Physics 3 by Tejas Santanam

The metacentric point is the intersection of two vectors representing this force. This force is represented by the isothermal compressibility times temperature difference between surroundings and surface in the numerator of the Grashof number, which compares it to viscous forces. The magnitude of this force is assumed not to be constant in the Boussinesq approximation

buoyancy

The potential associated with this quantity can be calculated as one-half times this quantity times voltage-squared. Certain materials increase this quantity by a factor called a dielectric constant, which is equal to one for a vacuum

capacitance

This entity's presence in a two-dimensional conductor creates Landau levels in the quantum hall effect. The Lorentz force on a particle is given by charge times velocity cross this entity, which is equal to the curl of the vector potential

Magnetic field

This letter represents a quantity defined as Gibbs free energy per surface area in the Young-Laplace equation. Relativistic mass equals rest mass times a quantity represented by this letter, which is equal to the derivative of time with respect to proper time. That quantity is also expressed as one divided by the square root of one minus v squared over c squared, known as the Lorentz factor

gamma

This dimensionless quantity for a fluid is equal to inertial forces divided by viscous forces. This number can indicate whether flow is laminar or turbulent.

Reynolds number

Using Weyl ordering in a formalism due to this scientist leads to the midpoint prescription. In that formalism due to this physicist, the integral kernel, or propagator, of the time-evolution operator is expressed as the sum over all possible paths with a weighting factor proportional to the exponential of the action. That formalism is the path integral formulation.

Richard Feynman

While not Hugh Everett, the formulator of this construct was motivated by the EPR paradox and wished to contradict the idea of wavefunction collapse. Influenced by complementarity, this argument sought to reveal the limitations in the Copenhagen interpretation

Schrodinger's cat

The Frank-Tamm formula explains why this type of emission is most common when an electron traveling faster than the phase velocity of light emits Cherenkov radiation. Wien's approximation favors this type of emission, which was predicted to lead to infinitely powerful black body radiation according to the Rayleigh-Jeans law

UV light

The Chandra space telescope observes this type of radiation. The angles at which this type of radiation causes diffraction when it hits a crystal are described by Bragg's law

X-Rays

The change in the ratio of this quantity to Gibbs free energy is equal to the negative of enthalpy divided by this quantity squared. An engine's maximum efficiency is equal to one minus the ratio of this quantity measured at two different reservoirs according to Carnot's theorem. The energy of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of this quantity by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Three-halves times this quantity times the Boltzmann constant equals a particle's average kinetic energy. The third law of thermodynamics states that entropy is zero at the unattainable lower bound of this quantity, known as absolute zero

absolute temperature

In Minkowski space, the four-vector form of this quantity is computed as the derivative of U with respect to proper time and represents a curvature vector along a world line. For a simple harmonic oscillator, this quantity equals negative omega squared x

acceleration

Particles in these regions can be approximated by a wavefunction using Slater determinants and the Hartree-Fock method, and the Madelung rule describes how ones with lower n+l values have lower energy. They can be described by their principal, azimuthal, magnetic, and spin

atomic orbitals

For all six quarks, this value equals one-third. This value equals negative one-third for all anti-quarks, and this number is always conserved or converted to lepton numbers.

baryon numbers

The "fuzzball model" is thought to describe these objects, from which energy can be harvested by means of the Penrose process. Ones described by the Kerr metric cause frame-dragging within their ergospheres. Their only known properties are mass, charge, and angular momentum, due to the no-hair theorem

black holes

The Coriolis force can be calculated by multiplying this number times the cross product of velocity and angular velocity.

2

This number is the dimension of the phase space of a free particle confined to a plane. For the Earth-Sun system, the Lagrange point of this number is the furthest from the Sun. One statement given this number describes the areal velocity of a certain system as constant. The spin projection quantum number has this many possible values. Systems with more than this number of gravitating bodies are non-integrable. The moment of inertia is proportional to mass times this power of linear dimension. This number of parallel lines represents a capacitor in a circuit diagram

2

In an air column with one end closed, the wavelength of the first harmonic equals this multiple of the length of the air column. The magnetic permeability constant equals this coefficient of pi times ten to the negative seventh, and a typical Wheatstone bridge contains this many resistors

4

The definition of the magnetic vector potential proceeds from this law. When a time-varying electric field is present, this law must be modified to include a term for displacement current. That modification was first done by James Maxwell, and its differential form involves the curl of the magnetic field. This law is a special case of the Biot-Savart law that is easier to apply to a problem given certain symmetries.

