop crystal field theory. FTP, identify this German-American physicist who, independently of Carl Weizsacker, discovered the carbon-nitrogen cycle and proton-proton reactions that power stars, work for which he won the 1967 Nobel prize in Physics.
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This scientist introduced the idea of an order parameter, which was used to derive a namesake equation of superconductivity along with his theory of second order phase transitions. This physicist's namesake pole is the energy at which a coupling constant becomes infinite, while his namesake damping is a non-collisional dissipative mechanism stabilizing ionized gasses. Repeatedly declared legally dead after a 1962 car accident, he was never able to complete his series "Physics for Everybody," though his nine-volume Course of Theoretical Physics, written with Lifshits, is epochal. FTP, name this Soviet physicist and recipient of the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on superfluidity.
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This sort of range is formed from points ABCD if AC over CB equals AD over DB. This term is given to any function that has continuous second partial derivatives and satisfies Laplace's equation. The angular part of the solutions of Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates are called spherical this. This term describes the series that is the sum of one over n for one to infinity. This type of mean is the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals. For 10 points, name this term that in acoustics refers to frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental and thus names the analysis of additively combined waves.
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This technique can be used to determine the motion of a line vortex inside a fluid-filled cylinder, or the flow pattern induced by a line vortex near a rigid barrier. For a point near a circular boundary, the distance of the appropriate point from the circle's center is given by the circle's radius squared over the source or sink distance from the circle's center. This technique relies on a uniqueness theorem to generate solutions to boundary value problems involving Poisson's equation in situations with nice geometric arrangements. Commonly used in electrostatics to determine the potential due to a charge near a conducting surface, FTP, name this technique which involves placing a reflected charge in a situation with a mirror symmetry.
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This technique may be used to find Fermi resonances in acid chlorides. Preparation of compounds for use in this technique may involve making a mull in nujol, mixing with potassium bromide, or depositing a thin film on a sodium chloride cell. A molecular dipole moment shift is required for a vibration to be visible using this technique. Hydrogen bonding lowers the frequency of the hydroxyl group stretch, and vibrations between four hundred and one thousand, six hundred wavenumbers are considered the fingerprint region for organic compounds studied using this method. FTP, identify this type of spectroscopy useful in identifying functional groups whose vibrations are excited by wavelengths of light that are longer than visible light.
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This term is used to describe a set of potentials which are described by the Hertz vectors. The Goos-Hanchen effect observed in total internal reflection is a phase shift that affects propagations with one variety of this property. Different varieties of this property can be transformed into one another by a retarder plate. Mueller matrices operate on the vector representations of this property, which is described by the I, Q, U, and V, and the vector of this property rotates in proportion to the Verdet constant during propagation along a magnetic field in the Faraday effect. Complete transmission occurs at Brewster's angle for light with one version of this property. Described by the Stokes parameters, for 10 points, identify this property which comes in linear, circular, and elliptical varieties, and which designates the direction and magnitude of the electric displacement vector.
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This theorem can be derived by applying Ampere's Law to the work-energy theorem and then using Faraday's law to eliminate the curl of E. The power delivered by a set of electromagnetic fields is equal to the time derivative of the sum of electric and magnetic energy densities, plus a new term involving the flux integral of a namesake vector. Equal to E cross B divided by the permeability, this vector gives the energy flux density of a propagating field. FTP, what name is shared by this theorem and the vector appearing in it, which is derived not from what the vector does but from the name of its discoverer?
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This theorem's namesake also gives his name to a paradox involving the Lorentz contraction of a rigid rotating disk, and it can be derived by applying expectation values to the Lindblad equation. The particle-in-a-box initially appears to violate this theorem, which demonstrates the Bohr correspondence principle, since the probability of finding a particle at a wall is zero, so the expectation value of the force should vanish for any state. Therefore, it fails to be equal to the time derivative of the momentum's expectation as this statement predicts. For 10 points, name this theorem, the quantum mechanical analog of Newton's Second Law, named for an Austrian friend of Einstein.