Ampere's Law

A specific case of this equation sets velocity equal to the square root of 2gh. Venturi meters and pilot tubes measure velocity using this equation, which is only applicable to compressible substances with low Mach numbers. This equation is expressed as Torricelli's theorem when pressure is constant. This equation can be derived from the conservation of energy, and it contains terms corresponding to the kinetic and potential energies for fluids. It explains the net upward force experienced by airplane wings, known as dynamic lift

Bernoulli's Equation

This Danish astronomer combined the Copernican and Ptolemaic models of the universe to form a model in which the earth is the center of the universe, but the planets move around the sun.

Brahe

Parton distributions can be calculated using the deeply virtual form of this effect. In this effect, the wavelength shift is proportional to one minus the cosine of the angle. Escape of particles undergoing this effect in a scintillator results in a spurious downward peak in the spectrum. Electrons in the gas surrounding galaxies cause CMB photons to undergo an inverse version of this effect, which is used to map clusters. The proportionality constant h over mc is the namesake wavelength of a particle undergoing this process, which is equal to the rest mass-energy of the particle

Compton Scattering

This effect is the increase in wavelength of a photon when it is scattered by a charged particle, usually an electron.

Compton effect

The antennae of moths assist them in flying by accounting for this effect, which is also used in mass flow meters. The Rossby number can describe whether this effect is prominent in a system by relating it to inertial forces. When considered on the Earth, the Beta effect leads to its variation with latitude

Coriolis Effect

In spectroscopy, thermal motion of particles causes line broadening via this effect. Within an optical trap, this effect can be used to cool atoms; that setup is used to create Bose-Einstein condensates. At relativistic speeds, this effect's namesake factor is the Lorenz gamma times the quantity one minus v divided by the speed of light. Special relativity predicts a transverse version of it

Doppler Effect

An echocardiogram uses this phenomenon to determine the velocity of blood, and the Mössbauer rotor experiments measured one form of this phenomenon through the emission of gamma rays. One experiment used canal ray tubes to measure the transverse form of this phenomenon, and Lorentz transformations are used when calculating this effect's relativistic form. The altering of spectral lines as a result of this effect causes blueshift and redshift, which are used to measure the radial velocities of galaxies

Doppler effect

This man used an experiment containing a charged metal ball, insulating thread, and an ice-pail to confirm Gauss's law. Liquids may contain this man's namesake ripples, and alongside Joseph Henry, this man discovered that moving a magnet near a conducting loop can cause a current in the loop

Faraday

This man names a phenomenon that charged particles undergo when repeatedly reflected by a magnetic mirror, his namesake acceleration. In a semiconductor, he names the energy of the highest occupied quantum state. The probability of a quantum eigenstate transition is given by his "Golden Rule". This man's theory of beta decay posited the creation of a neutrino via the weak force

Fermi

Though the light of the Sun fills a large part of the visible spectrum, the spectrum of the Sun has several dark lines named for this German scientist.

Fraunhofer

This statement generalized for gravity states that the divergence of a gravitational field equals negative 4 pi times big G times density, a law which reduces to Poisson's equation. Using this law on an infinite plane of uniform charge density involves the construction of a namesake "pillbox", an example of a symmetrical surface. This law, which equates the surface integral of E dot dS with Q over the permittivity of free space, is the first of Maxwell's equations

Gauss' Law

One problem in modern physics is that this phenomenon cannot be renormalized in quantum field theory, and this interaction is carried by a spin-2 gauge boson. Particles only affected by this force move along geodesics due to its equivalence principle, and a constant associated with this force was measured with a torsion balance in the Cavendish experiment

Gravity

A potential derived from this law predicts energy quantized by half-integer multiples of Planck's constant time frequency. This equation predicts the energy required for an IR-active mode given the reduced mass of a molecule. In the most common test on an Instron device, this aw fails to predict behavior like work hardening or necking as the load increases. This equation models chemical bond vibrations with a quadratic potential energy dependence

Hooke's Law

Mordehai Milgrom modified this man's theories in an attempt to explain the galaxy rotation problem without using dark matter. A law named after this man states that a body's rate of heat loss is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and the environment

Isaac Newton

In an AC circuit, the ratio of resistance to impedance gives this quantity's namesake factor. For an electromagnetic wave, this quantity per unit area is described by the Poynting vector, which gives the wave's intensity.

Power

This scientist names a hypothetical dark matter candidate which is the Goldstone boson for the spontaneous breaking of ungauged lepton number symmetry. The search for another hypothetical particle named for this scientist is being performed in experiments utilizing liquid xenon in a time projection chamber and cadmium zinc telluride crystals those are the EXO and COBRA experiments. This scientist names a representation in which the gamma matrices are all either purely real or purely imaginary, causing the spinors to be purely real. A right-handed spinor is multiplied by its charge conjugate in a mass term named for this scientist appearing in the Lagrangian which explains the seesaw mechanism. The existence of a type of particle named for this scientist would be confirmed by observing neutrinoless double beta decay. Dirac fermions are contrasted with this scientist's namesake type of fermion which is its own antiparticle

Majorana

Henry Adams compared militant Germany to this thought experiment. Leó Szilárd noted that it has to have some way of acquiring and storing information, thereby refuting its formulator's claims. The Brownian ratchet is similar to this thought experiment, but Richard Feynman proved that it cannot actually produce useful work because the mechanism will not work under the theorized conditions. The title entity controls a gate between two gas chambers and is able to cause a temperature difference, thus causing a decrease in entropy

Maxwell's Demon

Special relativity requires this law to be modified since momentum is approximated. Applying it in the radial direction to uniform circular motion gives the centripetal force. Impulse is derived from this law by integrating with respect to time

Newton's Second Law of Motion

his person used relativistic invariance as the basis for his proof of the spin-statistics theorem. A statement of this man is often proven by considering that the wavefunction for some particles must be antisymmetric with respect to the exchange of some variables. The pressure that opposes gravitational collapse in white dwarfs is due to that statement

Pauli

The Kolmogorov forward equation is equivalent to a probability density function formulated by this man and Adriaan Fokker. This man extended Wien's law to low frequencies and disproved a prediction of the Rayleigh-Jeans law. In addition to resolving the ultraviolet catastrophe, this man created a law that raises wavelength to the negative fifth power, his namesake law of radiation, which finds the energy of a blackbody

Planck

This man names a period of time in the history of the universe, during which the four fundamental forces were unified, that period lasted for an amount of time that is one unit in his system of natural called "God's units." This man's introduction of the "action quantum" in his study of heat theory led him to formulate an eponymous law that reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans Law at long wavelengths

Planck

This scientist's namesake "epoch" is the first "10 to the minus 43" seconds of the universe's life, during which quantum gravity was significant. He also names a system of maximally natural units. One quantity named for this man is the quantum of action. That quantity also appears in a law named for this man, which correctly described the blackbody spectrum and solved the "ultraviolet catastrophe"

Planck

Six root two, times pi to the three halves, over the natural logarithm of the namesake parameter of these systems is used to calculate the Coulomb collision time. The magnetic diffusivity is used in the Reynolds number for these systems.

Plasma

The Hafele-Keating experiment and its follow-ups supported this theory while spending less than $8,000, and the Mossbauer rotor experiment shows an effect this theory implies at a higher precision than the Ives-Stillwell experiment. It can be accounted for mathematically using the Lorentz Transformation, and can lead to a paradox involving aging and space travel, the Twin Paradox. This theory reconciled Newton's Laws and Maxwell's equations by stating that there is no absolute frame of reference and that the speed of light is constant

Special relativity

This principle is directly equivalent to the time-invariance of a system's dynamics, which is why it is locally but not globally true on a cosmological level. Early evidence for this principle came from an experiment in which a falling weight was used to heat up a container of water, performed by Joule. This principle proves that so-called "over-unity" devices do not exist. One version of this statement describes the change in internal energy as being the sum of heat input and work done

conservation of energy

Terms named after this process are traditionally found on the left side of the Navier-Stokes momentum equations and consist of the partial derivatives of the product of density and one or more velocity components. The magnitude of the Richardson number determines whether this process is free or forced. A buoyancy-dependent form of this process causes the formation of hexagonal prism-shaped cells; that is the Rayleigh-Benard type of it

convection

Albert Einstein added this constant to his general relativity theory but then rejected it. Interest in this value has returned in the last fifteen years because it can be used to explain why the size of the universe is accelerating.