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This type of inviscid flow around a cylinder has streamlines that are exactly reproduced outside of a small boundary layer by Hele-Shaw flow. This type of flow is equivalent to incompressible, irrotational (*) flow, and satisfies Laplace's equation for a namesake function associated with the velocity. In thermodynamics, this term denotes the internal energy and all Legendre transforms of the internal energy. In electrodynamics, the Liénard-Wiechert equations give the retarded forms of two versions of this quantity, and the magnetic field equals the curl of the vector version of this quantity. Any conservative force can be described as the negative gradient of one of these scalar functions. For 10 points, give this term denoting a type of energy associated with the configuration of a system, such as the energy stored in a compressed spring.
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This work's final section begins with the first and second violins successively playing alternating notes of the main theme, and this piece concludes with a muted fanfare of stopped horns and the single stroke of a tam-tam while the music fades into quiet. The "Allegro con grazia" second movement is a waltz written in the unusual time signature of 5/4. In this symphony's first movement a theme inspired by Don Jose' "Flower Song" from Carmen slowly dwindles until it is played at a volume marked with six Ps. During this work's "adagio lamentoso" final movement a triple forte drumroll interrupts the recapitulation of ends the "desperation" theme. Premiered nine days before the composer's death from cholera, for 10 points, name this final Tchaikovsky symphony.
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Though it was developed in 1960, Lilienfeld and Heil patented a similarly structured device in 1930. Its voltage gain is caused by the fact that the current saturates at higher drain-source voltages, so that small drain current variation can cause large drain volt variation. It comes in four different varieties depending on its conduction layer. A four terminal device, its source and drain are rectifying PN junctions and its gates are insulated with silicon dioxide. Requiring its left gate edge to overlap the source for the device to operate, FTP, name this type of transistor, the most commonly type used in VLSI circuits, and normally referred to by its 6-letter acronym.
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Though this device was actually invented by Samuel Christie, it was popularized by its namesake. The Pirani thermal conductivity gauge is basically one of these apparatuses with one part in the form of a heated filament placed in a vacuum system. Comprised of four arms, its namesake used it to measure resistance by comparing current flowing through one part with a known current flowing through another part. FTP, identify this so-called "bridge."
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Though this man already had a less famous gig as a professor of medicine at Cleveland Medical College, he also became a Congregationalist minister late in his career. During the 1870s, he made the first accurate measurements of the stoichiometry of the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen and, after building an eudiometer to measure the amount of oxygen in air, he showed that, under certain conditions, cold air results from downward movement of air. FTP, name the scientist who, along with D.C. Miller, helped to develop the interferometer and, thereby, disprove the existence of the luminiferous ether in an eponymous experiment with A.A. Michelson.
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Three varieties of the diagnostic tool based on this phenomenon are ultraviolet resonance, near-infrared dispersive, and surface enhanced spectroscopy. It has been used in vivo to detect cervical and skin cancers by examining intensity changes and wavenumber shifts of the distinctly narrow peaks it creates. Because it is a fairly weak effect, sensitive detectors and laser sources must be used, and the much stronger fluorescence spectrum must be subtracted from the result. It occurs when a molecule enters a virtual excited state, then returns to a higher or lower vibrational state, emitting an altered photon. FTP, name this type of inelastic scattering that has both Stokes and anti-Stokes varieties and is named for an Indian physicist.
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Typically, before it is made, the constituent materials need to be purified through zone refining. Its physical properties stem from the fact that when its two parts are brought together, the chemical potentials must equalize. In the past, it was often made by heating a substrate in the presence of a dopant gas, but today epitaxial growth and ion implantation are popular methods of creating it. Three of them make a thyristor, two make a transistor, and one of them makes a diode. FTP, Name this basic component of semiconductor circuit elements which is created by joining two differently doped pieces of semiconductor material.