cosmological constant

A "dark" type of this phenomenon manifests in light-sensitive devices like CCDs even when there is no light entering the device. A rectifier is used to force this phenomenon to be unidirectional. The areal density of this quantity equals conductivity times electric field. When these phenomena are "steady", the magnetostatic approximation holds, whence the magnetic field generated by them is described by the Biot-Savart law. Inductors resist changes in this quantity

current

One formula to find force multiplies two values of this quantity divided by distance times vacuum permeability divided by two pi. The double integral of the density of this quantity is equal to the closed line integral of a magnetic field. This quantity times the differential of length is crossed with displacement in the Biot-Savart law. One measurement of power squares this quantity and multiplies it times resistance.

current

The XENON100 experiment used particles scattering off liquid xenon to detect this entity, which is central to the Lambda-CDM parameterization of the Big Bang cosmological model. It commonly forms galactic halos, and Vera Rubin used this to explain how stars have a constant rotational velocity independent of radial distance

dark matter

One theory describing this phenomenon predicts an intensity distribution proportional to the square of the sine function. The pattern produced by this effect is the same as that produced by the complementary body according to Babinet's principle. The first zero of the sinc function helps define a limit by which a system is limited by this phenomenon. One version of this phenomenon produces a feature of angular size approximately equal to 1.22 times lambda over D, called the Airy disk; that version occurs through a circular aperture

diffraction

The rate at which momentum undergoes this physical process is related to a fluid's kinematic viscosity. In a semiconductor at equilibrium, the current due to charge carrier drift is opposed by the current due to this process. This process is described as a random walk in the Brownian motion model. The flux associated to this stochastic process is proportional to the negative gradient of concentration, according to Fick's law. Unlike convection, this process does not entail bulk motion of substance

diffusion

The momentum j-factor in the Chilton-Colburn analogy is given by a number describing this phenomenon, divided by two. A constant factor of 1.33, times the square root of the Reynolds number, gives the magnitude of this phenomenon on a flat plane. For high Reynolds numbers, the magnitude of this force is proportional to the velocity squared

drag force

This quantity is responsible for changes in refractive indices proportional to the square of this quantity in the Kerr effect. A vector that describes the directional energy flux density is equal to the magnetic field times this quantity and is called the Poynting vector. Drift velocity is equal to this quantity times electron mobility. A dipole experiences a torque equal to charge times separation times this quantity. This quantity is zero within a conductor

electric field

Shannon's version of this quantity applies to information systems. Equal to the number of microstates in a system times Boltzmann's constant, this quantity can also be expressed as the amount of energy in a system unavailable to do work

entropy

This quantity is responsible for the stability of point defects but not line or plane defects. A factor of root N factorial was introduced to this quantity to account for identical particles and keep this quantity extensive as this quantity increased by a factor of log 2 when two gases were mixed. The Rankine, Otto and Carnot cycles include two steps where this quantity is held constant. Two of the four common thermodynamic potentials include a negative term where it is multiplied by temperature. In the Clausius inequality, the change in it is given as the line integral of the change in total heat over time

entropy

The transition to this behavior can be shown by a material having a line with a positive y-intercept on an Arrott plot. A particular material class showing this behavior undergoes a martensitic phase transition and is shape-memory alloys. The product of the density of states at the Fermi level with the exchange integral for it must be greater than one according to the Stoner criterion. This property is shown by a gas of lithium atoms cooled to about 150 nanokelvin. It causes jumps in a material's J vs H curve due to alignment within entire domains in the Barkhausen effect

ferromagnetism

This quantity must be the same for each component of an apochromatic triplet. In one approximation, the reciprocal of this quantity equals the index of refraction, minus one, times the difference in the reciprocals of two radii. The inverse of this quantity is measured in diopters and is referred to as power. This quantity is divided by the diameter of the pupil in order to calculate a namesake stop

focal length

According to one theory of this phenomenon, free particles move along geodesics. That theory also predicts that this phenomenon will cause light to be redshifted. The equivalence principle asserts that this phenomenon and inertia behave identically.This non-thermal phenomenon must be present for convection to occur. This phenomenon, which is not described by GUTs, is treated as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime in general relativity

gravity

This device contains a rotor surrounded by one or more gimbals. When the inner rotor is spun, conservation of angular momentum causes it to maintain its orientation regardless of how the surrounding frame moves.

gyroscopes

The energy levels of this model are proportional to n plus one-half in its quantum analogue. Using a Taylor series quadratic expansion, any stable equilibrium can be modeled using the general equation for one of these systems. RLC circuits are an electrical example of these systems, one case of which sets omega equal to the square root of the length over gravity

harmonic oscillators

Electromagnetic metamaterials with a negative value for this property have been constructed, which may see use in optically imaging things that are smaller than the diffraction limit. One is subtracted from this quantity in the Lensmaker's equation. When this quantity is polarization-dependent, as in calcite, a "double" type of this phenomenon may occur, called birefringence. This quantity measures how much slower light becomes in a medium. At an interface, Snell's law relates the angles of incidence to these quantities

index of refraction

The Jerabek type of this construct is the isogonal conjugate of the Euler line, and Apollonius of Perga showed that special kinds of these constructs could trisect an angle. The length of the latus rectum in these figures is equal to "two b squared over a

index of refraction

One of these devices uses the neodymium ion to dope a YAG host crystal. Optical tweezers operate from the force created by these devices, which were used to cool rubidium-87 atoms in the creation of the first Bose-Einstein condensate. Q-switching in these devices causes a phenomenon in which the number of particles in an excited state exceeds the number in a lower energy state, called population inversion

lasers

The fact that the operator for this and position do not commute, called the canonical commutation relation, underlies much of the weirdness of quantum mechanics. This quantity is proportional to wavenumber. A term containing this variable must be added to Einstein's "E equals m c squared" equivalence to make it exactly correct. Planck's constant divided by this quantity equals a particle's de Broglie wavelength. The square of this quantity divided by twice an object's mass equals kinetic energy. Force is the time derivative of this quantity, and a change in this quantity is called an impulse

linear momentum

This quantity is the denominator in the formula for reluctance, and this quantity can be calculated by taking a line integral of the magnetic vector potential. The line integral of the electric field around a closed loop is equal to the negative change in this quantity with respect to time according to Faraday's law of induction

magnetic flux

These particles are created by the breaking of a G gauge group's symmetry in a model developed by 't Hooft and Polyakov, and they are equivalent to a dyon with no charge. The first solution to the Yang-Mills field equation was one of these entities named for Wu and Yang. Before joining CDMS, Blas Cabrera used a SQUID to observe one of these particles on Valentine's Day, 1982

magnetic monopoles

The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is equal to Planck's constant divided by velocity times this quantity, and an object's kinetic energy equals its momentum squared divided by two times this quantity. This quantity for sub-atomic particles is often measured in electronvolts divided by the speed of light squared

mass

These particles make up the humorously named "Swiss cheese" and "spaghetti" phases in certain stars. These particles consist of two down quarks and an up quark and are the heavier of two common baryonic hadrons.

neutron

Bonner spheres are used to determine their energy spectra, and high energy resolution can be achieved by a type of spin echo spectroscopy involving these particles. The R-process and S-process are two ways in which they can be captured. These particles are produced in spallation, and their speed is moderated by heavy water or graphite

neutrons

This reaction's "triple product" of density, temperature, and time is a generalization of the earlier Lawson criterion for it. Muons can catalyze this process by replacing electrons in hydrogen bonds, and the beam-target variety of this reaction loses too much energy to bremsstrahlung

nuclear fusion

The Born-Oppenheimer approximation, which allows approximate decomposition of atomic wavefunctions, depends on the relative "slow" motion of these entities. The subclass of mesons known as pions mediates the attractive forces within it, which is sometimes known as the residual strong force. This entity's discovery disproved J.J. Thomson's Plum Pudding model and came about by the unexpected scattering of decaying radium by gold foil in the Rutherford Experiment

nucleus

Bryan and Cox conducted influential work in modeling these things. A ground-breaking experiment that studied these things was the TOPEX satellite. Walter Munk's influential circulation model for these things built on the work of Sverdrup. Transgression and regression are eustatic changes for these structures. Curtis Ebbesmeyer studies these structures

oceans

Attaching two of these devices end to end creates a chaotic device whose trajectories trace out part of a topological torus. The generic equation of motion for these devices is "theta-double-dot equals negative k times sine theta", assuming there are no extended masses present, as in the "compound" type of this device. One type of these devices picks up a geometric phase as the Earth rotates, causing it to precess; that type is named for Foucault

pendulum

This constant equal to four pi times ten to the negative seven henries per meter for a vacuum measures the ability of a material to support a magnetic field.