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Using Eugene Goldstein's research on anode rays, J.J. Thomson designed an early version of this tool that he named the "parabola spectrograph." In his instrument, a fluorescent screen or photographic plate detected the parabolic paths of ions deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Modern versions of this instrument graph the relative number of deflected ions, creating a series of distinct peaks. For 10 points-identify this versatile scientific tool used to determine relative atomic masses.
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Using Ramanujan's identity or a combination of the Euler identity and Jacobi triple product, p congruencies for it can be found, and Liebniz noted that it was not prime for n equals 7. Numbers which can not be written as a product of it correspond to nonisomorphic Abelian groups that are not possible for any group order. As a function of the volume, temperature, and number of particles in a system, it connects the mechanical properties of a system, through the quantized energies, with the system's thermodynamic properties and its inverse serves as the constant of proportionality between the probability of finding the system in a certain quantum state and the Boltzmann factor. FTP, what is this quantity, represented as Q or Z, which is the sum of all the energy states of a system and gives the distributed of energy over all the possible microstates of the system?
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Using this system to model solvated electrons in a solution of lithium in ammonia correctly derives the wavelength of said solution's color. Modeling an alpha particle in a nucleus as this system leads to the Geiger-Nuttall formula. Assuming a deep well in the quantum-confined Stark effect allows the estimation of its energies by treating it as this system, while an iterated version of this system in one dimension gives the Kronig-Penny model. The square root of 2 over L is the normalizing constant for this system, whose energy levels correspond to n squared h squared over 8 m L. For 10 points, name this quantum system in which an object is trapped in a square container.
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Wheeler and Lamb calculated the effects of screening on the Bethe-Heitler cross-sections for this process and pair-production, and Landau, Pomeranchuk and Migdal showed that it is reduced at high energies and high densities due to multiple Coulomb scattering. It produces a flat spectrum up to a cutoff frequency, and the formula for its power includes the Gaunt factor. Alternate terms for the inverse of this process include collisional damping and free-free absorption. In plasma confinement devices at low electron temperatures, this process dominates synchrotron radiation as an energy sink. FTP, name this emission by accelerated charged particles of "braking radiation."
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When dispersion takes place in a traveling wave, this quantity must satisfy the Kronig-Kramers relations. The imaginary part of this quantity yields the radio absorption coefficient, and this quantity can also be calculated from the Clausius-Mossotti equation. For a plasma, it is given by one minus the plasma frequency over the wave frequency, and for continuous macroscopic bodies this quantity is given by one plus the electric succeptibility. Its real part gives the Fresnel reflection coefficients, and it relates the displacement field to the electric field. Also called the relative permeability, for ten points, identify this constant whose namesake materials are often inserted between the plates of capacitors.
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When one accounts for the mass distribution, it can be found by using the parallel and perpendicular axis theorems. It is the common factor in rotational kinetic energy and angular momentum, and when multiplied by the angular acceleration, this quantity yields the net torque in a system. Important in determining a system's rotational motion, FTP, identify this physics quantity that is considered the rotational analog of mass and is generally designated I.
T log Z, where Z is the canonical partition function. It is equal to E minus T S. FTP, what is this thermodynamic quantity, differing from the similarly named Gibbs quantity by a PV term?
Witten showed that the supergravity action for black holes in anti-de Sitter space behaves like this quantity in the dual field theory, where at high temperatures conformal invariance dictates that it scales as temperature to the fourth. One obtains it by a Legendre transformation, after which the entropy is now realized as the negative partial derivative of it with respect to temperature. It is given by
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Zwicky introduced this hypothesis, which can explain the growth of large-scale structure in the relatively short period since the time of electron-photon decoupling. Zwicky was prompted to postulate it on the basis of his measurements of galactic velocity dispersions in the Coma cluster. Further support came from Vera Rubin's work demonstrating that galactic rotation curves typically remain flat rather than falling off with radius. Candidates include axions, MACHOs and WIMPs. Approximately 25% of the density of the Universe is thought to reside in, FTP, what non-luminous material?