permeability of free space

The tendency of these particles to follow super-Poisson statistics rather than Poisson statistics manifests in their namesake bunching. QED predicts that all interactions between charged particles are due to exchange of these. These particles decoupled from baryonic matter during the recombination era, and their bouncing off of the surface of last scattering created the CMB

photon

BKS theory concerns the interaction between matter and these particles, whose polarization is used to test the EPR paradox. Their energy can be expressed as h-bar times angular frequency, and the Klein-Nishina formula can be used to find the differential cross section of these particles as they undergo Compton scattering

photons

The energy of these particles equals Planck's constant times frequency. Their wave-particle duality and interaction with surface electrons in metals led Albert Einstein to discover a namesake effect and support the idea of quantized energy

photons

In Euler's buckling formula, the critical buckling load is equal to this number squared times Young's modulus times area moment of inertia over length squared. Coulomb's constant equals the reciprocal of 4 times this value times the permittivity of free space

pi

The Berlincourt meter measures this effect's namesake coefficient, symbolized D33, which is used in the constitutive equations that describe both its direct and converse varieties. An analogue of this phenomenon caused by applying a magnetic field to a ferromagnetic material is known as magnetostriction. Barium titanate and Rochelle salts can exhibit this effect because they lack a center of symmetry, and this phenomenon is also observed in crystals that accumulate charge due to deformation, like quartz

piezoelectricity

Op-amps convert a small amount of this quantity into a larger amount of it. In an inductor, it equals the inductance times the time derivative of current. In circuit diagrams, sources of one form of this quantity are represented by a short line adjacent and parallel to a longer line. The integral form of Faraday's law determines the amount of this quantity generated by changing magnetic flux

potential difference

The points named for half of this value on a transfer function plot are alternately called the 3 dB points. The cosine of the phase angle is equal to this value's namesake factor. A time-averaged form of this quantity's density divided by the speed of light gives the radiation pressure. This quantity is equal to the surface integral of the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields according to Poynting's theorem. The maximum amount of this quantity is transferred when the load resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance

power

Experiments at Super-Kamiokande have attempted to study the decay of this particle, but it has not been observed due to its extreme stability. It is accelerated alone in the LHC, and along with its antiparticle in the Tevatron

proton

On a standard nuclide chart, the drip line for these objects is the closest drip line to the "A equals Z" line. This thing combined with a lighter thing during cosmological recombination. Most cosmic rays are these things, which are the stablest baryons, and which are about 1836 times heavier than the heaviest first-generation lepton. Unsuccessful experimental efforts to observe the decay of this particle have included Super-Kamiokande

protons

Measuring this value for a semiconductor is done with a four-point probe and allows one to determine the concentration of impurities. A device first fabricated at HP Labs using a thin film of titanium dioxide has a value for this quantity that depends on the history of current in the device. After the turn-on voltage, an ideal diode has a value of zero for this quantity. An unknown value of this quantity can be found by setting up a diamond shape and adjusting until there's no voltage drop across the bridge

resistance

The precession rate of a gyroscope is equal to Mgr over the product of omega and this quantity, and the term M times h-squared is added to this quantity at the center of mass when using the parallel-axis theorem. Formulas for this quantity are derived from the integral of radius squared with respect to mass. The product of angular velocity and this quantity is equal to angular momentum, and the product of angular acceleration and this quantity is equal to torque

rotational inertia

One type of these materials are said to be strongly confined when their radii are smaller than the exciton Bohr radius, and they fluoresce under excitation; those objects are quantum dots. These materials are modulated by the Schottky barrier and Fermi level found in the bandgap region, and are fabricated through etching and lithography

semiconductors

Deflection of starlight was observed by William Wallace Campbell while he was observing one of these events at the Lick Observatory. Walter Grotrian and Bengt Edlen found that the green emission line found as a result of these events was not actually a new element, but was instead highly ionized iron. Arthur Eddington experimentally confirmed Einstein's theory of general relativity using one of these events in 1919

solar eclipse

This quantity's square is in the denominator of the "B nu" formulation of the Rayleigh-Jeans law. In a medium, this quantity is scaled by the square root of the product of the relative permeability and permittivity. In Planck units, this electromagnetic quantity is normalized to one. This physical constant is used to define the meter

speed of light

A tensor which contains terms for this quantity, energy, and momentum is related to the Ricci tensor and the metric tensor by the Einstein field equations. For a fluid, the only term describing its response to this quantity is the bulk modulus, which describes the compressional form of this quantity. The shear form of this quantity is related by an expression involving Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus to the shear deformation

stress

One phenomenon in these materials is explained by a non-zero effective photon mass within them, and one type loses its properties at an upper critical field. One model of them gives free energy in terms of an order parameter. Another theory of them reproduces the isotope effect and gives the relationship between the energy gap and temperature

superconductivity

The integral with respect to this quantity of a Lagrangian yields an action. The principle of detailed balance requires that dynamics be symmetric under the reversal of this variable, which is conjugate to energy. If a quantity's value is independent of this variable, the quantity is conserved. The SI unit of this variable is defined by a device that employs cesium. This quantity experiences "dilation" at relativistic speeds

time

One device comprised of "sun" and "planetary" gears multiplies this quantity, which is responsible for gyroscopic precession. Despite having the same units as energy, this quantity is equal to energy divided by the angle of displacement

torque

A simple inverter consists of one of these components with a DC input in one part. The parameters of one of these devices are determined using the open-circuit and short-circuit tests. These devices' energy losses are sub-divided into copper losses and iron losses. The root-mean-square output of these devices equals approximately 4.44 times the frequency times area times magnetic field times N

transformer

Materials are prepared for use in this medium by "baking them out" to remove volatiles. The technique of sputtering is used to deposit coatings and films in the presence of this medium. A medium that is similar to this one is said to be "rarefied". This medium has zero electromagnetic susceptibility, and hence a refractive index of precisely 1, not accounting for its polarization by virtual pair production

vacuum

This description is applied to bosons with a spin of 1, since their spin states transform like one of these things. One class of these objects is classified as either spacelike, timelike, or null. One operation on one of these things is set equal to zero in Gauss's law for magnetism; that operation is called "divergence", or "del dot". A basis for these things is typically denoted "i hat, j hat, k hat" in rectangular coordinates

vectors

Alexander Kashlinsky used the term "dark flow" to describe an unexplained for of this quantity in galaxy clusters. The statistical dispersion of this quantity for an elliptical galaxy is related to its luminosity by the Faber-Jackson relation. This quantity's value relative to a rest frame is called the "peculiar type of it

velocity

One form of this quantity over the rate of thermal diffusivity is the Prandtl number, and Sutherland's formula calculates this quantity for an ideal gas as a function of temperature. The Navier-Stokes equations reduce to the Euler equations when heat conduction and this quantity are zero. It is independent of stress for Newtonian fluids, and the ratio of the inertial forces to the forces caused by this property is known as the Reynolds number

viscosity

The Fermi level uses thermodynamic work to explain this property, one form of which equals inductance times the time derivative of current. It is related to the change in magnetic flux for time-varying magnetic fields, and the point at which insulators fail is known as the "breakdown" point of this quantity

voltage

This quantity times the derivative of pressure with respect to this quantity is equal to a substance's bulk modulus. The degeneracy pressure of matter is a function only of this intensive property of the matter. Surfaces along which this property is constant are called "isopycnic". The specific volume is the reciprocal of this quantity. This property is constant through the entirety of a homogeneous substance. Little g times the volume of a submerged object times this property of the displaced fluid equals the buoyant force, according to Archimedes's principle

volumetric mass density

The equation governing these phenomena can usually be written as the d'Alembertian of a field being equal to zero, and "packets" of these phenomena obey the Fourier uncertainty principle. In dispersive media, their phase and group velocities may differ

waves

This interaction has both vector and axial vector components, which behave oppositely under improper Lorentz transformations. By measuring the disparity in distribution between gamma ray and electron emissions in the decay of cobalt-60 to nickel-60, Chien-Shiung Wu experimentally showed that this interaction violates parity conservation

weak force