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A student of Boltzmann, this scientist independently discovered what is now called the Auger (OH-ghay) effect--two years before Auger did. After moving from Berlin to Stockholm in 1938, a collaboration with Otto Frisch produced the explanation for nuclear fission, although, unjustly, not a share of Otto Hahn's 1944 Nobel prize. FTP, name this physicist known as the "Mother of the Atomic Bomb."
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It was formulated in 1820, when a Lyonnese professor observed Oersted's discovery that the needle on a compass would line up perpendicular to a current-carrying wire. Although it produces a very difficult equation, in cases of high symmetry it can be much easier to solve than the Biot-Savart Law. FTP, name the law which states that the path integral of a magnetic field around any closed path is proportional to the current enclosed by the path, named for its French discoverer.
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It was this man who proposed that nucleic acids carry genetic code. After graduating from the University of Leningrad, he worked with Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford before coming to the United States in 1934. His elaboration of the ideas of Hans Bethe led him to important conclusions about stellar evolution: particularly, that stars tend to become hotter as their hydrogen is depleted. FTP identify this Russian born physicist now most associated with a theory first expressed by Georges Lemaitre, the big bang theory of the origin of the universe.
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It's a result of half-integer spin particles having permutationally antisymmetric wavefunctions. Quark colors were proposed to avoid its violation and it explains why cold electrons don't cascade into the atomic ground state. For ten points, what rule holds that no two fermions can simultaneously occupy the same quantum-mechanical state.
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer (accept "Davisson-Germer"; prompt if only one name is given on a buzz before "two".)
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Compton effect or scattering (accept "Compton wavelength" early)
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Dirac equation
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Fraunhofer lines
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Hans Christian Oersted
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Hawking Radiation
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Hermann von Helmholtz
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Luis Alvarez
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Max von Laue
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Rydberg constant
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Wheatstone Bridge
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bolometer
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convection
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fermions
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fiber optics
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neutron
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supersymmetry (or susy)
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For the quantum-mechanical version, energy eigenfunctions are proportional to Hermite polynomials and the ground state energy is one-half h-bar times the angular frequency. The classical version is simply a system with a restoring force obeying Hooke's law. Examples of what object, for ten points, include a mass on a spring and a small-amplitude pendulum.
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He discovered orbital electron capture and, with Felix Bloch, measured the nautron's magnetic moment. While working at Los Alamos, he worked on atomic detonators; after the war he developed the liquid hydrogen bubble chamber with which he discovered many resonance particles. For 10 points, name this physicist, also known for his work with his geologist son Walter on the extinction of the dinosaurs.
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He was 26 years old when he published On the Conservation of Force in 1847 whose ideas were more precise than Mayer's and more wide-ranging than Joule's. In 1850 he developed an ophthalmoscope for viewing the human retina. He also argued that the cochlea resonates at different frequencies and analyses complex sounds. Later in life he gave up physiology for medicine and became interested in Maxwell's work on electromagnetic radiation. His pupils included Hertz, Boltzmann, and Michelson. FTP name this German physicist and physiologist, the namesake of a kind of free energy.
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He was the first to isolate aluminum, and published his Manual of Mechanical Physics in 1844. Born in Rudkobing in 1777, he was educated at the University of Copenhagen where he became a professor in 1806. FTP name this Danish physicist and chemist who in 1819 discovered that a magnetic needle is deflected at a right angle to a wire carrying an electric current, thus initiating the study of electromagnetism.
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His early work on isoperimetrical problems impressed Euler and his theorem states that the order of a subgroup of a finite group is a factor of the group's order. The calculus of variations is a key part of his geometry-free explanation of mechanics based on the function of kinetic and potential energy bearing his name. For ten points, identify this French-Italian author of Mécanique analytique.
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His father owned a brick works near Groningen; his mother was the daughter of an architect. In his doctoral thesis he proved that Foucault's pendulum experiment can be used to show the earth's rotation. Always interested in cryogenics, he used the theories of compatriots Van der Waals and Lorentz to make the discoveries that earned Leyden its title as coldest place on earth. For 10 points, name the physicist who liquefied helium.
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In curved spacetime, this phenomenon is explained by applying Bogoliubov transformations to the solutions of Maxwell's equations. writing them as positive-frequency and negative-frequency parts; one gives you particles, and the other, antiparticles. The resulting prediction is a blackbody glowing at a temperature equal to six times ten to the negative eighth kelvins per solar masses -- in other words, FTP, for particle-antiparticle pairs created near the event horizon, one falls into a black hole, and the other escapes as what kind of radiation?
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In the 1930's this physicist worked with Meissner on the magnetism of superconductors and he collaborated with the Londons on that subject. An early champion of relativity, the idea for his most famous scientific achievement came while on a skiing trip with Wilhelm Wein and Sommerfield, when he became curious as to whether or not some of the shorter electromagnetic waves might not create an interference pattern in some mediums, like crystals. FTP name this man, whose discovery that X-Rays are refracted by crystals earned him the Nobel Prize in 1914.
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It has a mass of 940 MeV per c squared and when in a free state this particle decays in about 900 seconds. At first this beta decay appeared to violate energy conservation, leading to the proposal of the neutrino. Consisting of two down and one up quark, the decay products are an antineutrino, an electron, and a proton. For ten points, name this uncharged nucleon.
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It was first discovered in an 1821 experiment using a copper strip and a bismuth strip, although it holds true for any pair of metals. It was discovered that merely holding part of the experimental apparatus was sufficient to cause this to occur. Used to measure temperature accurately in thermocouples, for ten points, name this thermoelectric effect in which an electromotive force is produced in a closed circuit where two junctions of dissimilar conductors are maintained at different temperatures.
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Kelvin's circulation theorem guarantees that in an inviscid, incompressible fluid, this quantity, the curl of the velocity vector, is constant. An essential element of convection and MHD dynamos, more familiar examples of this quantity occur in hurricanes and airflow around airplane wings. For ten points, name this quantity, the amount of rotation in a fluid flow.
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Officially created by Charles II, the 17 occupants include a Nobel Prize winner and 3 presidents of the Royal Society. George Stokes held the post the longest, 54 years, Charles Babbage for 10 and Paul Dirac for 37. Its most famous occupant lasted from 1669 to 1702. For ten points, name this Cambridge professorship now held by Stephen Hawking.
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On the fifth of February, 1925, an experimenter's notebook records the discovery of a crack in the vacuum trap in an electron scattering apparatus at Western Electric. Later, the nickel target formed ten crystal facets, producing a strange pattern of light, which was later seized upon by Max Born and Erwin Schrodinger as evidence for his theories. FTP, name the two experimenters whose discovery of photon scattering gave support to the wave theory of light.
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Predicted in 1924 by Wolfgang Pauli, it was observed in beams irradiated with RF energy in 1933 by Stern and Gerlach. First observed in bulk materials by Felix Bloch (BLOCK) and Edward Mills Purcell, they shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1952 for their discovery. FTP, name the process in which a strong magnetic field and radio waves are used to determine the chemical contents of a material.
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Since 0.024 Angstroms is small compared to visible wavelengths, this phenomenon is hard to observe with visible light. But, that number, equal to Planck's constant divided by the product of the speed of light and the electron mass, lies in the X-rays, allowing a wavelength shift to be observed when X-rays strike electrons in, FTP, what effect, whose 1922 discovery corroborated the particle nature of light and won its namesake a Nobel Prize?
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The coefficient named after him is 1 over the quantity n times e, where e is the electronic charge and n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume. When this co-efficient is multiplied by the current density and the magnetic flux density, the result is the strength of the electric field produced within a conductor subjected to a strong transverse magnetic field. FTP, identify the scientist after whom this effect is named, in which the potential difference develops at right angles to both the current and the field.
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The value of this constant in astronomy is about 20.49 degrees of an arc, and it was first calculated by British astronomer James Bradley. It is defined as the maximum amount of the apparent yearly displacement of a star or other celestial body, resulting from the Earth's orbital motion around the Sun. In optics several types of it exist including a spherical and chromatic form, and other varieties of this phenomenon are astigmatism, curvature of field, and distortion. FTP, what is this 10 letter word, that in optical systems, is defined as the deviation of light rays through lenses, causing images or objects to be blurred?
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They are characterized by a wave function which is anti-symmetric under the operator representing particle interchange. As a result, when they are tightly packed, they exhibit a strong quantum-mechanical degeneracy pressure responsible for the stability of white dwarves and neutron stars. They include all leptons, baryons, and quarks, because they all have half-integer spin. FTP, name this class of particles which obey the Pauli exclusion principle, consisting of anything which is not a boson.
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They are cylindrical dielectric waveguides composed of a central cylinder, surrounded by an annulus with a lower refractive index. Due to signal losses through optical attenuation and dispersion, repeaters must be used in these networks to keep signals clean. For ten points, name this technology that uses total internal reflection to transfer light signals.
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They were first observed in 1802 by English physicist William Hyde Wollaston, but are named for the physicist who from about 1814 mapped more than 500 of them and designated the brightest by letters, a system of identification still in use. They are caused by selective absorption of the Sun's or star's radiation at specific wavelengths by the various elements existing as gases in its atmosphere. FTP, name these dark lines in the spectrum of the Sun or other stars.
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They were first proposed by physicist Arnold Sommerfield, who argued that on the basis of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, particles must exist which speed up as they lose energy, unlike ordinary particles which speed up when they gain energy. He referred to these superluminal particles as B-matter, or meta-matter. FTP, name these theoretical particles which travel faster than light.
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This chemical physicist produced a theory of the change in specific heat with temperature, a method for X-ray diffraction analysis using powdered crystals, and the concept of permanent molecular dipole moments. He was also able to use his moments to show that water was bent and benzene was flat. In 1923 he and Huckel devised a theory of electrolytes that bear their names. FTP name this Dutch-American physicist after whom the unit of electric dipole moment is named.
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This circuit consists of 3 known resistors and an unknown resistance connected in a diamond pattern. A DC voltage is connected across two opposite points of the diamond and a galvanometer is bridged across the other two. By varying the value of one of the known resistances, the bridge can be made to balance for any value of unknown resistance which can then be calculated. FTP name this kind of circuit, named for a Britist physicist.
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This constant is based on the simplification that the nucleus of an atom is almost infinitely more massive than a single orbiting electron, hence it is often symbolized by a letter with the infinity symbol as a subscript. The shortest wavelength in the Balmer series is four divided by this quantity. Taking a value of 109,677.58 reciprocal centimeters, for ten points, name this fundamental constant of atomic physics developed in 1890 by a Swedish physicist and usually symbolized by a capital R.
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This physicist used Laplace transforms to study transient network currents, paving the way for long-distance telephone service. The namesake of a function related to the integral of the Dirac delta function, he anticipated special relativity by postulating that electric charge increases with velocity. FTP, name this British scientist who, independently of Arthur Kennelly, predicted the existence of the ionosphere.
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This principle offers an elegant method of finding the equivalent resistance between adjacent points on an infinite resistor lattice. In Young's famous double-slit experiment, it explains how the beams interfere either constructively or destructively at a point. For ten points, what principle of electromagnetism states that the field at a point is the vector sum of the fields from individual sources.
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This scientist taught at the University of Berlin from 1927 until 1933, when he decided that he could not teach in a nation that persecuted Jews as a part of national policy. He joined the Dublin institute for Advanced Studies in 1940 and during that period he wrote What is Life? in an attempt to illustrate how quantum physics can be used to explain the genetic structure. FTP, identify this theoretical physicist whose wave equation helped him win the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics along with P.A.M. Dirac.
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This scientist warned of the powers of the modern weaponry when he said, "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones." Admitted to the Swiss Polytechnic Institute in 1896, he created the "equivalence principle" equating gravitational force and the inertial force of a system in accelerated motion. FTP, name the scientist who published his three most important papers in 1905, while working for the Swiss Patent Office.